General Relativity and Cosmology

2020-21, Advanced III, CU

April 29, 2021

General Relativity and Cosmology

 Part I: General Relativity
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) et al.

April 29, 2021

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Reference

General Relativity
Weinberg: Gravitation and Cosmology
Hartle: Gravity

Cosmology
Liddle: An Introduction to Modern Cosmology
Ryden: Introduction to Cosmology
Kolb and Turner: The Early Universe
Dodelson: Modern Cosmology
Narlikar: Introduction to Cosmology

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

System and Convention

Flat space-time (Minkowski) metric ηαβ = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1) .

Curved space-time metric gµν with g00 < 0

Flat coordinates: ξ α , Curved coordinates: x µ

Invariant interval
ds 2 = ηαβ dξ α dξ β = dx µ dx ν = −dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .

Will use a different metric for the QFT course!

I’ll use c = 1, but not ~ = 1. Also, I will not use the relativists’
convention of G = 1.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Why GR?

I General Relativity is the theory of gravity

I Shows that gravity is related to the geometry of space-time
I Is a classical theory, no one succeeded in quantizing it
I Passed all possible experimental tests

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Why GR?

I General Relativity is the theory of gravity

I Shows that gravity is related to the geometry of space-time
I Is a classical theory, no one succeeded in quantizing it
I Passed all possible experimental tests

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Parallel lines

Fifth postulate of Euclid as stated in his famous treatise Elements:

If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles
on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines
produced indefinitely meet on that side on which the angles are less
than two right angles.

Gives you the definition of parallel lines; lines that never meet even if
extended to infinity. This postulate basically defines flat space.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Flat space metric

In a 2-dimensional flat space, a line element can be written as

ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 . (1)

This is nothing but Pythagoras’ theorem. Here ξ1 and ξ2 are orthogonal

cartesian axes, so we can write

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j (2)

(i, j = 1, 2) with g11 = g22 = 1, g12 = g21 = 0. The metric is just the
2 × 2 unit matrix.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Flat space metric

In a 2-dimensional flat space, a line element can be written as

ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 . (1)

This is nothing but Pythagoras’ theorem. Here ξ1 and ξ2 are orthogonal

cartesian axes, so we can write

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j (2)

(i, j = 1, 2) with g11 = g22 = 1, g12 = g21 = 0. The metric is just the
2 × 2 unit matrix. This may appear to be a good definition of a flat
space, but it is not!

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Flat space metric

In a 2-dimensional flat space, a line element can be written as

ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 . (1)

This is nothing but Pythagoras’ theorem. Here ξ1 and ξ2 are orthogonal

cartesian axes, so we can write

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j (2)

(i, j = 1, 2) with g11 = g22 = 1, g12 = g21 = 0. The metric is just the
2 × 2 unit matrix. This may appear to be a good definition of a flat
space, but it is not! For example, I can use the plane polar coordinate
system, where
ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 (3)
and so g11 = 1 but g22 = r 2 — the metric is no longer the unit matrix.
So we must look for some other definition of a flat space.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Flat space metric

In a 2-dimensional flat space, a line element can be written as

ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 . (1)

This is nothing but Pythagoras’ theorem. Here ξ1 and ξ2 are orthogonal

cartesian axes, so we can write

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j (2)

(i, j = 1, 2) with g11 = g22 = 1, g12 = g21 = 0. The metric is just the
2 × 2 unit matrix. This may appear to be a good definition of a flat
space, but it is not! For example, I can use the plane polar coordinate
system, where
ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 (3)
and so g11 = 1 but g22 = r 2 — the metric is no longer the unit matrix.
So we must look for some other definition of a flat space.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

The spherical triangle

The angles do not add up to 180◦ and Euclid’s 5th postulate is not valid!
Straight lines are replaced by great circles

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Infinitesimal separations
The separation between two close points on the surface of a sphere of
radius a, located at (θ, φ) and (θ + dθ, φ + dφ) is given by

ds 2 = a2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ) . (4)

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Gaussian curvature

The metric is (θ → 1, φ → 2)

g11 = a2 , g22 = a2 sin2 θ, g12 = g21 = 0. (5)

The Gaussian curvature is nonzero for this case. (See eq. 1.1.12 of
Weinberg).
The surface of a sphere is a finite 2-d space of constant positive curvature

K = 1/a2 (6)

But we want infinite spaces, so such a thing won’t do.

(Constant: Isotropy and homogeneity of the universe; Negative: Universe
is infinite, no boundary)

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Gaussian curvature

The metric is (θ → 1, φ → 2)

g11 = a2 , g22 = a2 sin2 θ, g12 = g21 = 0. (5)

The Gaussian curvature is nonzero for this case. (See eq. 1.1.12 of
Weinberg).
The surface of a sphere is a finite 2-d space of constant positive curvature

K = 1/a2 (6)

But we want infinite spaces, so such a thing won’t do.

(Constant: Isotropy and homogeneity of the universe; Negative: Universe
is infinite, no boundary)

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Saddle space

Saddle-like spaces are infinite but not homogeneous: the curvature is

positive on one side and negative on the other.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

The metric gives you the separation between two nearby points:

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j

If it were a flat space, I could have written, in cartesian coordinates,

ds 2 = ηij dξ i dξ j

where η is the 2 × 2 unit matrix.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

The metric gives you the separation between two nearby points:

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j

If it were a flat space, I could have written, in cartesian coordinates,

ds 2 = ηij dξ i dξ j

where η is the 2 × 2 unit matrix. I can never do so for a curved space,

but:
If we consider a sufficiently small region in a curved space, it is
possible to find a locally Euclidean coordinate system so that the
distance between two nearby points (ξ1 , ξ2 ) and (ξ1 + dξ1 , ξ2 + dξ2 ) is
given by the Pythagoras’ theorem: ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 .

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

The metric gives you the separation between two nearby points:

ds 2 = gij dx i dx j

If it were a flat space, I could have written, in cartesian coordinates,

ds 2 = ηij dξ i dξ j

where η is the 2 × 2 unit matrix. I can never do so for a curved space,

but:
If we consider a sufficiently small region in a curved space, it is
possible to find a locally Euclidean coordinate system so that the
distance between two nearby points (ξ1 , ξ2 ) and (ξ1 + dξ1 , ξ2 + dξ2 ) is
given by the Pythagoras’ theorem: ds 2 = dξ12 + dξ22 .

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

A curved surface cannot be flattened without distortion

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

While it is possible to have such locally Euclidean frames, one cannot

cover any finite amount of surface with a single Euclidean frame; to cover
the entire sphere, one must have an infinite number of such Euclidean
frames.
Now suppose we choose some other coordinate system (x1 , x2 ) that
covers a finite part of the sphere — maybe the whole surface. How
should the separation look like?

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

While it is possible to have such locally Euclidean frames, one cannot

cover any finite amount of surface with a single Euclidean frame; to cover
the entire sphere, one must have an infinite number of such Euclidean
frames.
Now suppose we choose some other coordinate system (x1 , x2 ) that
covers a finite part of the sphere — maybe the whole surface. How
should the separation look like?

ξ1 = ξ1 (x1 , x2 ) , ξ2 = ξ2 (x1 , x2 )
     a
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ
dξ1 = dx1 + dx2 ⇒ dξ a = dx i . (7)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x i

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

While it is possible to have such locally Euclidean frames, one cannot

cover any finite amount of surface with a single Euclidean frame; to cover
the entire sphere, one must have an infinite number of such Euclidean
frames.
Now suppose we choose some other coordinate system (x1 , x2 ) that
covers a finite part of the sphere — maybe the whole surface. How
should the separation look like?

ξ1 = ξ1 (x1 , x2 ) , ξ2 = ξ2 (x1 , x2 )
     a
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ
dξ1 = dx1 + dx2 ⇒ dξ a = dx i . (7)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x i

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

ds 2 = g11 (x1 , x2 )dx12 + 2g12 (x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2 + g22 (x1 , x2 )dx22 (8)

where

 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g11 = + ,
∂x1 ∂x1
 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g22 = + ,
∂x2 ∂x2
     
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2
g12 = + . (9)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

ds 2 = g11 (x1 , x2 )dx12 + 2g12 (x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2 + g22 (x1 , x2 )dx22 (8)

where

 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g11 = + ,
∂x1 ∂x1
 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g22 = + ,
∂x2 ∂x2
     
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2
g12 = + . (9)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2

Such a space is called a metric space. The derivation can be turned the
other way: given a metric space, we can at any point choose a locally
Euclidean frame.
Part I: General Relativity
Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Metric space

ds 2 = g11 (x1 , x2 )dx12 + 2g12 (x1 , x2 )dx1 dx2 + g22 (x1 , x2 )dx22 (8)

where

 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g11 = + ,
∂x1 ∂x1
 2  2
∂ξ1 ∂ξ2
g22 = + ,
∂x2 ∂x2
     
∂ξ1 ∂ξ1 ∂ξ2 ∂ξ2
g12 = + . (9)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2

Such a space is called a metric space. The derivation can be turned the
other way: given a metric space, we can at any point choose a locally
Euclidean frame.
Part I: General Relativity
Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Riemannian space-time

Mathematics from Georg Riemann:

There is no unique curvature for a higher dimensional space and the
geometry becomes much more complicated.
Flat or Minkowski space-time:

ds 2 = −dt 2 + dxi2 = ηµν dξ µ dξ ν (10)

where the Minkowski metric η = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1) and we have used

c = 1.
Therefore, for a curved space-time, we should have

ds 2 = gµν dx µ dx ν (11)

where the elements of the symmetric tensor gµν are functions of the
coordinates.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Riemannian space-time

Mathematics from Georg Riemann:

There is no unique curvature for a higher dimensional space and the
geometry becomes much more complicated.
Flat or Minkowski space-time:

ds 2 = −dt 2 + dxi2 = ηµν dξ µ dξ ν (10)

where the Minkowski metric η = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1) and we have used

c = 1.
Therefore, for a curved space-time, we should have

ds 2 = gµν dx µ dx ν (11)

where the elements of the symmetric tensor gµν are functions of the
coordinates.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Riemannian space-time

Again, we expect that it is possible to find infinitesimal regions where

gµν = ηµν — the space-time is locally flat.
Suppose I have such an infinitesimally flat space-time; then I can write

ds 2 = ηαβ dξ α dξ β = gµν dx µ dx ν .

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Riemannian space-time

Again, we expect that it is possible to find infinitesimal regions where

gµν = ηµν — the space-time is locally flat.
Suppose I have such an infinitesimally flat space-time; then I can write

ds 2 = ηαβ dξ α dξ β = gµν dx µ dx ν .

Equating these two and using the chain rule, I get

∂ξ α ∂ξ β ∂x µ ∂x ν
gµν = ηαβ , ηαβ = gµν . (12)
∂x µ ∂x ν ∂ξ α ∂ξ β

Remember that the ξ coordinates change if we go to another space-time

point.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Riemannian space-time

Again, we expect that it is possible to find infinitesimal regions where

gµν = ηµν — the space-time is locally flat.
Suppose I have such an infinitesimally flat space-time; then I can write

ds 2 = ηαβ dξ α dξ β = gµν dx µ dx ν .

Equating these two and using the chain rule, I get

∂ξ α ∂ξ β ∂x µ ∂x ν
gµν = ηαβ , ηαβ = gµν . (12)
∂x µ ∂x ν ∂ξ α ∂ξ β

Remember that the ξ coordinates change if we go to another space-time

point.

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

The rubber-sheet universe

The universe is flat (Minkowski) if there is no mass (energy).

Mass deforms the flat structure

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

The rubber-sheet universe

Part I: General Relativity

Reference Books Conventions Flat space Curved space Curved space-time

Assignments

1 The sum of the interior angles for a spherical triangle is π + A/a2

where A is the area of the triangle and a is the radius of the circle.
Find the area of the triangle bounded by the equator and the
longitudes 0◦ and 60◦ . What is the maximum possible area of a
spherical triangle?
2 A ball is thrown from the ground level at an angle 45◦ with the
vertical, and it falls back to the ground after 2 seconds. Defining the
plane in which the ball moved to be the x-y plane, draw the
space-time diagram of the motion of the ball. Convince yourself that
the ball moves in an almost straight line in the space-time diagram.
3 What is the value of K for a plane?
4 Derive eq. (9).

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Free fall

I Observation 1: If you drop two different objects from the same

height, they take equal time to fall to the ground
I Observation 2: Earth and moon fall with the same acceleration in
the gravitational field of the sun.

I am assuming that the value of g remains constant over the laboratory,

which I can safely do, since it is only an infinitesimal portion of a curved
space-time that has a flat metric.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Free fall

I Observation 1: If you drop two different objects from the same

height, they take equal time to fall to the ground
I Observation 2: Earth and moon fall with the same acceleration in
the gravitational field of the sun.
I Conclusion: In the immediate vicinity of a freely falling
observer, there is no gravitational field, as far as the observer
is concerned.
I am assuming that the value of g remains constant over the laboratory,
which I can safely do, since it is only an infinitesimal portion of a curved
space-time that has a flat metric.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Free fall

I Observation 1: If you drop two different objects from the same

height, they take equal time to fall to the ground
I Observation 2: Earth and moon fall with the same acceleration in
the gravitational field of the sun.
I Conclusion: In the immediate vicinity of a freely falling
observer, there is no gravitational field, as far as the observer
is concerned.
I am assuming that the value of g remains constant over the laboratory,
which I can safely do, since it is only an infinitesimal portion of a curved
space-time that has a flat metric.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Inertial and Gravitational Masses

P ∝ a. The proportionality constant is inertial mass mi

In a gravitational field, the force on a body is proportional to the
acceleration due to gravity. This proportionality constant will be called
the gravitational mass mg
mi is an intrinsic property of the body; it may depend on a lot of things,
like chemical composition
On the other hand, mg is dependent on gravitational force
One may expect that the ratio mi /mg need not be equal for all bodies. If
that be the case, bodies with different composition, dropped from the
same height, should not reach the ground simultaneously

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Eötvös experiment
Performed at 46◦ N latitude
balance between gravity and up-
ward component of centripetal
acceleration

lA (mgA g − miA fv ) = lB (mgB g − miB fv ) .

(13)
Horizontal component gives the
torque

T = lA miA fh − lB miB fh . (14)

Eliminating lB , one gets
"   −1 #
mgA mgB
T = lA miA fh 1 − g − fv g − fv , (15)
miA miB
 
miA miB
fv  g =⇒ T = lA fh mgA − . (16)
mgA mgB

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Eötvös experiment
Performed at 46◦ N latitude
balance between gravity and up-
ward component of centripetal
acceleration

lA (mgA g − miA fv ) = lB (mgB g − miB fv ) .

(13)
Horizontal component gives the
torque

T = lA miA fh − lB miB fh . (14)

Eliminating lB , one gets
"   −1 #
mgA mgB
T = lA miA fh 1 − g − fv g − fv , (15)
miA miB
 
miA miB
fv  g =⇒ T = lA fh mgA − . (16)
mgA mgB

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Eötvös experiment

Is there a resultant torque? Can’t stop earth’s rotation to find out

Rotate the whole experiment by π. Everything in vertical direction
invariant, torque reversed

To a very good precision, there is no torque

 
mgA mgB
miA − miB
η=  , (17)
1 mgA mgB
2 miA + miB

η = (−0.2 ± 2.8) × 10−12

η ∼ 1.5 × 10−13 (lunar laser ranging)

mi = mg for all bodies.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Eötvös experiment

Is there a resultant torque? Can’t stop earth’s rotation to find out

Rotate the whole experiment by π. Everything in vertical direction
invariant, torque reversed

To a very good precision, there is no torque

 
mgA mgB
miA − miB
η=  , (17)
1 mgA mgB
2 miA + miB

η = (−0.2 ± 2.8) × 10−12

η ∼ 1.5 × 10−13 (lunar laser ranging)

mi = mg for all bodies.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle
Consider a system of n particles, moving with nonrelativistic velocities
under the influence of forces F(xn − xm ) and an external uniform
gravitational field g. The equations of motion are
d 2 xn X
mn 2 = mn g + F(xn − xm ) (18)
dt m
which, seen from another coordinate frame falling with the same velocity
1
x0 = x − gt 2 , t 0 = t, (19)
2
would look like
d 2 x0 X
mn 2n = F(x0n − x0m ). (20)
dt m

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle
Consider a system of n particles, moving with nonrelativistic velocities
under the influence of forces F(xn − xm ) and an external uniform
gravitational field g. The equations of motion are
d 2 xn X
mn 2 = mn g + F(xn − xm ) (18)
dt m
which, seen from another coordinate frame falling with the same velocity
1
x0 = x − gt 2 , t 0 = t, (19)
2
would look like
d 2 x0 X
mn 2n = F(x0n − x0m ). (20)
dt m

µ
The original observer, using x µ , and his freely falling friend, using x 0 ,
will have the same laws of motion, except that the former sees a
gravitational field and the latter does not.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle
Consider a system of n particles, moving with nonrelativistic velocities
under the influence of forces F(xn − xm ) and an external uniform
gravitational field g. The equations of motion are
d 2 xn X
mn 2 = mn g + F(xn − xm ) (18)
dt m
which, seen from another coordinate frame falling with the same velocity
1
x0 = x − gt 2 , t 0 = t, (19)
2
would look like
d 2 x0 X
mn 2n = F(x0n − x0m ). (20)
dt m

µ
The original observer, using x µ , and his freely falling friend, using x 0 ,
will have the same laws of motion, except that the former sees a
gravitational field and the latter does not.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle

g must be uniform — infinitesimal space-time!

Experiments in a sufficiently small freely falling laboratory, over a
sufficiently short time, give results that are identical to those obtained
from the same experiments in an inertial frame in empty space

Weak EP: true for freely falling bodies

Strong EP: includes all laws !

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle

g must be uniform — infinitesimal space-time!

Experiments in a sufficiently small freely falling laboratory, over a
sufficiently short time, give results that are identical to those obtained
from the same experiments in an inertial frame in empty space

Weak EP: true for freely falling bodies

Strong EP: includes all laws !
In a gravitational field, everything falls with the same accceleration — so
a light ray passing near the sun will bend towards the sun. For a light ray
grazing the sun, the bending would be 1.750 .

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equivalence principle

g must be uniform — infinitesimal space-time!

Experiments in a sufficiently small freely falling laboratory, over a
sufficiently short time, give results that are identical to those obtained
from the same experiments in an inertial frame in empty space

Weak EP: true for freely falling bodies

Strong EP: includes all laws !
In a gravitational field, everything falls with the same accceleration — so
a light ray passing near the sun will bend towards the sun. For a light ray
grazing the sun, the bending would be 1.750 .

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Free fall
Consider a particle moving freely under the influence of gravitational
forces. According to the equivalence principle, there is a locally flat freely
falling coordinate system ξ α in which the equation of motion is that of a
straight line in space-time, i.e.,
d 2ξα
=0 (21)
dτ 2
where dτ , the proper time, is given by
dτ 2 = −ηαβ dξ α dξ β = −ds 2 . (22)
Now suppose that we use any other coordinate system x µ , which can be
cartesian or curvilinear, fixed or moving in the laboratory frame, even
rotating or accelerating. ξ α s are functions of x µ s (and vice versa), so we
can write eq. (21) as
 α µ
d ∂ξ dx ∂ξ α d 2 x µ ∂ 2 ξ α dx µ dx ν
0= = + . (23)
dτ ∂x µ dτ ∂x µ dτ 2 ∂x µ ∂x ν dτ dτ

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Free fall
Consider a particle moving freely under the influence of gravitational
forces. According to the equivalence principle, there is a locally flat freely
falling coordinate system ξ α in which the equation of motion is that of a
straight line in space-time, i.e.,
d 2ξα
=0 (21)
dτ 2
where dτ , the proper time, is given by
dτ 2 = −ηαβ dξ α dξ β = −ds 2 . (22)
Now suppose that we use any other coordinate system x µ , which can be
cartesian or curvilinear, fixed or moving in the laboratory frame, even
rotating or accelerating. ξ α s are functions of x µ s (and vice versa), so we
can write eq. (21) as
 α µ
d ∂ξ dx ∂ξ α d 2 x µ ∂ 2 ξ α dx µ dx ν
0= = + . (23)
dτ ∂x µ dτ ∂x µ dτ 2 ∂x µ ∂x ν dτ dτ

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equation of motion

Multiplying this by ∂x λ /∂ξ α and using

∂ξ α ∂x λ
= δµλ , (24)
∂x µ ∂ξ α
we get the equation of motion

d 2x λ µ
λ dx dx
ν
+ Γ µν = 0, (25)
dτ 2 dτ dτ

Christoffel symbol
∂x λ ∂ 2 ξ α
Γλµν = . (26)
∂ξ α ∂x µ ∂x ν

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equation of motion

Multiplying this by ∂x λ /∂ξ α and using

∂ξ α ∂x λ
= δµλ , (24)
∂x µ ∂ξ α
we get the equation of motion

d 2x λ µ
λ dx dx
ν
+ Γ µν = 0, (25)
dτ 2 dτ dτ

Christoffel symbol
∂x λ ∂ 2 ξ α
Γλµν = . (26)
∂ξ α ∂x µ ∂x ν

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Extremization

Eq. (25) is the analogue of force-free motion in a gravitational field; this

is called a geodesic equation and the trajectory of the particle is called
the geodesic.
For a flat space-time, the geodesic is a straight line. One can formulate a
variational principle analogous to that in nonrelativistic classical
mechanics:

The motion of a test particle between two timelike separated points

extremises the proper time between them.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Extremization

Eq. (25) is the analogue of force-free motion in a gravitational field; this

is called a geodesic equation and the trajectory of the particle is called
the geodesic.
For a flat space-time, the geodesic is a straight line. One can formulate a
variational principle analogous to that in nonrelativistic classical
mechanics:

The motion of a test particle between two timelike separated points

extremises the proper time between them.

Note that the Christoffel symbol is symmetric in its lower indices.

However, it can be shown that it is not a mixed tensor of rank 3.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Extremization

Eq. (25) is the analogue of force-free motion in a gravitational field; this

is called a geodesic equation and the trajectory of the particle is called
the geodesic.
For a flat space-time, the geodesic is a straight line. One can formulate a
variational principle analogous to that in nonrelativistic classical
mechanics:

The motion of a test particle between two timelike separated points

extremises the proper time between them.

Note that the Christoffel symbol is symmetric in its lower indices.

However, it can be shown that it is not a mixed tensor of rank 3.

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Equation of motion ... special cases

The proper time may be expressed, using eq. (12) , as

∂ξ α µ ∂ξ β ν
dτ 2 = −ηαβ dx dx = −gµν dx µ dx ν . (27)
∂x µ ∂x ν
For a photon, one cannot use τ , since dτ 2 is zero (the separation of two
points on the surface of a light cone is always zero). We have to use some
other parameter, say σ ≡ ξ 0 , which is equally good (such parameters are
called affine parameters). We replace the standard equations by

d 2ξα dξ α dξ β dx µ dx ν
= 0, −η αβ = −g µν = 0, (28)
dσ 2 dσ dσ dσ dσ
and eq. (25) as
d 2x λ µ
λ dx dx
ν
+ Γ µν . (29)
dσ 2 dσ dσ

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Assignments

1 Show that for a force-free motion in flat 2-dimensional space, the

geodesics are straight lines.
2 Show that
∂2ξα λ ∂ξ
α
= Γ µν . (30)
∂x µ ∂x ν ∂x λ
(This is nothing but an exercise to check that you know how to
handle the Lorentz indices!)

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Assignments

1 Show that for a force-free motion in flat 2-dimensional space, the

geodesics are straight lines.
2 Show that
∂2ξα λ ∂ξ
α
= Γ µν . (30)
∂x µ ∂x ν ∂x λ
(This is nothing but an exercise to check that you know how to
handle the Lorentz indices!)
3 Show that the time dt for a photon to travel a distance dx is
determined by

g00 dt 2 + 2g0i dx i dt + gij dx i dx j = 0. (31)

This is a quadratic equation for dt with two roots. Which one is

consistent with the flat space-time result?

Part I: General Relativity

Masses Eötvös expt Equivalence principle Geodesic

Assignments

1 Show that for a force-free motion in flat 2-dimensional space, the

geodesics are straight lines.
2 Show that
∂2ξα λ ∂ξ
α
= Γ µν . (30)
∂x µ ∂x ν ∂x λ
(This is nothing but an exercise to check that you know how to
handle the Lorentz indices!)
3 Show that the time dt for a photon to travel a distance dx is
determined by

g00 dt 2 + 2g0i dx i dt + gij dx i dx j = 0. (31)

This is a quadratic equation for dt with two roots. Which one is

consistent with the flat space-time result?

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

More on metric

∂ξ α ∂ξ β
gµν = ηαβ
∂x µ ∂x ν
Differentiating with respect to x λ , we get

∂gµν ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ β ∂ 2 ξ β ∂ξ α
λ
= λ µ ν
ηαβ + λ ν µ ηαβ , (32)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
which can be written using eq. (30) as

∂gµν ∂ξ α ∂ξ β α
ρ ∂ξ ∂ξ
β
= Γρλµ η αβ + Γ λν ηαβ
∂x λ ∂x ρ ∂x ν ∂x µ ∂x ρ
ρ ρ
= Γλµ gρν + Γλν gρµ . (33)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

More on metric

∂ξ α ∂ξ β
gµν = ηαβ
∂x µ ∂x ν
Differentiating with respect to x λ , we get

∂gµν ∂ 2 ξ α ∂ξ β ∂ 2 ξ β ∂ξ α
λ
= λ µ ν
ηαβ + λ ν µ ηαβ , (32)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
which can be written using eq. (30) as

∂gµν ∂ξ α ∂ξ β α
ρ ∂ξ ∂ξ
β
= Γρλµ η αβ + Γ λν ηαβ
∂x λ ∂x ρ ∂x ν ∂x µ ∂x ρ
ρ ρ
= Γλµ gρν + Γλν gρµ . (33)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

More on metric

∂gµν
= Γρλµ gρν + Γρλν gρµ
∂x λ
Add to this the same equation with µ and λ interchanged, and subtract
the same equation with ν and λ interchanged. We then have
∂gµν ∂gλν ∂gµλ
λ
+ µ
− = gκν Γκλµ + gκµ Γκλν + gκν Γκµλ + gκλ Γκµν
∂x ∂x ∂x ν
−gκλ Γκνµ − gκµ Γκνλ . (34)

Since gµν and Γκµν are both symmetric under the exchange of µ and ν,
we can write
∂gµν ∂gλν ∂gµλ
+ − = 2gκν Γκλµ . (35)
∂x λ ∂x µ ∂x ν

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

More on metric

∂gµν
= Γρλµ gρν + Γρλν gρµ
∂x λ
Add to this the same equation with µ and λ interchanged, and subtract
the same equation with ν and λ interchanged. We then have
∂gµν ∂gλν ∂gµλ
λ
+ µ
− = gκν Γκλµ + gκµ Γκλν + gκν Γκµλ + gκλ Γκµν
∂x ∂x ∂x ν
−gκλ Γκνµ − gκµ Γκνλ . (34)

Since gµν and Γκµν are both symmetric under the exchange of µ and ν,
we can write
∂gµν ∂gλν ∂gµλ
+ − = 2gκν Γκλµ . (35)
∂x λ ∂x µ ∂x ν

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

More on metric

Define a matrix g νσ as the inverse of gνσ so that gνσ g σκ = δνκ , and

multiply eq. (35) with g νσ . This gives a very important relation:
 
σ 1 νσ ∂gµν ∂gλν ∂gµλ
Γλµ = g + − . (36)
2 ∂x λ ∂x µ ∂x ν

It can be shown that all the effects of gravity are contained in the metric
gµν and the affine connection Γλµν , and given the metric, we can use eq.
(36) to obtain the affine connections. We will now see some examples.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Metric
Flat space-time, cartesian coordinates

ds 2 = −dt 2 + dxi2 , so gµν = g µν = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1). All derivatives

vanish, and so all Christoffel symbols are zero.
If all Christoffels are zero, the space is flat.
Flat plane polar coordinates

ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 .
r → 1, θ → 2
Let us calculate Γ122 = Γrθθ . The metric is diagonal, so we must set
σ = ν = 1, λ = µ = 2, and
 
1 ∂g22
Γ122 = g 11 − 1 = −r . (37)
2 ∂x
The reverse is not true !!!
Part I: General Relativity
Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Metric
Flat space-time, cartesian coordinates

ds 2 = −dt 2 + dxi2 , so gµν = g µν = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1). All derivatives

vanish, and so all Christoffel symbols are zero.
If all Christoffels are zero, the space is flat.
Flat plane polar coordinates

ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 .
r → 1, θ → 2
Let us calculate Γ122 = Γrθθ . The metric is diagonal, so we must set
σ = ν = 1, λ = µ = 2, and
 
1 ∂g22
Γ122 = g 11 − 1 = −r . (37)
2 ∂x
The reverse is not true !!!
Part I: General Relativity
Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Metric

Surface of a sphere

ds 2 = a2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ) ,

g11 = a2 , g22 = a2 sin2 θ, g12 = g21 = 0.
g 11 = 1/a2 , g 22 = 1/a2 sin2 θ, and g 12 = g 21 = 0. Putting σ = ν = 1
and µ = λ = 2, we get
 
1 11 ∂g22 1
θ 1
Γφφ = Γ22 = g − 1 = − a−2 .2a2 sin θ cos θ = − sin θ cos θ.
2 ∂x 2
(38)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

I Spherical symmetry, relevant for the space-time outside a spherical

mass distribution (e.g., a star).
I The metric is time independent; the geometry does not change with
time.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

I Spherical symmetry, relevant for the space-time outside a spherical

mass distribution (e.g., a star).
I The metric is time independent; the geometry does not change with
time.
I The spherical symmetry argument ensures that in spherical polar
coordinate for the spatial part, the θ-φ sector can be written as
r 2 dθ2 + r 2 sin2 θdφ2 . The time-independence means that g00 and
g11 can be functions of the radial coordinate r only.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

I Spherical symmetry, relevant for the space-time outside a spherical

mass distribution (e.g., a star).
I The metric is time independent; the geometry does not change with
time.
I The spherical symmetry argument ensures that in spherical polar
coordinate for the spatial part, the θ-φ sector can be written as
r 2 dθ2 + r 2 sin2 θdφ2 . The time-independence means that g00 and
g11 can be functions of the radial coordinate r only.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

   −1
2GM 2GM 2
ds 2 = − 1 − dt 2 + 1 − dr 2 + |{z}
r 2 dθ2 +r|2 sin 2
{z θ} dφ ,
r r
| {z } | {z } g22 g33
g00 g11
(39)

gµν is diagonal, so is g µν , and its elements can be obtained by dividing

unity with the corresponding element of gµν . For diagonal metrics, σ
must be equal to ν.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

Let us try to find Γrrr = Γ111 , so that ν = σ = µ = λ = 1:

 
1 11 ∂g11 ∂g11 ∂g11 1 ∂g11
Γrrr = g + − = g 11 1
2 ∂x 1 ∂x 1 ∂x 1 2 ∂x
 " #
1 2GM 2GM 1
= 1− − 2
2
2 r r 1 − 2GMr
GM 1
= − 2 . (40)
r 1 − 2GM r

Singularities at r = 0 and r| ={z

2GM} (r = 2GM/c 2 ).
Schwarzschild radius

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Schwarzschild Metric

Let us try to find Γrrr = Γ111 , so that ν = σ = µ = λ = 1:

 
1 11 ∂g11 ∂g11 ∂g11 1 ∂g11
Γrrr = g + − = g 11 1
2 ∂x 1 ∂x 1 ∂x 1 2 ∂x
 " #
1 2GM 2GM 1
= 1− − 2
2
2 r r 1 − 2GMr
GM 1
= − 2 . (40)
r 1 − 2GM r

Singularities at r = 0 and r| ={z

2GM} (r = 2GM/c 2 ).
Schwarzschild radius

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW)

metric

The grid expands

Comoving
coordinates

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The FRW metric

Two points at (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) will always maintain a constant

coordinate distance, but the physical distance between them increases.
 
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = −dt + a (t) dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ , (41)
1 − kr 2

where a(t) is called the scale factor. The constant k can be 0, 1, or −1,
for flat, closed and open universes respectively. We have every reason to
believe that we are in the k = 0 universe.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The FRW metric

Two points at (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) will always maintain a constant

coordinate distance, but the physical distance between them increases.
 
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = −dt + a (t) dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ , (41)
1 − kr 2

where a(t) is called the scale factor. The constant k can be 0, 1, or −1,
for flat, closed and open universes respectively. We have every reason to
believe that we are in the k = 0 universe.

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

The FRW metric

Γtφφ = Γ033 : (ν = σ = 0, µ = λ = 3)
 
1 ∂g33
⇒ Γ033 = g 00 − 0 = aȧr 2 sin2 θ,
2 ∂x
Γtrr = Γ011 : (ν = σ = 0, µ = λ = 1)
 
0 1 00 ∂g11 aȧ
⇒ Γ11 = g − 0 = ,
2 ∂x 1 − kr 2
Γrtr = Γ101 : (ν = σ = 1, µ = 1, λ = 0)
1 ∂g11 ȧ
⇒ Γ101 = g 11 0 = . (42)
2 ∂x a
(Here, ȧ = da(t)/dt.)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Assignments
1 Find, if any, the nonzero affine connections of a 2-dimensional
spherical geometry, other than that deduced.
2 Show that for the Schwarzschild geometry, one gets the following
nonzero Christoffel symbols:
 −1
GM 2GM
Γttr = −Γrrr = 2 1 − ,
r r
 
GM 2GM
Γrtt = 2 1 − ,
r r
Γrθθ = −(r − 2GM),
1
Γrφφ = −(r − 2GM) sin2 θ, Γθr θ = Γφr φ = ,
r
Γθφφ = − cos θ sin θ, Γφθφ = cot θ. (43)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Assignments
1 Find, if any, the nonzero affine connections of a 2-dimensional
spherical geometry, other than that deduced.
2 Show that for the Schwarzschild geometry, one gets the following
nonzero Christoffel symbols:
 −1
GM 2GM
Γttr = −Γrrr = 2 1 − ,
r r
 
GM 2GM
Γrtt = 2 1 − ,
r r
Γrθθ = −(r − 2GM),
1
Γrφφ = −(r − 2GM) sin2 θ, Γθr θ = Γφr φ = ,
r
Γθφφ = − cos θ sin θ, Γφθφ = cot θ. (43)

Part I: General Relativity

Metric Schwarzschild FRW

Assignments

I Repeat the same problem for the FRW metric. Note that a
Christoffel symbol is trivially zero, for a diagonal metric, if all its
indices are different. Also, it must be symmetric in its lower indices.
Write down all possible independent nonzero combinations. It turns
out that 13 of them are nonzero. Three of these 13 have been
worked out in eq. (42). Get the rest 10. Look at Appendix B, p.
547, of Hartle, if you get stuck.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Weak gravity: the Newtonian limit

Non-relativistic motion: |dx/dτ |  dt/dτ (c = 1). This simplifies the
geodesic equation (25) to
2
d 2x µ

dt
+ Γµ00 = 0. (44)
dτ 2 dτ

Stationary gravitational field, all time derivatives of gµν vanish:

1 ∂g00
Γµ00 = − g µν ν . (45)
2 ∂x
Since the field is weak, we can assume the metric to be “almost”
cartesian:
gµν = ηµν + hµν , |hµν |  1, (46)
so that
1 ∂h00
Γµ00 = − η µν ν . (47)
2 ∂x

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Weak gravity: the Newtonian limit

Suppose µ = i, a spatial index. The Minkowski metric forces ν = i. So
we can write
 2
d 2 xi 1 dt d 2t
2
− ∇i h00 = 0, = 0. (48)
dτ 2 dτ dτ 2

The second equation, which follows from Γ000 = 0 as the metric is

time-independent, implies dt/dτ = constant. Dividing by (dt/dτ )2 , we
get
d 2 xi 1
2
= ∇i h00 . (49)
dt 2
Compare this with the corresponding Newton’s equation,

d 2 xi
= −∇i φ (50)
dt 2
where φ is the gravitational potential.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Weak gravity: the Newtonian limit

At a distance r from a spherical mass distribution with total mass M, it

is φ = −GM/r . We can write

h00 = −2φ + constant. (51)

If we expect the effect of gravity to die down at infinity so that at

infinity, gµν = ηµν , h00 must be zero at r = ∞. This gives

h00 = −2φ, g00 = −(1 + 2φ). (52)

The value of φ is indeed small. On the surface of a proton, it is of the

order of 10−39 , so particle physics can safely neglect gravity; it is of the
order of 10−9 , 10−6 and 10−4 respectively on the surfaces of the earth,
the sun, and a typical white dwarf star.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

Test of the equivalence principle

Think of a tall tower. Suppose there is a clock at the top and another at
the bottom of the tower; will they keep identical time? In other words,
will they send off same number of beeps per second?

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

Test of the equivalence principle

Think of a tall tower. Suppose there is a clock at the top and another at
the bottom of the tower; will they keep identical time? In other words,
will they send off same number of beeps per second?

Let us think it in another way. Suppose an atom at the top of the tower
is emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν. Will the
frequency still be ν when a detector detects the radiation at the bottom
of the tower?

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

Test of the equivalence principle

Think of a tall tower. Suppose there is a clock at the top and another at
the bottom of the tower; will they keep identical time? In other words,
will they send off same number of beeps per second?

Let us think it in another way. Suppose an atom at the top of the tower
is emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν. Will the
frequency still be ν when a detector detects the radiation at the bottom
of the tower?

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I Consider an observer falling freely from the top of the tower

I When he passes the source, the radiation is emitted
I Equivalence principle tells us that in the frame of the observer, there
is no gravity; the space-time is flat, and all postulates of special
relativity are satisfied.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I Consider an observer falling freely from the top of the tower

I When he passes the source, the radiation is emitted
I Equivalence principle tells us that in the frame of the observer, there
is no gravity; the space-time is flat, and all postulates of special
relativity are satisfied.
I So, to the observer, the radiation still has the frequency ν. But to
him the detector on the ground is coming up, and so it will catch
more number of crests of the radiation per second than if it were
sitting still

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I Consider an observer falling freely from the top of the tower

I When he passes the source, the radiation is emitted
I Equivalence principle tells us that in the frame of the observer, there
is no gravity; the space-time is flat, and all postulates of special
relativity are satisfied.
I So, to the observer, the radiation still has the frequency ν. But to
him the detector on the ground is coming up, and so it will catch
more number of crests of the radiation per second than if it were
sitting still
I This is analogous to the well-known Doppler effect; the detected
frequency νd will be more than ν, hence the radiation will be
blue-shifted.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I Consider an observer falling freely from the top of the tower

I When he passes the source, the radiation is emitted
I Equivalence principle tells us that in the frame of the observer, there
is no gravity; the space-time is flat, and all postulates of special
relativity are satisfied.
I So, to the observer, the radiation still has the frequency ν. But to
him the detector on the ground is coming up, and so it will catch
more number of crests of the radiation per second than if it were
sitting still
I This is analogous to the well-known Doppler effect; the detected
frequency νd will be more than ν, hence the radiation will be
blue-shifted.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I If the emitter is placed on the ground and the detector is at the top
of the tower, a freely falling observer will see the detector receding,
and hence the radiation will be red-shifted.
I Whichever way the shift is, the phenomenon is known as the
gravitational redshift
 
φe − φd
νd = 1+ ν, (53)
c2

where φe (φd ) is the gravitational potential at the position of the

emitter (detector)

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I If the emitter is placed on the ground and the detector is at the top
of the tower, a freely falling observer will see the detector receding,
and hence the radiation will be red-shifted.
I Whichever way the shift is, the phenomenon is known as the
gravitational redshift
 
φe − φd
νd = 1+ ν, (53)
c2

where φe (φd ) is the gravitational potential at the position of the

emitter (detector)
I Both φe and φd are negative, but if the emitter is above the
detector, |φe | < |φd |; the frequency is blue-shifted. If the height
difference is h, φe − φd = gh.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift

I If the emitter is placed on the ground and the detector is at the top
of the tower, a freely falling observer will see the detector receding,
and hence the radiation will be red-shifted.
I Whichever way the shift is, the phenomenon is known as the
gravitational redshift
 
φe − φd
νd = 1+ ν, (53)
c2

where φe (φd ) is the gravitational potential at the position of the

emitter (detector)
I Both φe and φd are negative, but if the emitter is above the
detector, |φe | < |φd |; the frequency is blue-shifted. If the height
difference is h, φe − φd = gh.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I The signal was the 14.4 keV γ-ray emitted in the decay of the
unstable Fe 57 nucleus
I The detector, at the bottom, was again some Fe 57 , which is
expected to absorb these γ-rays (at least, the small fraction that
reaches them) by the opposite reaction

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I The signal was the 14.4 keV γ-ray emitted in the decay of the
unstable Fe 57 nucleus
I The detector, at the bottom, was again some Fe 57 , which is
expected to absorb these γ-rays (at least, the small fraction that
reaches them) by the opposite reaction
I If the frequency is shifted, the absorption will not take place with
the same efficiency

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I The signal was the 14.4 keV γ-ray emitted in the decay of the
unstable Fe 57 nucleus
I The detector, at the bottom, was again some Fe 57 , which is
expected to absorb these γ-rays (at least, the small fraction that
reaches them) by the opposite reaction
I If the frequency is shifted, the absorption will not take place with
the same efficiency

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I The source was moved upwards slowly, with a constant velocity, so

that there is a Doppler redshift superposed on the gravitational
blueshift
I One can change the Doppler shift by varying the velocity of the
source, and monitor the absorption efficiency; the efficiency peaks
where the emitted frequency is the same as the absorbed one, and
hence the Doppler shift (which is calculable) gives the gravitational
blueshift

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I The source was moved upwards slowly, with a constant velocity, so

that there is a Doppler redshift superposed on the gravitational
blueshift
I One can change the Doppler shift by varying the velocity of the
source, and monitor the absorption efficiency; the efficiency peaks
where the emitted frequency is the same as the absorbed one, and
hence the Doppler shift (which is calculable) gives the gravitational
blueshift

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I
gh
= 4.9 × 10−15
c2
I The width of the γ-ray is order of magnitudes larger than this.
There are several reasons for this. First, the nucleus has an inherent
motion. Second, the nucleus recoils uncontrollably after the emission
of the γ-ray

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I
gh
= 4.9 × 10−15
c2
I The width of the γ-ray is order of magnitudes larger than this.
There are several reasons for this. First, the nucleus has an inherent
motion. Second, the nucleus recoils uncontrollably after the emission
of the γ-ray
I Both these effects can be taken care of by ‘locking’ the emitter
nucleus in a crystal lattice, so that the motion is minimised and the
recoil is absorbed by the whole lattice (this is known as the
Mössbauer effect)

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I
gh
= 4.9 × 10−15
c2
I The width of the γ-ray is order of magnitudes larger than this.
There are several reasons for this. First, the nucleus has an inherent
motion. Second, the nucleus recoils uncontrollably after the emission
of the γ-ray
I Both these effects can be taken care of by ‘locking’ the emitter
nucleus in a crystal lattice, so that the motion is minimised and the
recoil is absorbed by the whole lattice (this is known as the
Mössbauer effect)
I Pound and Rebka also interchanged the positions of the emitter and
the absorber to eliminate some systematic errors, and finally
confirmed the prediction for the gravitational redshift within 1%.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Pound-Rebka experiment

I
gh
= 4.9 × 10−15
c2
I The width of the γ-ray is order of magnitudes larger than this.
There are several reasons for this. First, the nucleus has an inherent
motion. Second, the nucleus recoils uncontrollably after the emission
of the γ-ray
I Both these effects can be taken care of by ‘locking’ the emitter
nucleus in a crystal lattice, so that the motion is minimised and the
recoil is absorbed by the whole lattice (this is known as the
Mössbauer effect)
I Pound and Rebka also interchanged the positions of the emitter and
the absorber to eliminate some systematic errors, and finally
confirmed the prediction for the gravitational redshift within 1%.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Assignments

I From dimensional analysis, show that φSI /c 2 gives our φ.

I What is the value of G in the c = 1 system? If the mass and the
radius of the sun are 2 × 1030 kg and 0.7 × 109 m respectively,
calculate φ on the surface of the sun.

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Assignments

I From dimensional analysis, show that φSI /c 2 gives our φ.

I What is the value of G in the c = 1 system? If the mass and the
radius of the sun are 2 × 1030 kg and 0.7 × 109 m respectively,
calculate φ on the surface of the sun.
I Heartbeat is just like a clock, and if the heart beats faster, the
person ages more quickly. My office is approximately 15 m higher
than DJ’s. Who will age more quickly, and how much?

Part I: General Relativity

Weak gravity Gravitational redshift

Assignments

I From dimensional analysis, show that φSI /c 2 gives our φ.

I What is the value of G in the c = 1 system? If the mass and the
radius of the sun are 2 × 1030 kg and 0.7 × 109 m respectively,
calculate φ on the surface of the sun.
I Heartbeat is just like a clock, and if the heart beats faster, the
person ages more quickly. My office is approximately 15 m higher
than DJ’s. Who will age more quickly, and how much?

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

   −1
2GM 2GM
2
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 −2
dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 + r 2 sin2 θdφ2 .
r r
(54)
How to get the form of the metric? Nontrivial
What one generally does is to check that the metric is indeed a solution
of the Einstein equation. We will later see that the Schwarzschild
geometry is a solution for the Einstein equation in the absence of any
matter or energy (i.e., vacuum). Such a vacuum solution is acceptable for
the geometry outside a spherical mass, but not for the geometry inside it.

Schwarzschild coordinate r is not the distance from any “centre”.

Rather, it is related to the area A of two-dimensional spheres with fixed r
and t by A = 4πr 2

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

   −1
2GM 2GM
2
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 −2
dr 2 + r 2 dθ2 + r 2 sin2 θdφ2 .
r r
(54)
How to get the form of the metric? Nontrivial
What one generally does is to check that the metric is indeed a solution
of the Einstein equation. We will later see that the Schwarzschild
geometry is a solution for the Einstein equation in the absence of any
matter or energy (i.e., vacuum). Such a vacuum solution is acceptable for
the geometry outside a spherical mass, but not for the geometry inside it.

Schwarzschild coordinate r is not the distance from any “centre”.

Rather, it is related to the area A of two-dimensional spheres with fixed r
and t by A = 4πr 2

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

If GM/r is small, one can write

   
2GM 2GM
ds 2 ≈ − 1 − dt 2 + 1 + dr 2 +r 2 dθ2 +r 2 sin2 θdφ2 . (55)
r r

Newtonian static weak field metric with the gravitational potential

φ = −GM/r , so we can identify M with the total mass of the source of
curvature, or approximately just the total mass of the gravitating body

The metric apparently has singularities at r = 0 and r = 2GM.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

If GM/r is small, one can write

   
2GM 2GM
ds 2 ≈ − 1 − dt 2 + 1 + dr 2 +r 2 dθ2 +r 2 sin2 θdφ2 . (55)
r r

Newtonian static weak field metric with the gravitational potential

φ = −GM/r , so we can identify M with the total mass of the source of
curvature, or approximately just the total mass of the gravitating body

The metric apparently has singularities at r = 0 and r = 2GM.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

Rs = 2GM (2GM/c 2 ) is the Schwarzschild radius and the characteristic

length scale for curvature of the metric, just as the radius of a sphere is
the characteristic length scale for its curvature.

However, there is no astronomical body for which Rs lies outside the body

For example, the sun has Rs = 2GM /c 2 ≈ 3 km, well inside the interior
of the sun, where the vacuum solution is simply not valid!

The singularity at r = Rs is an artifact, Christoffels are continuous

That at r = 0 is a true singularity. GR breaks down

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Schwarzschild Metric

Rs = 2GM (2GM/c 2 ) is the Schwarzschild radius and the characteristic

length scale for curvature of the metric, just as the radius of a sphere is
the characteristic length scale for its curvature.

However, there is no astronomical body for which Rs lies outside the body

For example, the sun has Rs = 2GM /c 2 ≈ 3 km, well inside the interior
of the sun, where the vacuum solution is simply not valid!

The singularity at r = Rs is an artifact, Christoffels are continuous

That at r = 0 is a true singularity. GR breaks down

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

H-burning
↓
He-burning
↓
Energy generation ends at Fe56
Collapsing star can be kept in balance by nonthermal pressure
Electron Fermi pressure for White Dwarf stars

Maximum mass: 1.4M Chandrasekhar limit

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Life of a star

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

More massive stars

Neutron stars
1.4M < M < 3M : Neutron fermi pressure holds gravitational collapse
Typical radius ∼ 10 km, fast rotating objects ⇒ Pulsars

What happens for even more massive stars?

They are in a state of ongoing gravitational collapse. The radius of such

a star shrinks quickly, goes below the Schwarzschild radius Rs = 2GM,
and ultimately goes on to hit the r = 0 singularity. What happens at the
singularity? Nobody knows.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Captured light

I Light rays bend in a curved space-time. It is not very difficult to

calculate the bending for a Schwarzschild geometry. For a light ray
grazing the sun, it is 1.75 arcsecond.
I The geometry is much more violently curved near a body whose
radius is close to Rs (remember that Rs = 3 km for sun and about 9
mm for earth).

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Captured light

I Light rays bend in a curved space-time. It is not very difficult to

calculate the bending for a Schwarzschild geometry. For a light ray
grazing the sun, it is 1.75 arcsecond.
I The geometry is much more violently curved near a body whose
radius is close to Rs (remember that Rs = 3 km for sun and about 9
mm for earth).
I Light rays emitted from the surface of such a collapsing star bend,
but can escape the star and come to us as long as the radius is
greater than Rs .

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Captured light

I Light rays bend in a curved space-time. It is not very difficult to

calculate the bending for a Schwarzschild geometry. For a light ray
grazing the sun, it is 1.75 arcsecond.
I The geometry is much more violently curved near a body whose
radius is close to Rs (remember that Rs = 3 km for sun and about 9
mm for earth).
I Light rays emitted from the surface of such a collapsing star bend,
but can escape the star and come to us as long as the radius is
greater than Rs .
I When the radius is below Rs , the light rays get permanently trapped
— the bending is so large that emitted rays fall back on the star,
nothing comes out, and there is no way to obtain any information
about the star except to observe its nearby geometry.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Captured light

I Light rays bend in a curved space-time. It is not very difficult to

calculate the bending for a Schwarzschild geometry. For a light ray
grazing the sun, it is 1.75 arcsecond.
I The geometry is much more violently curved near a body whose
radius is close to Rs (remember that Rs = 3 km for sun and about 9
mm for earth).
I Light rays emitted from the surface of such a collapsing star bend,
but can escape the star and come to us as long as the radius is
greater than Rs .
I When the radius is below Rs , the light rays get permanently trapped
— the bending is so large that emitted rays fall back on the star,
nothing comes out, and there is no way to obtain any information
about the star except to observe its nearby geometry.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

Such a body is called a black hole, and the radius Rs is also known as the
event horizon.

I The light ray emitted at r = Rs does not fall back on the star,
neither does it come to us — it goes around the star like a satellite
I In a very short period of time — typically 10−5 s — the collapse of
a star slows down, the emitted light gets more and more redshifted
(gravitational redshift) until the redshift reaches infinity, the star
grows dark, and the geometry outside becomes indistinguishable
from a Schwarzschild geometry. All history of the star will be erased.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

Such a body is called a black hole, and the radius Rs is also known as the
event horizon.

I The light ray emitted at r = Rs does not fall back on the star,
neither does it come to us — it goes around the star like a satellite
I In a very short period of time — typically 10−5 s — the collapse of
a star slows down, the emitted light gets more and more redshifted
(gravitational redshift) until the redshift reaches infinity, the star
grows dark, and the geometry outside becomes indistinguishable
from a Schwarzschild geometry. All history of the star will be erased.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Anything below the event horizon will appear black to us

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Anything below the event horizon will appear black to us

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Anything below the event horizon will appear black to us

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

I A Schwarzschild black hole (static charge-neutral) is characterised

only by its mass M.
I Apart from mass, a black hole can have a nonzero angular
momentum; such a rotating object is known as a Kerr black hole.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

I A Schwarzschild black hole (static charge-neutral) is characterised

only by its mass M.
I Apart from mass, a black hole can have a nonzero angular
momentum; such a rotating object is known as a Kerr black hole.
I It can also be static and charged (Reissner-Nördstrom black hole),
or rotating and charged (Kerr-Newman black hole)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

I A Schwarzschild black hole (static charge-neutral) is characterised

only by its mass M.
I Apart from mass, a black hole can have a nonzero angular
momentum; such a rotating object is known as a Kerr black hole.
I It can also be static and charged (Reissner-Nördstrom black hole),
or rotating and charged (Kerr-Newman black hole)

No hair theorem
To any outside observer, a classical BH is completely specified by its
mass, angular momentum, and charge. No other information (hair) that
passes through the unidirectional event horizon can ever be restored.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black holes

I A Schwarzschild black hole (static charge-neutral) is characterised

only by its mass M.
I Apart from mass, a black hole can have a nonzero angular
momentum; such a rotating object is known as a Kerr black hole.
I It can also be static and charged (Reissner-Nördstrom black hole),
or rotating and charged (Kerr-Newman black hole)

No hair theorem
To any outside observer, a classical BH is completely specified by its
mass, angular momentum, and charge. No other information (hair) that
passes through the unidirectional event horizon can ever be restored.

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

How to observe a black hole?

I Observe the X-ray from matter falling on the BH from a companion

binary
I Observe the gravitational field distortion (like a lens)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

How to observe a black hole?

I Observe the X-ray from matter falling on the BH from a companion

binary
I Observe the gravitational field distortion (like a lens)
I Observe distortion in trajectories of nearby visible bodies

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

How to observe a black hole?

I Observe the X-ray from matter falling on the BH from a companion

binary
I Observe the gravitational field distortion (like a lens)
I Observe distortion in trajectories of nearby visible bodies
I One might even produce very small black holes in pp collisions at
the LHC. It will evaporate immediately emitting all sorts of particles
(How can a BH evaporate?)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

How to observe a black hole?

I Observe the X-ray from matter falling on the BH from a companion

binary
I Observe the gravitational field distortion (like a lens)
I Observe distortion in trajectories of nearby visible bodies
I One might even produce very small black holes in pp collisions at
the LHC. It will evaporate immediately emitting all sorts of particles
(How can a BH evaporate?)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black hole thermodynamics

0 The surface gravity is constant on the event horizon
1 When some matter falls on the black hole, the change in energy
depends on the change in mass, angular momentum, and electric
charge
(So, these are the three quantities that can be measured from
outside. Area of the event horizon is proportional to the BH mass)
κ
dE = dA +Ω dJ + Φ dQ
8πG
| {z }
dM

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black hole thermodynamics

0 The surface gravity is constant on the event horizon
1 When some matter falls on the black hole, the change in energy
depends on the change in mass, angular momentum, and electric
charge
(So, these are the three quantities that can be measured from
outside. Area of the event horizon is proportional to the BH mass)
κ
dE = dA +Ω dJ + Φ dQ
8πG
| {z }
dM

2 The area of a BH is a non-decreasing function of time: dA/dt ≥ 0

(True for classical BH. Quantum effects lead to Hawking radiation)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black hole thermodynamics

0 The surface gravity is constant on the event horizon
1 When some matter falls on the black hole, the change in energy
depends on the change in mass, angular momentum, and electric
charge
(So, these are the three quantities that can be measured from
outside. Area of the event horizon is proportional to the BH mass)
κ
dE = dA +Ω dJ + Φ dQ
8πG
| {z }
dM

2 The area of a BH is a non-decreasing function of time: dA/dt ≥ 0

(True for classical BH. Quantum effects lead to Hawking radiation)
3 One cannot achieve zero surface gravity for a BH

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Black hole thermodynamics

0 The surface gravity is constant on the event horizon
1 When some matter falls on the black hole, the change in energy
depends on the change in mass, angular momentum, and electric
charge
(So, these are the three quantities that can be measured from
outside. Area of the event horizon is proportional to the BH mass)
κ
dE = dA +Ω dJ + Φ dQ
8πG
| {z }
dM

2 The area of a BH is a non-decreasing function of time: dA/dt ≥ 0

(True for classical BH. Quantum effects lead to Hawking radiation)
3 One cannot achieve zero surface gravity for a BH

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

X-ray signals

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Microlensing

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Entropy problem

I If black hole is a classical point-like object, the entropy should be

zero. What happens if matter with entropy falls on it?
Apparent violation of 2nd law of thermodynamics!
I Hawking and Bekenstein: Black hole has an entropy which is
proportional to the area of its event horizon (∝ Rs2 )

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Entropy problem

I If black hole is a classical point-like object, the entropy should be

zero. What happens if matter with entropy falls on it?
Apparent violation of 2nd law of thermodynamics!
I Hawking and Bekenstein: Black hole has an entropy which is
proportional to the area of its event horizon (∝ Rs2 )
I This area always increases, whether matter falls on it, or black holes
merge

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Entropy problem

I If black hole is a classical point-like object, the entropy should be

zero. What happens if matter with entropy falls on it?
Apparent violation of 2nd law of thermodynamics!
I Hawking and Bekenstein: Black hole has an entropy which is
proportional to the area of its event horizon (∝ Rs2 )
I This area always increases, whether matter falls on it, or black holes
merge
I True for classical black holes only!

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Entropy problem

I If black hole is a classical point-like object, the entropy should be

zero. What happens if matter with entropy falls on it?
Apparent violation of 2nd law of thermodynamics!
I Hawking and Bekenstein: Black hole has an entropy which is
proportional to the area of its event horizon (∝ Rs2 )
I This area always increases, whether matter falls on it, or black holes
merge
I True for classical black holes only!

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Hawking radiation

Treated quantum-mechanically, black holes can be shown to emit

particles and photons

The radiation follows a perfect black-body pattern and the black hole
loses mass and ultimately evaporates; so one can talk about the
temperature of a black hole

 3
−26 Mbh
τbh = 8.3 × 10 s, (56)
1 gm
Given that the universe is about 13.7 billion years old, only small black
holes of mass ∼ 1014 g formed at the time of the big bang (they are
called primordial black holes) are evaporating now

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Hawking radiation

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Possible production at LHC?

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Gravitational waves
I Predicted in 1916 by Einstein, moves with velocity of light
I Indirect evidence (1974): Binary pulsar
Nobel to Hulse and Taylor (1993)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Gravitational waves
I Predicted in 1916 by Einstein, moves with velocity of light
I Indirect evidence (1974): Binary pulsar
Nobel to Hulse and Taylor (1993)
I Direct evidence (2016): Binary black hole merger —
36 + 29 → 62 + X
Nobel to Weiss, Thorne, Barish (2017)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Gravitational waves
I Predicted in 1916 by Einstein, moves with velocity of light
I Indirect evidence (1974): Binary pulsar
Nobel to Hulse and Taylor (1993)
I Direct evidence (2016): Binary black hole merger —
36 + 29 → 62 + X
Nobel to Weiss, Thorne, Barish (2017)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Gravitational waves
I Predicted in 1916 by Einstein, moves with velocity of light
I Indirect evidence (1974): Binary pulsar
Nobel to Hulse and Taylor (1993)
I Direct evidence (2016): Binary black hole merger —
36 + 29 → 62 + X
Nobel to Weiss, Thorne, Barish (2017)

Part I: General Relativity

Schwarzschild metric Stellar evolution Black holes Signatures Quantum BH

Opens up a new astronomy, with exciting years ahead

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Riemann curvature

Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor in 4-d:

∂Γλµκ ∂Γλµν
R λ µνκ = − + Γηµκ Γλνη − Γηµν Γλκη . (57)
∂x ν ∂x κ
One can lower the first index and have the so-called Riemann curvature:

Rλµνκ = gλα R α µνκ . (58)

It can be shown that

∂ 2 gλκ ∂ 2 gµν ∂ 2 gλν ∂ 2 gµκ

 
1
Rλµνκ = + − −
∂x ν ∂x µ
2 ∂x λ ∂x κ ∂x κ ∂x µ ∂x ν ∂x λ
η σ η σ


+gησ Γκλ Γµν − Γνλ Γµκ . (59)

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Riemann curvature

I In a locally inertial frame at space-time coordinate x = X , we can

choose gαβ (x = X ) = ηαβ .
I We can also choose the first derivatives of the metric ∂gαβ /∂x γ to
vanish at x = X , so that the difference between gαβ and ηαβ starts
from (x − X )2 .
I This means that the Christoffel symbols vanish at x = X , but not
the 2nd derivatives of the metric:
 2
∂ 2 gµν ∂ 2 gλν ∂ 2 gµκ

1 ∂ gλκ
Rλµνκ = + λ κ − κ µ − ν λ . (60)
2 ∂x ν ∂x µ ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Properties of the Riemann curvature

(a) Symmetry : Rλµνκ = Rνκλµ ,

(b) Antisymmetry : Rλµνκ = −Rµλνκ = −Rλµκν = Rµλκν ,
(c) Cyclicity : Rλµνκ + Rλκµν + Rλνκµ = 0. (61)

The Riemann curvature has 44 = 256 components, but the constraints in

(61) reduce it to only 20.
For N dimensions the number of curvature quantities is N 2 (N 2 − 1)/12.

Assignment
Check these properties.

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Ricci tensor

Contract two of the indices of the Riemann curvature to form the rank-2
Ricci tensor:
Rµκ = g λν Rλµνκ . (62)
Symmetric in µ and κ, so 10 indep. components, but there are 4
constraint equations (Bianchi identities), so 6 indep. components of Rµκ .

The Ricci tensor can also be written as

∂Γα
µκ ∂Γα
µα
Rµκ = − + Γα β α β
βα Γµκ − Γβκ Γµα , (63)
∂x α ∂x κ
where the summation convention (over α and β) is implied.

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein tensor

Construct the Ricci scalar, or the scalar curvature:

R = g µκ Rµκ . (64)

A combination of R and Rµν is known as the Einstein curvature:

1
Gµν = Rµν − gµν R. (65)
2

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein tensor

Construct the Ricci scalar, or the scalar curvature:

R = g µκ Rµκ . (64)

A combination of R and Rµν is known as the Einstein curvature:

1
Gµν = Rµν − gµν R. (65)
2
Note of caution: The definitions for the Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor, and the Riemann curvature, differ from text to text. We

have followed the notation of Hartle and Dodelson. Weinberg uses an opposite definition, so in his case eqs. (57), (59), and (60) all

contain a relative minus sign compared to our convention. This does not affect the definitions (62) and (65), and eq. (61) is also

unaffected. However, be careful when you deduce the curvature quantities from the metric. Also, Einstein equation in presence of matter,

which contains Gµν on the left-hand side, looks different; the one in Weinberg contains a minus sign on the right-hand side.

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein tensor

Construct the Ricci scalar, or the scalar curvature:

R = g µκ Rµκ . (64)

A combination of R and Rµν is known as the Einstein curvature:

1
Gµν = Rµν − gµν R. (65)
2
Note of caution: The definitions for the Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor, and the Riemann curvature, differ from text to text. We

have followed the notation of Hartle and Dodelson. Weinberg uses an opposite definition, so in his case eqs. (57), (59), and (60) all

contain a relative minus sign compared to our convention. This does not affect the definitions (62) and (65), and eq. (61) is also

unaffected. However, be careful when you deduce the curvature quantities from the metric. Also, Einstein equation in presence of matter,

which contains Gµν on the left-hand side, looks different; the one in Weinberg contains a minus sign on the right-hand side.

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein equations in vacuum

Rµν = 0. (66)

I This is analogous to the Newton’s gravitational equation in vacuum:

∇2 φ = 0.
I Einstein equation (it is actually a set of 6 independent equations,
written in a compact notation) is a first principle, it cannot be
deduced, since there is no more fundamental principle from which
one can deduce it.
I Of course, one must be sure that at the proper limit (nonrelativistic,
static, weak field) it reduces to the Newton’s law.

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein equations in vacuum

Check whether the Schwarzschild metric satisfies Einstein equations.

First calculate the Riemann-Christoffel curvature components: For
R t rtr = R 0 101 , we put λ = ν = 0, µ = κ = 1, and the nonzero terms are
 
0 ∂ GM 1
R 101 = − + Γ001 Γ111 − Γ010 Γ010
∂r r 2 1 − 2GM/r
2GM 1
= , (67)
r 3 1 − 2GM/r
so
2GM
R0101 = g00 R 0 101 = − . (68)
r3

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein equations in vacuum

Similarly, one gets (do this, at least once in your lifetime)

Rθφθφ = 2GMr sin2 θ,

 
2GM GM
Rtθtθ = 1− ,
r r
 
2GM GM
Rtφtφ = 1− sin2 θ,
r r
GM 1
Rr θr θ = − ,
r 1 − 2GM/r
GM 1
Rr φr φ = − sin2 θ . (69)
r 1 − 2GM/r

The other nonzero components of the curvature follow from symmetry

arguments, eq. (61).

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Einstein equations in vacuum

Now calculate the Ricci tensor Rµκ . All components with µ 6= κ are
identically zero. The diagonal components also vanish, as can be seen
from, say,

R00 = g αβ R0α0β = g 11 R0101 + g 22 R0202 + g 33 R0303 = 0. (70)

Part I: General Relativity

Curvature Einstein equations

Assignments

1 Get R in terms of Gµν and g µν .

2 Check that R11 is also zero. Note that R1010 is related to R0101 .
3 Show that Rtrtt = 0 without direct computation.
4 Show that Rµν = 0 is equivalent to Gµν = 0.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Some big numbers

Length
Planetary : 1 AU = sun-earth average distance ≈ 1.5 × 108 km
Very near stars : 1 LY ≈ 1013 km
Further stars : 1 parsec = 3.086 × 1013 km = 3.26 LY
Intra-galactic : 1 kpc = 1000 pc
Galactic : 1 Mpc = 1000 kpc = 1, 000, 000 pc

Mass
M ≈ 2 × 1030 kg
Average number of stars in a galaxy ∼ 1011
Number of galaxies in the universe ∼ 1011
Fraction of mass (energy) of the universe in stars ≈ 0.4%

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Some big numbers

Length
Planetary : 1 AU = sun-earth average distance ≈ 1.5 × 108 km
Very near stars : 1 LY ≈ 1013 km
Further stars : 1 parsec = 3.086 × 1013 km = 3.26 LY
Intra-galactic : 1 kpc = 1000 pc
Galactic : 1 Mpc = 1000 kpc = 1, 000, 000 pc

Mass
M ≈ 2 × 1030 kg
Average number of stars in a galaxy ∼ 1011
Number of galaxies in the universe ∼ 1011
Fraction of mass (energy) of the universe in stars ≈ 0.4%

Time
Age of the universe = 13.75 ± 0.11 billion years
We can reliably go back up to ∼ 10−36 s
Part I: General Relativity
Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Some big numbers

Length
Planetary : 1 AU = sun-earth average distance ≈ 1.5 × 108 km
Very near stars : 1 LY ≈ 1013 km
Further stars : 1 parsec = 3.086 × 1013 km = 3.26 LY
Intra-galactic : 1 kpc = 1000 pc
Galactic : 1 Mpc = 1000 kpc = 1, 000, 000 pc

Mass
M ≈ 2 × 1030 kg
Average number of stars in a galaxy ∼ 1011
Number of galaxies in the universe ∼ 1011
Fraction of mass (energy) of the universe in stars ≈ 0.4%

Time
Age of the universe = 13.75 ± 0.11 billion years
We can reliably go back up to ∼ 10−36 s
Part I: General Relativity
Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Parallax

Look at position
shift of a nearby
star against the
fixed background
of distant stars

A star at a distance
of 1 parsec creates
a parallax of 1 arc-
second

Applicable for
nearby stars only

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Cepheid variables

Periodic variation of brightness (example: Pole Star)

The period is a known function of intrinsic brightness (absolute
magnitude). If you know the period and apparent brightness (magnitude)
you know the distance

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Cepheid variables

I The accepted explanation for the pulsation of Cepheids is called the

Eddington valve, or κ-mechanism, where κ denotes gas opacity.
Helium is the gas thought to be most active in the process.
I He ++ is more opaque than He + . The more helium is heated, the
more ionized it becomes.
I At the dimmest part of a Cepheid’s cycle, the ionized gas in the
outer layers of the star is opaque, and so is heated by the star’s
radiation, and due to the increased temperature, begins to expand.
I As it expands, it cools, and so becomes less ionized and therefore
more transparent, allowing the radiation to escape.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Cepheid variables

I The accepted explanation for the pulsation of Cepheids is called the

Eddington valve, or κ-mechanism, where κ denotes gas opacity.
Helium is the gas thought to be most active in the process.
I He ++ is more opaque than He + . The more helium is heated, the
more ionized it becomes.
I At the dimmest part of a Cepheid’s cycle, the ionized gas in the
outer layers of the star is opaque, and so is heated by the star’s
radiation, and due to the increased temperature, begins to expand.
I As it expands, it cools, and so becomes less ionized and therefore
more transparent, allowing the radiation to escape.
I Then the expansion stops, and reverses due to the star’s
gravitational attraction. The process then repeats.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Cepheid variables

I The accepted explanation for the pulsation of Cepheids is called the

Eddington valve, or κ-mechanism, where κ denotes gas opacity.
Helium is the gas thought to be most active in the process.
I He ++ is more opaque than He + . The more helium is heated, the
more ionized it becomes.
I At the dimmest part of a Cepheid’s cycle, the ionized gas in the
outer layers of the star is opaque, and so is heated by the star’s
radiation, and due to the increased temperature, begins to expand.
I As it expands, it cools, and so becomes less ionized and therefore
more transparent, allowing the radiation to escape.
I Then the expansion stops, and reverses due to the star’s
gravitational attraction. The process then repeats.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Distance measurement: Supernova 1a

Blast of white
dwarf stars, fixed
energy output,
only reliable
tool for galactic
distance measure-
ment

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Basic tenets

The universe is

Isotropic : there is no preferred direction

Homogeneous : universe looks the same from any other point of space

Found to be true at a distance scale of a few hundred Mpc and more

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Basic tenets

The universe is

Isotropic : there is no preferred direction

Homogeneous : universe looks the same from any other point of space

Found to be true at a distance scale of a few hundred Mpc and more

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Composition of the universe

The universe contains:
1 Matter
Visible matter: electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, you ...
Dark matter: only gravitational effects. Nobody knows what
constitutes DM
2 Radiation
Photons. About 1 billion photon per proton.
Covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum, but most of it is in the
form of an almost isotropic blackbody radiation with a temperature
of 2.725 ± 0.001 K. This falls in the microwave region, so it is called
the cosmic microwave background, and is supposed to be a remnant
of the big bang.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Composition of the universe

The universe contains:
1 Matter
Visible matter: electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, you ...
Dark matter: only gravitational effects. Nobody knows what
constitutes DM
2 Radiation
Photons. About 1 billion photon per proton.
Covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum, but most of it is in the
form of an almost isotropic blackbody radiation with a temperature
of 2.725 ± 0.001 K. This falls in the microwave region, so it is called
the cosmic microwave background, and is supposed to be a remnant
of the big bang.
3 Dark energy
Weird and strange. Responsible for acceleration of the universe.
Nobody knows what this is. The observation was acknowledged by
Nobel 2011.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Composition of the universe

The universe contains:
1 Matter
Visible matter: electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, you ...
Dark matter: only gravitational effects. Nobody knows what
constitutes DM
2 Radiation
Photons. About 1 billion photon per proton.
Covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum, but most of it is in the
form of an almost isotropic blackbody radiation with a temperature
of 2.725 ± 0.001 K. This falls in the microwave region, so it is called
the cosmic microwave background, and is supposed to be a remnant
of the big bang.
3 Dark energy
Weird and strange. Responsible for acceleration of the universe.
Nobody knows what this is. The observation was acknowledged by
Nobel 2011.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Composition of the universe

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The universe expands

I There is no centre of expansion. Everything moves away from

everything, on a galactic scale
(so that is not an excuse for you to get fatter)
I The velocity with which a galaxy moves away from us is directly
proportional to its distance:
Hubble’s law

v = H0 d (71)

where the proportionality constant H0 , known as Hubble’s constant,

is about (70.4 ± 1.3) (km/s)/Mpc (2010 measurements)

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The universe expands

I There is no centre of expansion. Everything moves away from

everything, on a galactic scale
(so that is not an excuse for you to get fatter)
I The velocity with which a galaxy moves away from us is directly
proportional to its distance:
Hubble’s law

v = H0 d (71)

where the proportionality constant H0 , known as Hubble’s constant,

is about (70.4 ± 1.3) (km/s)/Mpc (2010 measurements)
I The spectral lines will be correspondingly red-shifted (Doppler, not
gravitational)

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The universe expands

I There is no centre of expansion. Everything moves away from

everything, on a galactic scale
(so that is not an excuse for you to get fatter)
I The velocity with which a galaxy moves away from us is directly
proportional to its distance:
Hubble’s law

v = H0 d (71)

where the proportionality constant H0 , known as Hubble’s constant,

is about (70.4 ± 1.3) (km/s)/Mpc (2010 measurements)
I The spectral lines will be correspondingly red-shifted (Doppler, not
gravitational)

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Redshift

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Hubble’s law

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein’s equations with matter

Expansion of space −→ comoving coordinates −→ FRW metric

 
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = −dt + a (t) dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ
1 − kr 2

The scale factor a(t) describes the expansion of the grid. The velocity is
radial
|ṙ|
v = r, (72)
|r|
but r = ax, where r and x denote the physical and the comoving
coordinates respectively.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein’s equations with matter

The velocity is entirely due to the expansion of the grid, so x is constant:

ȧ
v= r = H(t)r , (73)
a
where
ȧ
H(t) = . (74)
a

Its present value is denoted by H0 .

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein’s equations with matter

Gµν = 8πGTµν . (75)

Tµν is the stress-energy tensor

T00 : energy density,
Ti0 : momentum density,
T0i : energy flux,
Tij : the usual stress tensor.
The exact composition depends on what matter we take.
Tµν is conserved in flat space-time. In the presence of gravitation, its
conservation is a little bit more complicated, because the gravitational
self-energy also contributes to it.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein’s equations with matter

Gµν = 8πGTµν . (75)

Tµν is the stress-energy tensor

T00 : energy density,
Ti0 : momentum density,
T0i : energy flux,
Tij : the usual stress tensor.
The exact composition depends on what matter we take.
Tµν is conserved in flat space-time. In the presence of gravitation, its
conservation is a little bit more complicated, because the gravitational
self-energy also contributes to it.
There are four constraint equations, which reduce to ∂ µ Tµν = 0 in flat
space-time. Since Tµν is symmetric, this again tells us that the number
of independent equations in (75) is six.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein’s equations with matter

Gµν = 8πGTµν . (75)

Tµν is the stress-energy tensor

T00 : energy density,
Ti0 : momentum density,
T0i : energy flux,
Tij : the usual stress tensor.
The exact composition depends on what matter we take.
Tµν is conserved in flat space-time. In the presence of gravitation, its
conservation is a little bit more complicated, because the gravitational
self-energy also contributes to it.
There are four constraint equations, which reduce to ∂ µ Tµν = 0 in flat
space-time. Since Tµν is symmetric, this again tells us that the number
of independent equations in (75) is six.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The factor of 8πG

Poisson’s equation for Newtonian potential φ can be written as

∇2 φ = 4πG ρ (76)

and in the weak-gravity limit, g00 ≈ −(1 + 2φ), so one can write

∇2 g00 = −8πGT00 . (77)

It is basically a consistency check: in the Newtonian limit, one must get

back eq. (76).

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

Two ways to get the components:
1 Calculate the components of the Riemann curvatures first from

∂Γλµκ ∂Γλµν
R λ µνκ = − + Γηµκ Γλνη − Γηµν Γλκη
∂x ν ∂x κ
and then proceed through the Ricci tensor

Rµκ = g λν Rλµνκ .

2 Directly through the Ricci tensor using the double summation

∂Γα
µκ ∂Γα
µα
Rµκ = − + Γα β α β
βα Γµκ − Γβκ Γµα ,
∂x α ∂x κ

The first route is obviously safer for a beginner.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

Two ways to get the components:
1 Calculate the components of the Riemann curvatures first from

∂Γλµκ ∂Γλµν
R λ µνκ = − + Γηµκ Γλνη − Γηµν Γλκη
∂x ν ∂x κ
and then proceed through the Ricci tensor

Rµκ = g λν Rλµνκ .

2 Directly through the Ricci tensor using the double summation

∂Γα
µκ ∂Γα
µα
Rµκ = − + Γα β α β
βα Γµκ − Γβκ Γµα ,
∂x α ∂x κ

The first route is obviously safer for a beginner.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

I take the second route, keep track of the double summations and use the
symmetry of Christoffels in the lower indices:

∂Γ101 ∂Γ1 ∂Γ1

R00 = − 0
− 02 2
− 03 − Γ101 Γ101 − Γ202 Γ202 − Γ303 Γ303
∂x ∂x ∂x 3
   2
∂ 3ȧ ȧ ä
= − −3 = −3 ,
∂t a a a
0 1 0 1
∂Γ11 ∂Γ ∂Γ ∂Γ ∂Γ2 ∂Γ3
R11 = 0
+ 11 1
− 10 1
− 11 1
− 12 1
− 13
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x 1
+Γ01 Γ11 + Γ02 Γ11 + Γ03 Γ11 + Γ11 Γ11 + Γ12 Γ11 + Γ313 Γ111
1 0 2 0 3 0 1 1 2 1

−Γ011 Γ110 − Γ101 Γ011 − Γ111 Γ111 − Γ221 Γ212 − Γ331 Γ313
aä + 2ȧ2 + 2k
= ,
1 − kr 2

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

∂Γ022 ∂Γ122 ∂Γ323

R22 = + − + Γ022 Γ101 + Γ022 Γ202 + Γ022 Γ303
∂x 0 ∂x 1 ∂x 2
+Γ111 Γ122 + Γ212 Γ122 + Γ313 Γ122 − Γ022 Γ202
−Γ122 Γ212 − Γ212 Γ122 − Γ202 Γ022 − Γ323 Γ303
= r 2 aä + 2ȧ2 + 2k .


(78)

The calculation of R33 is left as an exercise; the result will be

R33 = r 2 sin2 θ aä + 2ȧ2 + 2k .

(79)

The off-diagonal components of Rµν are all zero.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

The next task is to calculate the scalar curvature R. For that, we need
g µν , which is

1 − kr 2 1
 
µν 1
g = diag −1, , 2 2, 2 2 2 . (80)
a2 a r a r sin θ

So
3ä 3 6
R = Rµν g µν = + 2 aä + 2ȧ2 + 2k = 2 aä + ȧ2 + k .



(81)
a a a

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

This gives us the nonzero components of the Einstein tensor,

1 ȧ2 + k
G00 = R00 − g00 R = 3 ,
2 a2
ȧ2 + 2aä + k
G11 = −
1 − kr 2
2 2
G22 = −r (ȧ + 2aä + k)
G33 = −r 2 sin2 θ(ȧ2 + 2aä + k) . (82)

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

What is Tµν ?
Matter as a perfect isotropic fluid (to a very good extent; fluid −→ stress
tensor is diagonal, isotropic −→ all three elements of the stress tensor are
equal):
Tµν = p gµν + (p + ρ) Uµ Uν (83)
(ρ = density, p = pressure of the fluid, Uµ = (1, 0).)
This leads to the Friedmann equations:

 2
ȧ k 8πG ρ
+ 2 = ,
a a 3
1
2aä + ȧ2 + k


= −8πGp . (84)
a2

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

Einstein tensor for FRW geometry

What is Tµν ?
Matter as a perfect isotropic fluid (to a very good extent; fluid −→ stress
tensor is diagonal, isotropic −→ all three elements of the stress tensor are
equal):
Tµν = p gµν + (p + ρ) Uµ Uν (83)
(ρ = density, p = pressure of the fluid, Uµ = (1, 0).)
This leads to the Friedmann equations:

 2
ȧ k 8πG ρ
+ 2 = ,
a a 3
1
2aä + ȧ2 + k


= −8πGp . (84)
a2

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The ‘blunder’

Consider a static universe (ȧ = ä = 0) filled with ‘dust’

dust = non-relativistic matter (p = 0 , ρ 6= 0)

k 8πG ρ
G00 = 8πGT00 ⇒ 2
= ,
a 3
k
G11 = 8πGT11 ⇒ = 0, (85)
a2
which is clearly inconsistent; a static universe can at best be empty.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The ‘blunder’

To avoid this, Einstein modified his equations as (before he knew about

Hubble’s observations)

Gµν + Λgµν = 8πGTµν , (86)

 2
ȧ k Λ 8πG ρ
+ 2− = ,
a a 3 3
1
2aä + ȧ2 + k − Λ


= −8πGp . (87)
a2

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The ‘blunder’

This leads to a consistent solution for a static universe

3k k
− Λ = 8πG ρ , − + Λ = 8πGp (88)
a2 a2

Λ is the cosmological constant

When the expansion was discovered, it was found that there is a

consistent solution without Λ, and Einstein subsequently discarded it,
calling it his biggest blunder.

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The ‘blunder’

This leads to a consistent solution for a static universe

3k k
− Λ = 8πG ρ , − + Λ = 8πGp (88)
a2 a2

Λ is the cosmological constant

When the expansion was discovered, it was found that there is a

consistent solution without Λ, and Einstein subsequently discarded it,
calling it his biggest blunder.

Over the last 25 years, Λ has made a wonderful comeback!

Part I: General Relativity

Distance measurement Expanding universe Einstein’s equations Cosmological constant

The ‘blunder’

This leads to a consistent solution for a static universe

3k k
− Λ = 8πG ρ , − + Λ = 8πGp (88)
a2 a2

Λ is the cosmological constant

When the expansion was discovered, it was found that there is a

consistent solution without Λ, and Einstein subsequently discarded it,
calling it his biggest blunder.

Over the last 25 years, Λ has made a wonderful comeback!

Part I: General Relativity