Design and Technology Chapter 4

4.1 Systems
A system is a group of parts that work together to achieve an output. Many systems are
control systems. These are used to regulate parts of a system. Many control systems now are electric
and automated, meaning they work by themselves based on certain sensors. They are also connected
to multiple machines, products, and equipment to better create a whole system.

This section covers three sections:

● Structures

● Mechanisms

● Electronics

System diagrams are common ways of describing systems. These are made with blocks. An
input is, well, inputted into the operation (labeled with a box), and maybe into a couple other boxes,
which all perform certain functions or operations on that input, and then give out an output.

Another structure for a system is an open loop system. This is a simple block system diagram, but
after a certain operation, if the requirements to get outputted are not met, the system is repeated in a
loop. One very important thing about open loop systems is that there is no feedback on how to
change how the system works.

In closed loop systems, however, there is

feedback on how the system can change to
better create outputs.

An example of this is a system diagram for

wind turbines. →
4.2 Structures

4.2.1 Basic Concepts

Structures for systems are important, as the shape and the way that the system is constructed and
arranged can contribute to its use of application and its purpose.

Types of structures include:

- Mass structures
- Frame structures
- Shell structures

4.2.1 Part 1 Different types of structures

Mass structures are structures that rely on the weight of material for strength or support. Examples
are the large buildings in Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, which were built using stone. The
buildings were supported and relied on the structure and the material that the buildings were made out
of.

Frame structures are made from individual parts, such as legs of metals, that are connected such that
the overall structure can withstand various forces. Many buildings use framework structures to
provide skeletons for the buildings. These panels are usually not strong enough to support the entire
building, but they are used to create enclosures for the building and provide protection from the
weather.

Shell structures are often made from thin materials such as sheet steel. These usually create space.
For example, a tent. Car bodies are also shell structures. They are not made for their durability or
their strength, but rather their resistance to multiple different
weather disasters.
Natural structures are structures that appear naturally in life. They inspire man-made structures and
many of these are used to make the structural design of buildings and other architectural projects. For
example, the Olympic stadium in Beijing is based on a bird’s nest, shown on the right. The human
skeleton is also a good example for a natural structure. It provides support and the ability to move and
interact with objects to the body. Many modern factories and manufacturing plants utilize the natural
structure of the human skeleton in robotic hands to better up construct structures. This ties in with
biomimicry, the design and production of machines based on the model of natural structures.

4.2.1 Part 2 Implementations of structures

An example of structures in real objects is a paper punch. When

these are operated, the second class lever, built on the fulcrum
shown on the right, is used to reduce the effort required to push
the paper punch down. This is an example of structures and
mechanisms working together.

Bicycles are another example of transport where frame

structures are important. However, shell structures also come
into play, providing covers and more comfortability on the seats, and on the tires so that they don’t
get damaged by rain and get more protection from the wind.

Bicycles are also a good way to showcase how different structures work together. Frame structures
use triangulation for strength, using the central triangle as a strong frame structure that holds the
triangle together. Shell structures provide good cover and protection to the bicycle. The different
materials used work well with each other, having strong, smooth metals for the frame and the
chains/gears, and having rougher
material to keep the cycle in place.
Frame structures are also used for
the wheels of the bicycle.

There are different ways that

structures are implemented on
bicycles, as well. Many have frame
structures, as we see in our day to
day lives, but recently, many professionals have made the shift to a carbon fiber-based shell
structure for a wheel instead of a frame structure where there are metal rods from the center of the
wheel to the outer rim, as seen on the right.
4.2.2 Types of frame structure members

A frame structure is a system of parts connected to a support that the loads weigh on. Each of these
parts is a member of the structure. The structure must be strong enough to support the required load
(such as a certain number of cars on a bridge). We must also take into account whether the load is
static or dynamic. Static loads always have a constant force on the structure, and dynamic loads
have varying forces on the structure. The weight of the bridge itself is static; it doesn’t move. The
cars and vehicles on the bridge, however are dynamic. There are 4 members used in framed
structures.

● Beams

● Ties

● Struts

● Columns

Beams

Beams are designed to withstand bending, which is caused usually by vertical forces. Beams are used
to span and make bridges across gaps. Three types of beams
are:

● Cantilever beam: supported at one end only

● Simply supported beam: supported at both ends

● Overhanging beam: the load hangs

over the end of a beam, that is
connected on the left, to a wall and has
a support in the middle
When bent, beams have one tensed side and one compressed
face, shown on the right. This is an important factor when
choosing the material that the beam is made from. For
example, concrete is better when working in compression
than in tension.

Ties

Ties are members designed to resist tension. These include rods,

ropes and suspension bridge cables. Ties can take the shapes of
solid metal bars, as well as cables and string/ropes. A very
important thing about ties is that they hold the bridge up by using a
cable connected from the bridge to the wall above it

Struts

Struts are members that resist compressive forces. Struts are

under the bridge rather than over, unlike ties. Cables or ropes
can’t be used for such situations, so concrete or cast iron work
better.

Columns

Columns are perpendicular members used to support beams. They resist compressive forces as they
hav e to resist the multiple downward forces that they have to endure, such as the weight of the
load and gravity. They also have to resist bending and twisting forces.
4.2.3 Strengthening frame structures

Triangulation

Rectangular shapes can collapse due to the forces on them.

Connecting these rectangular shapes with a “cross member”
across its two corners, known as triangulation, can strengthen
them Other ways of strengthening frames are cross-bracing and
gusset plates.

Trusses

Trusses are used for bridges and roofs of

buildings. For example, roof trusses must have a
beam, tie and strut member joined together to
support the roof of a building. Each member of a truss is in compression or tension to create a full
truss, acting as a strut or a tie.

Space frames

A space frame is a 3-D truss used to span large areas.

Buildings with space frames are made without
intermediate columns to create large open spaces, such
as in halls.

4.24 Nature of structural members

Two factors that affect the performance of ties and struts: are what they are made of (their material)
and their cross-sectional shape.

For example, concrete is stronger in compression than in tension. This means when it is squeezed,
it can easily push back and keep its shape, but it doesn’t work very well when stretched.