Chap2 - Analysis - Part 2 - Tagged

Fundamentals of Algorithm
Efficiency Analysis
Chapter 2
Some properties of asymptotic order of growth
 f(n)  O(f(n))
 f(n)  O(g(n)) iff g(n)  (f(n))
 If f (n)  O(g (n)) and g(n)  O(h(n)) , then f(n)  O(h(n))
 If f1(n)  O(g1(n)) and f2(n)  O(g2(n)) , then

f1(n) + f2(n)  O(max{g1(n), g2(n)})
2
If f1(n)  O(g1(n)) and f2(n)  O(g2(n)) , then
f1(n) + f2(n)  O(max{g1(n), g2(n)})
3
Establishing order of growth using limits
0 order of growth of T(n) < order of growth of g(n)
lim T(n)/g(n) = c > 0 order of growth of T(n) = order of growth of g(n)

n→∞
∞ order of growth of T(n) > order of growth of g(n)
Examples:
• 10n vs. n2
• n(n+1)/2 vs. n2
4
L’Hôpital’s rule and Stirling’s formula
L’Hôpital’s rule: If limn f(n) = limn g(n) =  and

the derivatives f´, g´ exist, then
lim f(n) lim f ´(n)

=
n g(n) n g ´(n)
Example: log n vs. √n
Stirling’s formula: n!  (2n)1/2 (n/e)n

Example: 2n vs. n!
5
Orders of growth of some important functions
 All logarithmic functions loga n belong to the same class
(log n) no matter what the logarithm’s base a > 1 is
 All polynomials of the same degree k belong to the same class:

aknk + ak-1nk-1 + … + a0  (nk)
 Exponential functions an have different orders of growth for

different a’s
 order log n < order n (>0) < order an < order n! < order nn
6
Basic asymptotic efficiency classes
1 constant
log n logarithmic
n linear
n log n n-log-n or linearithmic
n2 quadratic
n3 cubic
2n exponential
n! factorial
7
Time efficiency of nonrecursive algorithms
General Plan for Analysis
 Decide on parameter n indicating input size
 Identify algorithm’s basic operation
 Determine worst, average, and best cases for input of size n
 Set up a sum for the number of times the basic operation is

executed
 Simplify the sum using standard formulas and rules (see

Appendix A)
8
Useful summation formulas and rules
liu1 = 1+1+ ⋯ +1 = u - l + 1
In particular, liu1 = n - 1 + 1 = n  (n)
1in i = 1+2+ ⋯ +n = n(n+1)/2  n2/2  (n2)
1in i2 = 12+22+ ⋯ +n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6  n3/3  (n3)
0in ai = 1 + a + ⋯ + an = (an+1 - 1)/(a - 1) for any a  1

In particular, 0in 2i = 20 + 21 + ⋯ + 2n = 2n+1 - 1  (2n )
(ai ± bi ) = ai ± bi cai = cai liuai = limai + m+1iuai
9
Example 1: Maximum element
10
Example 2: Element uniqueness problem
11
Example 3: Matrix multiplication
 Given two n × n matrices A and B, find the time efficiency
of the definition-based algorithm for computing their
product C = AB. By definition, C is an n × n matrix whose
elements are computed as the scalar products of the rows of
matrix A and the columns of matrix B:
 where C[i, j] = A[i, 0] B[0, j]+ . . . + A[i, k] B[k, j]+ . . . + A[i,

n − 1] B[n − 1, j] for every pair of indices 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n−1
12
Example 3: Matrix multiplication
13
Example 4: Counting binary digits
It cannot be investigated the way the previous examples are.
14
Plan for Analysis of Recursive Algorithms
 Decide on a parameter indicating an input’s size.
 Identify the algorithm’s basic operation.

 Check whether the number of times the basic op. is executed
may vary on different inputs of the same size. (If it may, the
worst, average, and best cases must be investigated
separately.)
 Set up a recurrence relation with an appropriate initial
condition expressing the number of times the basic op. is
executed.
 Solve the recurrence (or, at the very least, establish its
solution’s order of growth) by backward substitutions or
another method.
15
Example 1: Recursive evaluation of n!
Definition: n ! = 1  2  …  (n-1)  n for n ≥ 1 and 0! = 1
Recursive definition of n!: F(n) = F(n-1)  n for n ≥ 1 and

F(0) = 1
16
Solving the recurrence for M(n)
M(n) = M(n-1) + 1, M(0) = 0
M(n) = M(n − i) + i
We can use the initial condition. Since it is specified for
n = 0, we have to substitute i = n in the above
equation to get the ultimate result of our backward
substitutions:
M(n) = M(n − n) + n = n.
M(n) = Ɵ(n) 17
Example 2: The Tower of Hanoi Puzzle
In this puzzle, we have n disks of different sizes that can slide

onto any of three pegs. Initially, all the disks are on the first
peg in order of size. The goal is to move all the disks to the
third peg, using the second one as an auxiliary, if necessary.
We can move only one disk at a time, and it is forbidden to
place a larger disk on top of a smaller one.
18
Example 2: The Tower of Hanoi Puzzle
1 3
Recurrence for number of moves:
19
Pseudocode for Tower of Hanoi
20
Solving recurrence for number of moves
Let us apply the general plan outlined before:
1. The number of disks n is the obvious choice for the input’s
size indicator
2. Moving one disk is the algorithm’s basic operation.
3. If we strictly follow the technique of moving disks as
discussed in the earlier slides worst, best, average cases are
all similar.
4. Clearly, the number of moves M(n) depends on n only, and
we get the following recurrence equation for it:
M(n) = M(n−1) + 1 + M(n−1) for n > 1
With initial condition M(1) = 1.
21
Solving recurrence for number of moves
5. We solve this recurrence by the same method of
backward substitutions
22
Tree of calls for the Tower of Hanoi Puzzle
n
n-1 n-1
n-2 n-2 n-2 n-2

... ... ...
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
23
Example 3: Counting #bits
24

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Fundamentals of Algorithm

 f(n)  O(g(n)) iff g(n)  (f(n))

 If f (n)  O(g (n)) and g(n)  O(h(n)) , then f(n)  O(h(n))

 If f1(n)  O(g1(n)) and f2(n)  O(g2(n)) , then

0 order of growth of T(n) < order of growth of g(n)

lim T(n)/g(n) = c > 0 order of growth of T(n) = order of growth of g(n)

L’Hôpital’s rule: If limn f(n) = limn g(n) =  and

lim f(n) lim f ´(n)

Stirling’s formula: n!  (2n)1/2 (n/e)n

 All polynomials of the same degree k belong to the same class:

 Exponential functions an have different orders of growth for

n log n n-log-n or linearithmic

 Identify algorithm’s basic operation

 Determine worst, average, and best cases for input of size n

 Set up a sum for the number of times the basic operation is

 Simplify the sum using standard formulas and rules (see

1in i = 1+2+ ⋯ +n = n(n+1)/2  n2/2  (n2)

1in i2 = 12+22+ ⋯ +n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6  n3/3  (n3)

0in ai = 1 + a + ⋯ + an = (an+1 - 1)/(a - 1) for any a  1

(ai ± bi ) = ai ± bi cai = cai liuai = limai + m+1iuai

 where C[i, j] = A[i, 0] B[0, j]+ . . . + A[i, k] B[k, j]+ . . . + A[i,

It cannot be investigated the way the previous examples are.

 Identify the algorithm’s basic operation.

Recursive definition of n!: F(n) = F(n-1)  n for n ≥ 1 and

M(n) = M(n-1) + 1, M(0) = 0

In this puzzle, we have n disks of different sizes that can slide

Recurrence for number of moves:

n-2 n-2 n-2 n-2

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