EXPERIMENT NO.

1
Aim: To determine the brake thermal efficiency of a 4-stroke diesel engine at various load
condition.
Engine specification: (write engine specification on which trial is conducted)

Procedure:
1. Check lubrication and fuel system and start fuel supply.
2. Start the engine by cranking handle at no load.
3. Start water supply for engine cooling and adjust proper flow rate of water.
4. Allow engine to run at no load for few minutes so that it gets warmed up.
5. Gradually increase the load by dynamometer at various load condition and measure the time for
consumption of specific quantity of fuel (V). The reading are taken at each load condition.
6. Note down the reading of load on the dynamometer (W) in kg.
7. Measure the speed (N) and moment arm (R) of the engine, which remains constant throughout
the test.
8. After the test unload the engine gradually.
9. Cut-off the fuel supply for stopping the engine by pulling the lever.
10. After 10 minutes, stop the water supply the engine.
Observation:
Testing laboratory: I. C. Engine Laboratory
Density of fuel (diesel) (ρ) =830 kg/m3
Calorific value of fuel (CV)= 43500 kJ/ kg
Momentum arm of dynamometer R (m) =185 mm
Observation Table:

Sr. Speed (rpm) Load (kg) Time for 10 mL fuel Fuel consumption
No. consumption (Sec) (kg/sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Formula:

1. To determine brake power:

2 pNT
B.P. = -------------- (kW) =
60 x 1000
Where,

Torque, T = W x R x 9.81 (N-m)

B.P. =

2. Mass of fuel consumption (mf) (in kg/hr)

Vol. of fuel (ml) x 3600 x Sp.gr. of fuel

=
Time (s) x 1000

3. To determine friction power (FP):

Calculated result data of BP and mf, required to draw Willians line (Graph attached)

SN Load (kg) BP (kW) mf(kg/hr)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Williams line method (for friction power)

From Willian line method;
F. P. =

I.P.= B.P. + F.P.

I.P.=
4. Input power to the engine (Heat Supplied) in kW = mf x CV (kW)

5. Brake thermal efficiency:

B.P. x 3600 x 100
ηBth =
mF x C V

6. Indicated thermal efficiency:

I.P. x 3600 x 100
ηith=
mf x CV

7. Mech. efficiency = Brake Power/Indicated Power

8. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC):

mf
BSFC = ------
B.P

Result:

Spee Load(kg) Brak Input Indicat Brake Indicate Mechanic Specific

d
d e Powe e d Thermal al Fuel
thermal
(rpm Powe r Power Efficien efficien Efficienc Consumptio
cy
) r (kW) (kW) cy y n
(kW) (%)
Conclusion:

Answer the following question:

Q.1 List various components of the Internal Combustion Engine. Schematically show all strokes
in SI and CI engines.
Q.2 What is indicated power and frictional power of the engine?
Q.3 Define the mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, and specific fuel consumption of the
engine?
Q.4 State the importance of cooling of an I. C. Engine. What methods are generally employed for
cooling an I. C. Engines?
Q.5 Differentiate between 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines.
Q.6 List engine specifications for two various models of bikes and light commercial vehicles.
 EXPERIMENT No. 2
Trial on Refrigeration Test Rig

AIM: To demonstrate vapor compression cycle and to calculate theoretical and actual COP

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Thermodynamic processes and working of VCC.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The Refrigeration Test Rig works on vapor compression cycle. The refrigeration (i.e. process of
maintaining a closed space temperature below ambient temperature) is accomplished by continuously
circulating, evaporating and condensing a fixed supply of refrigerant in a closed system. Evaporation
occurs at a low temperature and low pressure while condensation occurs at a high temperature and
pressure. Thus it is possible to transfer heat from an area of low temperature (in this case evaporator) to
an area of high temperature (the surroundings).

R 134a

Figure: Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

 The compressor pumps the low-pressure refrigerant from the evaporator through the accumulator,
increases its pressure, and discharges the high-pressure gas to the condenser. The accumulator prevents
liquid refrigerant entering the compressor. In the condenser, the refrigerant rejects its heat to the
surroundings by passing air over it. At that pressure, the refrigerant loses its latent heat and liquefies. Then
the refrigerant passes through the drier/filter where any residual moisture or foreign particles present, these
are plugged. The flow of refrigerant into the evaporator is controlled by expansion device where its
pressure and consequently temperature is lowered to the saturation temperature at the corresponding
pressure. The low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator where it absorbs heatfrom the surrounding
medium and evaporates. The compressor sucks the cold vapours and the cycle repeats.
The required instrumentation is provided to measure the various parameters at different points.
This includes pressure gauges, temperature indicators and controller, energy-meters, heater for applying
load and flow meter to measure the refrigerant flow.

REFRIGERATION TEST RIG

Test Rig enables students to study and understand Vapour Compression Cycle, its components,
principle and working. All the components are mounted on rigid steel frame. The trainer consists of a
hermetically sealed compressor; forced convection air-cooled condenser, filter / drier, flow meter,
expansion device and shell & coil type evaporator. Separate pressure gauges are provided to record suction
and discharge pressures and digital temperature indicators for various temperatures.
The refrigerant used is R-134a, which is environment friendly.
The calorimeter consists of an insulated stainless steel tank. The evaporator tubes are made of
refrigerated grade annealed copper tubes. This is a direct expansion type evaporator. The heat absorbed
by the refrigerant is balanced by heater input.The heater is immersion type resistive water heater. The
calorimeter temperature can be set by a digital thermostat. Adequate safety devices such as HP/LP cut-
out, heating thermostat, and overload protection for compressor are incorporated to prevent any
malfunctioning of the system.
STANDARD VALUES AND FORMULAE

1. Standard Barometric = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105N /m2

Pressure

2. Density of Water = 1000 kg / m3

3. Specific Gravity of R- = 1.14
134a at 400
4. 1 Ton of Refrigeration = 3516 Watts = 3.516 kJ / s
effect
5. 1 bar = 14.5 psig
6. Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K
7. Density of Air at 250C = 1.1 kg/m3
8. Gas Constant of Air = 287 kJ/kg-K
9. 1 kWh = 3600 kJ

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. HP LP T2 T3 T4 T1 T5 T6 E1 E2
No. (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2 (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) 0C (kWh) (kWh)

H P- Condenser Pressure in (kg/cm2) =

L P- Evaporator Pressure in (kg/cm2) =
Tci (T2)- Refrigerant Inlet Temperature to Condenser in 0C =
Tco (T3) – Refrigerant outlet temperature from condenser in 0C =
Tei (T4)- Refrigerant inlet to the evaporator in 0C =
Teo (T1)- Refrigerant outlet temperature from Evaporator =
T5- Initial temperature of water =
T6- Final temperature of water =
E1- Initial energy meter reading (kWh)=
E2- Final energy meter reading (kWh) =
m = mass of water (kg) =
Duration of experiment = min
Mass flow rate of R-134a (mref)=
 CALCULATION:-

1. Actual COP and refrigerating effect:

Actual refrigerating effect= Amount of heat removed from water by refrigerant

=(mwater* Cp* ∆T) kJ

Where, ∆T Difference of Initial and final temperature of water = T5-T6

Work input to the compressor= Energy consumed by the compressor = (E2-E1)* 3600 kJ

Refrigerating effect
Actual COP of the System =
work input to the compressor

2. Theoretical COP and refrigerating effect

Absolute Evaporator Pressure = suction gauge pressure+ barometric pressure

Absolute Condenser pressure= discharge gauge pressure+ barometric pressure

h1−h4
Theoretical COP =
h2−h1

Enthalpy values from p-h chart of refrigerant R -134a

h1=Enthalpy of refrigerant entering the compressor

h2 =Enthalpy of refrigerant leaving the compressor =
h4 =Enthalpy of refrigerant leaving expansion valve/ entry of refrigerant to evaporator=

Theoretical refrigerating effect = mref x (h1-h4)

mref - mass flow rate of refrigerant in kg/sec

RESULTS

Actual Theoretical
C.O.P
Refrigerating effect (kJ)

CONCLUSIONS:

QUESTIONS
1) Define: (a) refrigeration (b) COP (c) refrigerating effect
2) Write down at least 10 Refrigerants name.
3) Explain the working of Capillary tube, condenser, evaporator, and compressor
4) Explain the working of split air conditioning system
5) Write down complete specifications of any household refrigerator and Air conditioning
system
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Aim: To study Cruze Gasoline Vehicle

(Donated by general motors)

Objective:

To study the following systems for Cruze gasoline vehicle:

1. Transmission system
2. Steering system
3. Wheel alignment and wheel balancing
4. Ignition system
5. Braking system

SPECIFICATIONS OF VEHICLE

Model: Chevrolet Cruze LT

Number of cylinders: 4

Displacement: 1998 cc

Maximum torque: 380 N-m @ 2000rpm

Engine type: VCDi 16 V DOHC

Questions:

Q.1 Explain transmission system for Cruze vehicle

Q.2 Explain steering system for Cruze vehicle

Q.3 Why wheel alignment and wheel balancing for Cruze vehicle is required?

Q.4 Explain the braking system for Cruze vehicle

Q.5 What does it mean when your car emits white smoke?

Q.6 What happens if gasoline is used in a Diesel engine? Diesel engine will work?

Q.7 As a responsible citizen of our country, which of the rules should be followed while driving a
vehicle?
Experiment-4
 Experiment – 5

Aim: To determine the Cloud and pour point of given oil sample/s following ASTM Standard

Theory:

Definition of cloud point: The temperature of the liquid specimen when the smallest observable
clusters of hydrocarbon crystals first occur upon cooling under prescribed
conditions.

• To many observers, the cluster of wax crystals looks like a patch of

whitish or milky cloud, hence the name of the test method.

Definition of pour point: The lowest temperature at which movement of the test specimen is
observed under prescribed conditions of the test.

Importance/significance of cloud and pour point of oils/fuels/lubricating oils

Testing procedure:

To determine CLOUD POINT:

1. Bring the specimen to a temperature of at least 15 ℃ above the approximate cloud

point and pour point it into the jar to a height of 51 to 57 mm.
2. Close the jar with the cock so that the temperature bulb rests on the centre of the
bottom of the jar.
3. Fit the gasket on to the jar 25 mm from the bottom and insert the jar into gasket.
4. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical position in the bath so that not more than
25 mm projects from the cooling medium.
5. At each thermometer reading on degree centigrade, remove the jar from the jacket
quickly without disturbing the oil, inspect the material for cloud, and replace the jar,
this complete operation shall not make more than 3 sec.
6. If the specimen does not show a cloud when it has been cooled 10 ℃ place he jar and
jacket in another in bath maintained at a temperature of -15℃ to -18 ℃.
7. If the specimen does not show a cloud when it has been cooled to -7℃. Place the
jar and jacket in another bath maintained at a temperature of -32℃ to -35℃.
8. When an inspection of the specimen first reveals a distinct cloudiness or haze at the
bottom of the jar, record the reading of the thermometer as the cloud point after
correcting the thermometer errors if necessary.
To determine POUR POINT:

1. The specimen has cooled enough to allow the formation of the crystals.
2. Maintain the bath temperature at -1℃ to -2℃.
3. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical position in the bath so that not more than
25mm projects the cooling medium.
4. Beginning at a temperature of 12℃ above the expected pour point, at each
thermometer reading which is a multiple of 3℃ remove the jar from the jacket
carefully, and tilt it just enough to see whether the oil will move and then return it
back to its initial position. This shall not take more than 3 sec.
5. As soon as the specimen ceases to flow on tilting the jar, hold it in horizontal
position for exactly 5sec.
6. If the specimen shows any movement replace the jar in the jacket and cool down
it for another 3℃. If the oil no movement during the 5 second, record the
reading of thermometer.

Add 3℃ to the temperature recorded above and corrected for thermometer errors if necessary,
and note down the result as the pour point.

Fig: Cloud and Pour Point Apparatus

 Observations:

OIL CLOUD POUR

POINT POINT

Results and discussion:

Conclusions

Questions:
1. What is the value of cloud and pour point of diesel and petrol?

2. What is the significance of cloud and pour point?

3. On which parameter the cloud and pour point of oil is dependant?

4. Which depressants are used to improve the cloud and pour point
of oil?

5. What do you mean by Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)?

6. What is the difference between Cloud point and CFPP?

 Experiment-6

Aim: To study the measurement of solar radiation.

Theory: A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on a

planar surface and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (W/m2) from

the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 μm to 3 μm. The name pyranometer

stems from the Greek words (pyr), meaning "fire", and (ano), meaning "above, sky". A

typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate. However, recent technical

development includes use of electronics in pyranometers, which do require (low) external

power.

There are numerous types and components of solar radiation as represents in the list below.
Units are typically in W/m2.

1. Irradiance – the instantaneous quantity of solar radiant energy incident on a surface per
unit area.

2. Diffuse solar irradiance – the solar irradiance on a horizontal surface due to only sky
radiation. This does not include the direct solar irradiance, which is defined next.

3. Direct solar irradiance, also called the “direct solar irradiation” or the “direct normal
irradiation (DNI)” – the solar irradiance on a surface held perpendicular to the sun’s
rays while blocking the diffuse sky radiation.

4. Global solar irradiance, commonly called the “global radiation” – the solar irradiance
on a horizontal surface which includes both direct sunrays and diffuse sky radiation.

5. Reflected solar irradiance – the short-wave radiation which is reflected upward from
the Earth’s surface.

6. Net terrestrial radiation – the long-wave radiation coming off the Earth’s surface minus
the upward radiation through a horizontal surface near the Earth’s surface.

7. Net total irradiance – the downward irradiance minus the upward radiation as measured
over the entire spectrum.

Working Principle: A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or

diffuse radiation. A black surface on the guard plate is covered by a transparent glass
domes. The hot junctions of the thermopile are connected to black furnace and the cold

junctions of thermopile are connected where there is no solar radiation. The other ends of

thermopile are connected to millivoltmeter. The entire equipment rests on the mounting

plate. The mounting plate is fixed on the plat form with the help of bolts. Leveling screws

are provided. When the sunrays falling on the black surface, heat is generated inside the

glass dome. This causes the temperature difference takes place in the two junctions of the

thermopile. As a result, an e.m.f is generated and it is recorded in the millivoltmeter.

The global solar radiation data is provided from NREL (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory). Rajasthan clinched the top position in the list of states with the highest estimated
solar energy potential in the country. It is having an aggregate solar power potential of 142.31
gigawatts (GWp). The global solar radiation annual availability in Indian context is shown in
figure 1.
Figure:1 Global horizontal radiation: Annual average of India (Source: NREL)
 Figure:2 Pyranometer (MS-80S) Make: EKO Parts names

are given below.

A. Diffuser B. Glass Dome C. Detector

D. Body E. Sun screen F. Levelling Screw

G. Cable, Connector H. Spirit Level I. Knurling Screw

1. Glass Dome, Quartz Diffuser

A glass dome creates a sealed environment for the detector and protects it against dirt and
rain. The dome of the EKO pyranometers is only transparent for radiation emitted by the
sun. The combination of the glass dome and the Quartz diffuser give a 180° field of view and
cosine response.
It limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers while preserving the 180° field of
view. It also shields the thermopile sensor from convection. First-class and secondary
standard pyranometers include a second glass dome as an additional "radiation shield",
resulting in a better thermal equilibrium between the sensor and inner dome, compared to
some single dome models by the manufacturer.

2. Detector

The thermopile detector, which is the heart of the pyranometer generates a voltage signal that
is proportional to the solar irradiance. The fast response detector has a low temperature
dependency and excellent long term stability.

3. Sun screen, Body

MS-80S has a sun screen to prevent any excessive body temperature increase generated by
direct sun light. Weather resistant metals are used to reduce the effects and degradation
caused by heat radiation, rain, and windblown dusts.

4. Spirit level
The integrated spirit level is used for setup and maintaining the sensor in a horizontally
levelled position. Depending on the operating environment, bubbles may come out of the
level gauge, liquid may be missing, the reference circles may fade out, or cracks may occur.

5. Drying agent

Enclosed drying agents inside the sensor body keep the sensor inside dry, prevents
condensation of humidity inside of the glass dome.

6. Cable and Cable Connector

MS-80S is shipped with a 10-meter-long output cable as standard length. Durable materials
are used for the cable and connector, and pin terminals are attached at the end of the cable
for easy connection with a data logger terminal block.

The specifications of Pyranometer is shown in the Table 1.

Table:1 Specifications of pyranometer Sensor type

Pyranometer
Model Name MS-80S
Make EKO
Response time 95% <0.5 seconds
Irradiance range (W/m²) 0 to 4000 W/m2
Operating temperature -40 to 80°C
Supply voltage 5-30 VDC
Ingress Protection IP 67
Certification ISO 9060:2018

Figure: 3 Pyranometer with shaded ring and data logger

Shadow ring: A shaded ring in a pyranometer is used to measure the diffuse solar radiation
on a horizontal surface. A shaded ring, also known as a shadow ring or a shadow band, is
a metal ring that blocks the direct radiation from the sun, so that only the diffuse radiation
reaches the pyranometer. The combination of a shaded ring and a
pyranometer is called a ‘diffusometer’. The shaded ring has to be adjusted manually
according to the sun’s position and the pyranometer’s tilt angle.

The radiation data is recorded in the data logger. It is providing the facility to recorded
the data on per minute/per 5 minutes/10 minutes/30 minutes’ time interval. The data is
recorded in .CSV file format. The data can be extracted with the help of software provided by
EKO.

Calibration Factor (5 W/m2 per mV) * Sensor Output Signal (mV) = Total Radiation (W/m2)

Observation Table: The experiment is performing on the terrace of renewable and

sustainable energy lab of SVNIT Surat. The latitude and longitude of Surat city are
(21.1702° N, 72.8311° E).

Date of the Experiment:

Time Radiation (W/m2) mV

Global radiation

Diffused radiation

Direct radiation

Global radiation

Diffused radiation

Direct radiation

Result: Discussed about the working and the use of pyranometer and found the global
radiation is at

Conclusion:
Questions

Q.1 What is the difference between pyranometer and pyrheliometer?

Q.2 Plot the global solar radiation with time for a day.

Q.3 What is solar constant?

 Experiment-7
Aim: To determination of I-V and P-V characteristics of solar panel

Theory: The solar cell is a semiconductor device, which converts the solar energy into

electrical energy. It is also called a photovoltaic cell. A solar panel consists of numbers of solar

cells connected in series or parallel. The number of solar cell connected in a series generates

the desired output voltage and connected in parallel generates the desired output current. The

conversion of sunlight (Solar Energy) into electric energy takes place only when the light is

falling on the cells of the solar panel. Therefore, in most practical applications, the solar panels

are used to charge the lead acid or Nickel-Cadmium batteries. In the sunlight, the solar panel

charges the battery and also supplies the power to the load directly. When there is no sunlight,

the charged battery supplies the required power to the load.

Figure:1 working of solar cell

Working principle of Solar cell: When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can
easily enter in the junction, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of
photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free
electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction.
Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the
junction because of barrier potential of the junction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side,
i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another side,
i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the
junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

A circuit is said to be connected in series when the same current flows through all the
components in the circuit. In such circuits, the current has only one path. And voltage is
added.

A circuit is said to be parallel when the electric current has multiple paths to flow through.
The components that are a part of the parallel circuits will have a constant voltage across all
ends. The I-V curves of series and parallel combination is shown in the figure 2.
Figure 2 I-V curves of Series and parallel combination

Figure 3 Experimental setup

 Series connected module Parallel connected module Figure
4 series and parallel connection of modules

Two symmetric polycrystalline solar module is used for the experimentation. The
specifications of the solar module at the standard test conditions (STC) are given in the Table
1.
 Table 1 Specifications of the Solar module (SFTI 40Wp) Maximum
Power 40 Wp
Maximum power voltage 18.22 Volt
Maximum power current 2.2 Amp
Short circuit current 2.33 Amp
Open circuit voltage 21.5 Volt
Maximum system voltage 1000 Volt
Dimension of module (L*W) 67cm*42 cm

Power (watt) = I.V = Current (amp)*Voltage (volt) Efficiency (%) =

Power/(Radiation* Area of solar panel)

Observation Table (For series

connection)

S. Radiation Temperature Voltage Current Power Efficiency

No. (W/m2) (°C) (Volt) (Amp) (Watt) (%)

8
(For parallel connection)

S. Radiation Temperature Voltage Current Power Efficiency

No. (W/m2) (°C) (Volt) (Amp) (Watt) (%)

Results:

Draw the I-V and P-V curves of all the sets on a single graph and show the characteristics at different
radiation and temperatures levels.

Draw the I-V and P-V curves of all the sets on a single graph for series and parallel connected modules
and show the characteristics at different radiation and temperatures level.

Conclusions: I-V and P-V parameters of 40Wp PV panel were analysed, plotted and efficiency are found
as .

Questions

Q.1 What is STC?

Q.2 Which factors are affecting the solar panel performance?

Q.3 Explain the types of solar panel which are available in the market?
 Experiment-8
Aim: To study the gas and electricity bill

Electricity generation:
Electricity is generated from many different sources. Power is delivered to the respective facility through the Grid. The
costs for electricity generation is also different for each source.

Different sources of electricity generation

Electricity bill:
Some of the electricity bills can be very detailed, some are very short. Some charges in bill are applied each month, some
do not. Understanding your bills and why the utility charges are different fees is important to save energy and cost

Key components of domestic electricity bill:

1. Consumption Charges: Electricity Consumption or usage charge, is the total amount based on electricity
consumption by respective facility. It is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). It appears on bills as energy charge,
energy cost, delivered energy cost, etc. It is calculates at a rate (Rs./kWh).
2. Non energy Charges: Some charges on electricity bills are not related to consumption or demand of units of
electricity consumed.

Electricity bill: Non-energy Charges

Sample copy of electricity bill:
Pipe Natural Gas (PNG): Natural Gas supplied through piped connections to households is called Domestic
PNG. This eco-friendly and inexpensive facility will not only eliminate the hassles associated with conventional
fuels but also helps to conserve the environment. PNG is mainly Methane (CH4) with a small percentage of other
higher hydrocarbons supplied to cater to the natural gas demand of customers in various segments like Domestic
/ Commercial & Non - Commercial / Industrial. PNG is becoming more common amongst residential customers
who use the natural gas primarily as a cooking fuel and for water heating through Gas Geyser.
Industrial customers are those customers who need natural gas for their industrial setups. They use piped natural
gas mainly as a source of energy for many industries specific processes. Natural gas is mainly used in industrial
applications like heating, cooling, power, processes and manufacturing.

Key components in Domestic Gas Bill :

➢ Billing in MMBtu terms: As per Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) regulations, it
is mandatory for gas companies to show the gas consumption in MMBtu (Metric Million British
Thermal Unit) and charge tariff based on Rs./MMBtu terms, in addition to the current practice of
measuring in Standard Cubic Meter (scm).

“One MMBTU is equivalent to 30 SCM of gas having calorific value of 8400 Kcal/SCM. This value
may vary slightly depending on actual calorific value of gas.”

➢ MGO charges :
If the customer's gas consumption is less than 0.167 scm per day, then the difference between actual
consumption and 0.167 scm per day is charged as MGO charges. This is calculated for actual
consumption days.

➢ Slab wise break up of gas consumption:

Slab wise break of of gas consumption is calculated based on consumption days (difference of previous
and current meter reading date). If the consumption days increase, the basis of slab calculation also
increases and there is no loss / gain due to increase / decrease in the consumption days.
Understand Bill Terms
 # Description

1 Company name, address and office working hours

Contact numbers for customer care centre, emergency and for intimation before undertaking any digging activity around
2
gas pipeline

3 Emergency contact number

4 Type of customer

5 Customer's name and address

6 Customer's phone number

7 Old customer number

8 Date of initiating gas supply

9 Area Code(for GGCL internal use only)

10 Current Invoice number

11 Current Invoice date

12 System reference no for the current invoice (may be used for enquiry, if any)

13 Last date for bill payment /due date of invoice (not valid for previous outstanding, if any)

14 Net amount payable by customer against current Invoice (as shown in the details of charges also)

15 Billing period (for GGCL internal use only)

16 Specification of product billed and HSN code thereof

17 Meter serial number

18* Current status of meter reading (whether reading taken or not)

19 Date of temporary disconnection (if requested by customer)

20 Date of reconnection after temporary closure (if any)

21 Schedule for next meter reading

22 Current meter reading and date of reading

23 Previous meter reading and date of reading

24 Gas consumption as per current meter reading (in scm)

25 Gas consumption as per old meter in case of meter replacement (in scm)

26 Total Gas consumption including current consumption and old meter consumption (in scm)

27 Any other adjustment in consumption, if any (in scm)

28 Final consumption for billing (in scm)

29 Net calorific value for converting consumption from scm to mmbtu

30* Final consumption for billing (in mmbtu)

31* Formulae for converting consumption from scm to mmbtu

32 Basic gas consumption charges

33* MGO charges

34 Value added tax

35 Additional value added tax

36 Service Tax

37 Interest/Late Payment Charges

38 Total bill amount ( including taxes)

39 Previous outstanding dues or Cr balance, if any

40 Net amount payable by customer

41 Consumption details of last 6 billing cycles (periods)

42 Slab wise applicable rates for basic gas consumption and applicable minimum charged quantity per day.

43* Slab wise break up of basic gas consumption charges in current Invoice

44 Nodal officer for handling customer complaints

Notice for payment of previous outstanding dues (if any) within 3 days failing which the customer's gas connection could
45
be disconnected.

46 Slip to be attached along with payment

Question:
1. Compare state-wise electricity and gas bills for 3 states.

2. State three ways to reduce the electricity and gas bills.

 Experiment- 9

Aim: - To study emission analysis of petrol engine and diesel engine

Apparatus: Portable Syn-Gas Analyzer, NDIR infrared sensor, Electrochemical sensor
Theory:
The flue gas generated in combustion processes is also referred to as exhaust gas. Its composition depends on the
fuel and the combustion conditions, e.g. the air ratio. Flue gas in its original composition after combustion is also
referred to as crude gas, and once it has passed through the cleaning stages it is called clean gas.
The most important flue gas components are as follows:
Nitrogen (N₂): Colourless, odourless, tasteless; supplied via combustion air, does not participate in the combustion
process
Carbon dioxide (CO₂): Colourless and odourless gas with a slightly sour taste; major contributor to the greenhouse
effect; permissible maximum allowable concentration(MAC)is 0.5 %.
Water vapour (humidity): The hydrogen contained in the fuel combines with oxygen to form water(H₂O),
depending on the flue gas temperature (FT),this is discharged as flue gas humidity(at high FT) or as condensate
(at low FT).
Oxygen (O₂): Oxygen that has not been used in combustion in the event of excess airis discharged as a gaseous
flue gas component and is a measure of combustion efficiency.
Carbon monoxide (CO): Colourless and odourless toxic gas; generated during the incomplete combustion of fuel,
MAC value is 50 ppm.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂, total formula NOX): Nitrogen from the fuel and, at high temperatures, also from
the combustion air, is combined to a certain extent with the combustion air/oxygen, initially forming nitrogen
monoxide(NO), which in the presence of oxygen is oxidized in a further step to form the hazardous nitrogen
dioxide (NO₂) in the flue gas duct and later in the atmosphere. Both oxides are toxic; NO₂ in particular is a
dangerous respiratory poison and, in combination with sunlight, contributes to the formation of ozone.
Sulphur dioxide (SO₂): Colourless, toxic gas with a pungent smell; produced as a result of the oxidation of the
sulphur contained in the fuel. The MAC value is 5 ppm.
Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S): Toxic and extremely malodorous gas, even in verylow concentrations (approx. 2.5
µg/m³). It is formed due to incomplete combustion in vehicle catalytic converters.
Hydrocarbons (HC or CXHY): Incomplete combustions are a particular source of HC emissions. HCs contribute
to the greenhouse effect. Examples of HCs include methane(CH₄), butane (C₄H10) and benzene(C₆H₆).
Solids (dust, soot): Solid pollutants in the flue gas come from the incombustible components of solid and liquid
fuels. These include, for example, the oxides of silicon, aluminium, calcium etc. in the case of coal and the
sulphates of various substances in the case of heavy fuel oil.
Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) Absorption Sensor
The NDIR sensor is used to measure the composition of CO, CO2, and CH4 in the emission gases. The bench
measures gas concentrations using the effect of infrared absorption. All hetero-atomic gases absorb (or transmit)
light energy in the infrared region at specific wavelengths that are dependent upon the chemical composition of
each type of gas. Furthermore, the absorption level is proportional to the mass of the gas present.

Figure 1: Structure of Non-Dispersive Infrared Absorption Sensor

The benches incorporate a source of infrared energy (usually in the form of a heated filament), which is then
optically filtered to reduce the radiation spectrum to that of the absorption band of the gas being measured. A
pyro-electric detector is used to measure the difference in energy between a reference zero (no absorption)
condition and that after some absorption in the gas has occurred.
By calibrating the bench at the zero condition and a known span concentration, a reliable measure of concentration
over the span range is obtained. To improve the stability and to assist in the detection process, the infrared source
is modulated mechanically at 3-18 Hz depending on the type of bench being used. The relationship between
absorption and concentration is not linear. For this reason, the nonlinear output from the detector is modified
electronically to give a linear output to the chart recorder and display outputs.
Electrochemical Sensors
The electrochemical sensor is used to measure the composition of O2and H2 in the emission gases. These sensors
are micro fuel cells, designed to be maintenance-free and stable for long periods. They result in a direct response
to volume concentration rather than partial pressure. The central feature of the design is the gaseous diffusion
barrier, which limits the flow of gas to the Sensing electrode. The electrode therefore able to react with all target
gas as it reaches its surface, and still has electrochemical activity in reserve. This high activity reserve ensures
that each sensor has a long life and excellent temperature stability.
The simplest form of sensor operating on electrochemical principles has two electrodes, Sensing and Counter,
separated by a thin layer of electrolyte and connected by a low resistance external circuit. Gas diffusing into the
sensor is reacted at the surface of the Sensing electrode, by oxidation or reduction, causing a current to flow
between the electrodes through the external circuit. The current is proportional to the concentration of gas and can
be measured across a load resistor in the external circuit.
For reaction to take place the Sensing electrode potential must be within a specific range. As the gas concentration
increases so does the current flow, causing a change in the potential of the Counter electrode (polarization). With
the electrodes connected together by a simple load resistor, the Sensing electrode potential follows that of the
Counter. If the gas concentration continues to rise, the Sensing electrode potential will eventually move outside
its permitted range. At this point, the sensor will become non-linear, effectively limiting the upper concentration
of gas a two-electrode sensor can be used to measure.
The limitation imposed by Counter electrode polarization can be avoided by introducing a third, Reference
electrode, andusing an external potentio-static operating circuit. With this arrangement, the Sensing electrode is
held at a fixed potential relative to a reference electrode. No current is drawn from the Reference electrode, so
both maintain a constant potential. The Counter electrode is still free to polarize, but this has no effect on the
Sensing electrode and so does not limit the sensor in anyway. Consequently, the range of concentrations a three-
electrode sensor can be used to measure is much greater.

Figure 2: Electrochemical Sensor

The working electrode is where the oxidation (CO, H2S, NO, SO2) or reduction (NO2, Cl2) of the toxic gas to be
measured takes place. This electrode is exposed to the outside air and directly exposed to all gases in the air
including the gas to be measured. This electrode may as well be poisoned if it is exposed to certain gases that
either adsorb onto the catalyst (such as acetylene onto CO sensors), or react, creating by-products which inhibit
the catalyst (NO2 or aromatics onto H2S sensors).
The auxiliary electrode is an electrode of the same characteristics to those of the working electrode, but it is buried
inside an electrolyte and, hence, it is not in contact with the target gas. Since it is isolated from external conditions
that could affect the working electrode, it serves as a reference to the measurements provided by the latter. The
counter electrode balances the reaction of the working electrode – if the working electrode oxidises the gas, then
the counter electrode must reduce some other molecule to generate an equivalent current, in the opposite sense.
For example, where carbon monoxide will be oxidised on the working electrode, oxygen will be reduced on the
counter electrode. The reference electrode anchors the working electrode potential to ensure that it is always
working in the right conditions. It is important that the reference electrode has a stable potential, keeping the
working electrode at the right electrochemical potential to maintain a constant sensitivity, good linearity and
minimum sensitivity to interfering gases.
Therefore, while the sensor response is exposed to the target gas, it creates a current flowing from the working to
the counter electrode or vice-versa (depending on the oxidative or reductive nature of the target gas). This current
has been found to be nicely responsive to target gas and therefore subject to characterisation and calibration.
Sensor range and specifications
Depending on the application, wide range of sensors are available for analysis of gases in ppm. The ranges of gas
composition measurement are as follows:
• O2: 0-25%, 0-50%, 0-100%, Resolution: 0.10%
• CO: 0-10%, 0-50%, 0-100%, Resolution: 0.10%
• CO2: 0-10%, 0-50%, 0-100%, Resolution: 0.10%
• CH4: 0-50%, 0-100%, Resolution: 0.10%
• H2: 0-50%, Resolution: 0.10%

Other Specifications:
• Accuracy & Repeatability: ± 2% of reading for all gases
• Drift: Less than 2% of full scale per month
• Response Time: 20-30 seconds
• Ambient Temperature Range: 4 to 50°C

Sensor Calibration
To calibrate the sensors, sample of known gases are passed through the gas chamber with constant flow rate and
after a few seconds the sensor DISPLAYS a stabilized signal, which can be stored as calibration value. The
standard gas concentration should be similar to that usually met during measurement and it should not be less
than 50% of the required measuring range of a given sensor. The time the sensor is supplied with standard gas
should not be less than 3 min. After each calibration, sensors should be flooded with ambient air for at least 15
minutes.
Calibration procedure
1) The Zero Gas: The zero gas is used to check/set the reading from the optical benches in the zero concentration
condition. Dry nitrogen is the preferred zero gas as it is cheap and readily available. The zero gas must not
contain any significant traces of the gas measured or interferon's. For some gases, however, fresh air may be
 used (for example on high concentration CO and CO2 Benches).When fresh air is used, it shall be drawn from
outside air and away from any possible contamination from such as exhaust ducts, chimneys, etc.
2) The Exhaust Gas: Exhaust gas is the sample (or zero/span) gas that has passed through the analyzer. For
hazardous gases (high concentrations, flammable or poisonous), exhaust gas must be carefully routed to a safe
venting point. It is important to minimize back pressure at the gas out port, as this willaffect readings and
reduce the efficiency of the sample pump. Where long runs of pipe arenecessary, larger bore pipe should be
used via a suitable adapter.

Standard Operating Procedure

1. Connect the Portable Analyzer to ¼ inch sample connections from the sampling point.
2. Press the ON/OFF key, and the analyzer will purge the analyzer with fresh air after 180
seconds the analyzer will auto-calibrate
3. By pressing ↕ key check if the FUEL TYPE selected is right
4. If not then press the MENU key and press ENTER, then select the appropriate fuel using ↕key and then
pressing MENU key again to return to the main page
5. After few seconds press the PUMP key. This will start the PUMP
6. Wait for few minutes and observe the readings and other parameters displayed. After the reading are
almost stable press STORE key to store the values
7. Press PUMP again and this will put the PUMP OFF
8. Remove the sample connections press the PUMP key again to purge air. Press PUMP key again to put the
PUMP OFF
9. Press ON/OFF key and the portable analyzer will become off

Observation Table:
Sample Name:_______________________________________________________________
Concentration of emission gas components
Sample No.
CO CO2 CH4 O2 H2
01
02
Average

Precautions
A. Before use, Gas Cylinders must be checked to ensure that:
• The cylinders are securely located.
 • The cylinders are fitted with a two-stage regulator
• The cylinders contain the correct gas mixture for use
• The cylinders are connected to the correct entry on the bench
• The cylinder's output pressure regulator is off
• During use, check the Output Pressure regulator is set for 0.2 Bar.
• After use, check the Output Pressure regulator is turned 'OFF. the cylinder tap is turned OFF.
B. Gas Leaks
• All external-piping connections must be checked for gas leaks, to ensure that no gases are leaking into the
local area (which may be a health hazard), and that no uncontrolled air or gas is drawn into the Bench (and
so affect the measurement)
• Applying water containing a mild soap solution can check connections under pressure. Do not increase
the pressure to check for leaks (or for any other reason), since this may damage the Bench.
C. Exhausting & Ventilation
• Because any gas is potentially toxic, and some may be inflammable, the gas must be exhausted to where
it will be rapidly dispersed. For the same reasons, the Bench and its environment including the location of
gas cylinders must be properly ventilated to minimize the dangers of gas leaks.
• If Span cylinders contain hazardous or inflammable gases, they must carry suitable warning labels, and if
inflammable, must be located in a suitable “Inflammable Store”, when in use or in storage.