SHIKSHA

NIKETAN
SCHOOL
CHEMISTRY
PROJECT
SESSION: 2024-2025

TOPIC:Study the presence of oxalate ion

in guava fruit at different stages of
ripening.
SUBMITTED BY: Adarsh Kumar
SUBMITTED TO: Sarita Rani Behera
ROLL NO.: 1
CLASS: XII 'A’
This is to certify that the CHEMISTRY project
titled'Study the presence of oxalate ion in
guava fruit at different stages of ripening ’
has been successfully completed by Adarsh
Kumar of Class XII 'A’ in the partial
fulfillment of curriculum of CENTRAL BOARD
OF SECONDARY EDUCATION(CBSE) in the
year of 2023-2024.

External Signature Internal

Signature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest
appreciation to all those who have
provided me with the opportunity to
perform this project. I would like to
thank my Subject teacher Mrs.
SARITA, whose valuable guidance
has helped me to complete the
project. Her suggestions and
instructions have served as a major
contributor towards the successful
outcome of this project.

I take this opportunity to thank our principal,

Mrs. SUMITA DEY, who is always supportive
and helpful in fulfilling all our academic
requirements. I would like to thank my
parents for giving encouragement,
enthusiasm and invaluable assistance to me.
 CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 AIM

3 THEORY

4 MATERAIALS REQUIRED

5 PROCEDURE

6 CONCLUSION

7 BIBLOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
Water purification is the process of removing
undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated
water. The goal is to produce water fit for a
specific purpose. Most water is purified for
human consumption (drinking water), but water
purification may also be designed for a variety of
other purposes, including meeting the
requirements of medical, pharmacological,
chemical and industrial applications. In general
the methods used include physical processes
such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation,
biological processes such as filters or biologically
active carbon, chemical processes such
as flocculation and chlorination and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet
light.
The purification process of water may reduce the
concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria
, algae, viruses,fungi; and a range of dissolved
and particulate material derived from the
surfaces that water may have made contact with
after falling as rain.
The standards for drinking water quality are
typically set by governments or by international
standards. These standards will typically set
minimum and maximum concentrations of
contaminants for the use that is to be made of
the water
 AIM
Study of the methods of
purification of water
 THEORY

Sources of water
1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep
ground water may have fallen as rain many tens,
hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock
layers naturally filter the ground water to a high
degree of clarity and often it does not require
additional treatment other than
adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary
disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs,
artesian, or may be extracted from boreholes or
wells. Deep ground water is generally of very
high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic
bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically
absent), but the water may be rich in dissolved
solids,
especially carbonates and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. Depending on the strata through
which the water has flowed, other ions may also be
present including chloride, and bicarbonate. There
may be a requirement to reduce
the iron or manganese content of this water to
make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and
laundry use. Primary disinfection may also be
required. Where groundwater recharge is practised
(a process in which river water is injected into an
aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that
it is available in times of drought), the groundwater
 may require additional treatment depending on
applicable state and federal regulations.
2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in
the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs
are usually sited above any human habitation and
may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict
the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and
pathogen levels are usually low, but some
bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where
uplands are forested or peaty humic acids can
colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH
which require adjustment.
3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land
surface waters will have a significant bacterial load
and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a
variety of dissolved constituents.
4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology
that can provide high quality drinking water by
extracting water from the air by cooling the air and
thus condensing water vapour.
5. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which
collects water from the atmosphere can be used
especially in areas with significant dry seasons and
in areas which experience fog even when there is
little rain.
6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse
osmosis.
7. Surface Water: Freshwater bodies that are open to
the atmosphere and are not designated as
groundwater are classified in the USA for regulatory
and water purification purposes as surface water.

Materials required
 Water samples taken from different sources like
borewell, municipality tap water, river water, pond
water, well water etc.

Procedure
The processes below are the ones commonly used in
water purification plants. Some or most may not be
used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of
the raw (source) water.
Pre-treatment
1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water
must be pumped from its source or directed into
pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding
contaminants to the water, this physical
infrastructure must be made from appropriate
materials and constructed so that accidental
contamination does not occur.
2. Screening (see also screen filter) – The first step in
purifying surface water is to remove large debris
such as sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large
particles which may interfere with subsequent
purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not
need screening before other purification steps.

3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in

bank side reservoirs for periods between a few
days and many months to allow natural biological
purification to take place. This is especially
important if treatment is by slow sand filters.
Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against
short periods of drought or to allow water supply to
 be maintained during transitory pollution incidents
in the source river.

4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming

water was chlorinated to minimize the growth of
fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks.
Because of the potential adverse quality effects
(see chlorine below), this has largely been
discontinued.

pH adjustment

Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor

acidic). Sea water can have pH values that range from
7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have
widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of
the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of
contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic
(lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can
be added to raise the pH during water purification
processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion
concentration,
thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic
waters, forced draft degasifierscan be an effective
way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon
dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline
helps coagulation and flocculation processes work
effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of
lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead
solder in pipe fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also
reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes.
Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulphuric
acid) may be added to alkaline waters in some
circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water
(above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that
lead or copper from the plumbing system will not
be dissolved into the water. The ability of water to
precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal
surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals
being dissolved in water is a function of pH,
mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and
calcium concentration.
Sedimentation

Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the

sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or
settling basin. It is a large tank with low water
velocities, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The
sedimentation basin is best located close to the
flocculation basin so the transit between the two
processes does not permit settlement or floc break
up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular,
where water flows from end to end, or circular
where flow is from the centre outward.
Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir
so only a thin top layer of water—that furthest from
the sludge—exits.
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of
a sedimentation process was a function of the
particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank
and the surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks
are typically designed within a range of overflow
rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square
foot (or 1.25 to 2.5 meters per hour). In general,
sedimentation basin efficiency is not a function of
detention time or depth of the basin. Although,
basin depth must be sufficient so that water
currents do not disturb the sludge and settled
particle interactions are promoted. As particle
concentrations in the settled water increase near
the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank,
settling velocities can increase due to collisions
and agglomeration of particles. Typical detention
times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours
and basin depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5
meters).
Inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to
traditional sedimentation basins to improve
particle removal performance. Inclined plates and
tubes drastically increase the surface area
available for particles to be removed in concert
with Hazen’s original theory. The amount of ground
surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin
with inclined plates or tubes can be far smaller
than a conventional sedimentation basin.
Sludge storage and removal
As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation
basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of
the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed
and treated. The amount of sludge that is
generated is significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the
total volume of water that is treated. The cost of
treating and disposing of the sludge can be a
significant part of the operating cost of a water
treatment plant. The sedimentation tank may be
equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that
continually clean the bottom of the tank or the
tank can be periodically taken out of service and
cleaned manually.
Dissolved air flotation
When particles to be removed do not settle out of
solution easily, dissolved air flotation (DAF) is often
used. Water supplies that are particularly
vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and supplies
with low turbidity and high colour often employ
DAF. After coagulation and flocculation processes,
water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the
tank bottom create fine bubbles that attach to floc
resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc.
The floating floc blanket is removed from the
 surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the
bottom of the DAF tank.
Filtration

After separating most floc, the water is filtered as

the final step to remove remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc.
Rapid sand filters

Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter

The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter.
Water moves vertically through sand which often has a
layer of activated carbon or anthracite coalabove the
sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which
contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand
particles is larger than the smallest suspended
particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most
particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in
pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
filtration
extends into the depth of the filter. This property of
the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of
sand were to block all the particles, the filter would
quickly clog.
To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward
through the filter, opposite the normal direction
(called back flushing or backwashing) to remove
embedded particles. Prior to this step, compressed
air may be blown up through the bottom of the
filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid
the backwashing process; this is known as air
scouring. This contaminated water can be disposed
of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation
basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw
water entering the plant although this is often
considered poor practice since it re-introduces an
elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw
water
Some water treatment plants employ pressure
filters. These works on the same principle as rapid
gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is
enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced
through it under pressure.
Advantages:
• Filters out much smaller particles than paper
and sand filters can.
• Filters out virtually all particles larger than
their specified pore sizes.
• They are quite thin and so liquids flow through
them fairly rapidly.
• They are reasonably strong and so can
withstand pressure differences across them of
typically 2–5 atmospheres.
• They can be cleaned (back flushed) and
reused.
Slow sand filters

Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of bank) to

the ground, Water purification plant Káraný, Czech
Republic
Slow sand filters may be used where there is
sufficient land and space, as the water must be
passed very slowly through the filters. These filters
rely on biological treatment processes for their
action rather than physical filtration. The filters are
carefully constructed using graded layers of sand,
with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at
the bottom and finest sand at the top. Drains at
the base convey treated water away for
disinfection. Filtration depends on the development
of a thin biological layer, called the zoogloeal layer
or Schmut decke, on the surface of the filter. An
effective slow sand filter may remain in service for
many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment is
well designed and produces water with a very low
available nutrient level which physical methods of
treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels
allow water to be safely sent through distribution
systems with very low disinfectant levels, thereby
reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels
of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand
filters are not backwashed; they are maintained by
 having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow
is eventually obstructed by biological growth.
A specific "large-scale" form of slow sand filter is the
process of bank filtration, in which natural sediments in
a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of
contaminant filtration. While typically not clean enough
to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained
from the associated extraction wells is much less
problematic than river water taken directly from
the major streams where bank filtration is often
used.

Membrane filtration
Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both
drinking water and sewage. For drinking water,
membrane filters can remove virtually all particles
larger than 0.2 um—including giardia and
cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective
form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to
reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic
purposes, or before discharging the water into a
river that is used by towns further downstream.
They are widely used in industry, particularly for
beverage preparation (including bottled water).
However no filtration can remove substances that
are actually dissolved in the water such as
phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
Removal of ions and other
dissolved substances
Ultra filtration membranes use polymer
membranes with chemically formed microscopic
pores that can be used to filter out dissolved
substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The
type of membrane media determines how much
pressure is needed to drive the water through and
what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.
Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion
exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to
replace unwanted ions. The most common case is
water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+and
Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap
friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are
also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrate,
nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.
Precipitate softening: Water rich in hardness
(calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with lime
(calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium
carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out of
solution utilizing the common-ion effect.
Electro deionization: Water is passed between a
positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion
exchange membranes allow only positive ions to
migrate from the treated water toward the
negative electrode and only negative ions toward
the positive electrode. High purity deionised water
is produced with a little worse degree of
purification in comparison with ion exchange
treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is
regarded as electro dialysis. The water is often pre-
treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-
ionic organic contaminants.

Disinfection
Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out
harmful micro-organisms and also by adding
disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill
any pathogens which pass through the filters and
to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or
inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in
the storage and distribution systems. Possible
pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including
 Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella,
and protozoa, including Giardia lamblia and other
cryptosporidium. Following the introduction of any
chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually
held in temporary storage – often called a contact
tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to
complete.
Chlorine disinfection
The most common disinfection method involves some
form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramines
or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that
rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Because
chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release
associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the
use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively
inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when
dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated
on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid
form, calcium hypochlorite, releases chlorine on contact
with water. Handling the solid, however, requires
greater routine human contact through opening bags
and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or
bleach which are more easily automated. The
generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both
inexpensive and safer than the use of gas or solid
chlorine.
All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their
respective drawbacks. One drawback is that
chlorine from any source reacts with natural
organic compounds in the water to form potentially
harmful chemical by-products. These by-products,
trihalomethanes (THMs) and halo acetic acids
(HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities
and are regulated by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Drinking Water Inspectorate in the UK. The
formation of THMs and halo acetic acids may be
minimized by effective removal of as many
organics from the water as possible prior to
chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective in
killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against
protozoa that form cysts in water (Giardia lamblia
and Cryptosporidium, both of which are
pathogenic).
Chlorine dioxide disinfection
Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than
elemental chlorine. It is relatively rarely used,
because in some circumstances it may create
excessive amounts of chlorite, which is a by-
product regulated to low allowable levels in the
United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied as an
aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas
handling problems; chlorine dioxide gas
accumulations may spontaneously detonate.
 Ozone disinfection
Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up
one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing
agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is
a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is
widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to
inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also
works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is
made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a
"cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a
disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to
the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages
of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous
by-products and the absence of taste and odour
problems (in comparison to chlorination) . Although
fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has
been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide
ions in water to produce concentrations of the
suspected carcinogen bromated. Bromide can be
found in fresh water supplies in sufficient
concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more
than 10 ppb of bromate — the maximum
contaminant level established by the USEPA.
Another advantage of ozone is that it leaves no
residual disinfectant in the water. Ozone has been
used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the
first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice,
France. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has
accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as
an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment,
storage, and processing of foods.
Ultraviolet disinfection
Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at
inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. UV light's
disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity
increases, a result of the absorption, scattering,
and shadowing caused by the suspended solids.
The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation
is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual
disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the
primary disinfection process. This is often done
through the addition of chloramines, discussed
above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this
manner, chloramines provide an effective residual
disinfectant with very few of the negative effects of
chlorination.
Solar water disinfection
One low-cost method of disinfecting water that can
often be implemented with locally available
materials is solar disinfection (SODIS). Unlike
methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on
the environment.
One recent study has found that the wild
Salmonella which would reproduce quickly during
subsequent dark storage of solar-disinfected water
could be controlled by the addition of just 10 parts
per million of hydrogen peroxide.

Other water purification techniques

Other popular methods for purifying water,

especially for local private supplies are listed
below. In some countries some of these methods
are also used for large scale municipal supplies.
Particularly important are distillation (de-salination
of seawater) and reverse osmosis.
1. Boiling: Bringing it to its boiling point at 100 °C
(212 °F), is the oldest and most effective way since
it eliminates most microbes causing intestine
related diseases, but it cannot remove chemical
toxins or impurities. For human health, complete
sterilization of water is not required, since the heat
resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The
traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes
is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start
getting eliminated at temperatures greater than 60
°C (140 °F). Though the boiling point decreases
with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect
the disinfecting process. In areas where the water
is "hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved
calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate
ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium
carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle
elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the
 exception of calcium, boiling does not remove
solutes of higher boiling point than water and in
fact increases their concentration (due to some
water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave
a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore,
water that is boiled and then stored for any length
of time may acquire new pathogens.
2. Granular Activated Carbon filtering: a form of
activated carbon with a high surface area, adsorbs
many compounds including many toxic compounds.
Water passing through activated carbon is commonly
used in municipal regions with organic contamination,
taste or odour. Many household water filters and fish
tanks use activated carbon filters to further purify
the water. Household filters for drinking water
sometimes contain silver as metallic silver
nanoparticle. If water is held in the carbon block for
longer period, microorganisms can grow inside
which results in fouling and contamination. Silver
nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial material
and they can decompose toxic halo-organic
compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic
organic products.
Demineralised water
Distillation removes all minerals from water, and
the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and
nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This
results in demineralised water which is not
considered ideal drinking water. The World Health
Organization has investigated the health effects of
demineralized water since 1980. Experiments in
 humans found that demineralized water increased
diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with
decreased blood serum potassium concentration.
Magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in water
can help to protect against nutritional deficiency.
Demineralized water may also increase the risk
from toxic metals because it more readily leaches
materials from piping like lead and cadmium,
which is prevented by dissolved minerals such as
calcium and magnesium. Low-mineral water has
been implicated in specific cases of lead poisoning
in infants, when lead from pipes leached at
especially high rates into the water.
Recommendations for magnesium have been put
at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L
optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a
40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness
(adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L.
At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher
incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary
stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been
observed. Additionally, desalination processes can
increase the risk of bacterial contamination.
Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the
opposite—that minerals in water are the cause of many
diseases, and that most beneficial minerals come from
food, not water. They quote the American Medical
Association as saying "The body's
need for minerals is largely met through foods, not
drinking water." The WHO report agrees that
"drinking water, with some rare exceptions, is not
the major source of essential elements for
humans" and is "not the major source of our
calcium and magnesium intake", yet states that
demineralized water is harmful anyway. "Additional
evidence comes from animal experiments and
clinical observations in several countries. Animals
given zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking
water had a significantly higher concentration of
these elements in the serum than animals given
the same elements in much higher amounts with
food and provided with low-mineral water to drink."
 CONCLUSION

We can conclude from the project

that there are various methods of
purification of water. Today, we
know that water is present
everywhere on earth in different
forms but due to human activities
water is being polluted day by day
not only that about 97% of earths
water is in oceans which is not
suitable for drinking or any other
purpose. So there is very small
volume of water is left, to utilise that
humans are using best ways to
purify it. And in present time humans
are capable to purify water and all
the methods to purify it are
mentioned in the project.
 THANK YOU

Save water,
save life....
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTERNET
CHEMISTRY BOOK
MY CLASSMATES
MY SENIOR BROTHER

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