EE 131 Electric Circuit Theory I

Lecture 3. Circuit Theorems

• Linearity
• Superposition
• Source Transformations
• Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• Norton Equivalent Circuit
Linearity

• A combination of the homogeneity (scaling)

property and the additivity property

Homogeneity Property:
If the input (excitation) is multiplied by a
constant, the output (response) is also multiplied by
the same constant e.g.

v  iR
ki  R  k  v
Linearity

Additivity Property:
The response to a sum of inputs is the sum of
the responses to each input applied separately.

If v1  i1 R
and v2  i2 R
then applying  i1  i2 
v   i1  i2  R
 i1 R  i2 R
 v1  v2
Linearity

• Thus, a resistor is a linear element.

• In general, a circuit is linear if it is both

additive and homogeneous.

• A linear circuit consists of only linear elements,

linear dependent sources, and independent
sources.
Definition.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input.
Linearity

Example:

Suppose if vs  10V , i  2 A.

According to the linearity principle,

if vs  1V , i  0.2 A
if i  1mA, vs  5mV .
Linearity
Example.
Find i0 when vs  12V and vs  24V .
Linearity
Example.
Find i0 when vs  12V and vs  24V .
Linearity
Example 2.
Find v0 when is  15 A and is  30 A.

10 v, 20 v
Linearity
Example. Assume I 0  1A and use linearity to find the actual value of I 0 .
Linearity
Example. Assume I 0  1A and use linearity to find the actual value of I 0 .
Superposition Principle
The voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.
• Considerations:

1. Consider one independent source at a time

while all other sources are turned off.
– short all voltage sources; open all current sources
2. Leave dependent sources alone.
Superposition Principle
The voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.
Superposition Principle
Example. Use superposition to find v in the circuit.
Superposition Principle
Example. Use superposition to find vx in the circuit.

12.5V
Source Transformation
Equivalent Circuits : Circuits whose v-i characteristics
are identical.
Definition.
A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a
current source is in parallel with a resistor R or vice
versa.
Source Transformation

vs
vs  is R or is 
R
Source Transformation
Considerations:

1. The arrow of the current source is directed toward

the positive terminal of the voltage source.

2. Not possible when R = 0 (ideal voltage source).

• However for a practical, non-ideal voltage
source, R ≠ 0.

Also, an ideal current source with R = ∞ cannot be

replaced by a finite voltage source.
Source Transformation
Example. Use source transformation to find v0 in the circuit.
Source Transformation
Example. Use source transformation to find v0 in the circuit.

by current division
2
i  2   0.4 A
28
v0  8i  8  0.4   3.2V
Source Transformation
Example. Find vx in the circuit.
Source Transformation
Example. Find vx in the circuit.

by KVL
3  5i  vx  18  0

3  1i  vx  0  vx  3  i

15  5i  3  i  0  i  4.5 A
Source Transformation
Exercise. Find io in the circuit using source transformation.

Ans. 1.78 A
Source Transformation
Exercise. Find ix in the circuit.

Ans. 1.176 A
Thevenin’s Theorem

A linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source VTH in
series with a resistor RTH
where
VTH = open-circuit voltage at the
terminals
RTH = input/equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the
independent sources are
turned off.
Thevenin’s Theorem

To find VTH,
(1) Open-circuit terminal a-b
by removing the load.

(2) Solve for voc.

Thevenin’s Theorem

To find RTH, consider 2 cases:

(1) Kill all (1) Circuit has NO dependent
independent sources;
sources.
(2) Circuit has dependent
(2) Find Rin. sources.
Thevenin’s Theorem
(2) Circuit has dependent
sources.

• Kill all independent

sources.
• Apply a voltage source vo at
terminals a-b
• Determine io.
vo
• Then RTH 
io
Thevenin’s Theorem
(2) Circuit has dependent
sources.

• Kill all independent

sources.
• Apply a current source io at
terminals a-b.
• Determine vo.
vo
• Then RTH 
io
Thevenin’s Theorem

VTH
IL 
RTH  RL
VTH
VL  RL I L  RL
RTH  RL
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 1.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
to the left of terminals a  b. Find the current
through RL  6,16,36.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 1.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
to the left of terminals a  b. Find the current
through RL  6,16,36.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 1.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
to the left of terminals a  b. Find the current
through RL  6,16,36.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 2.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 2.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.
Find RTH by exciting the network
with vo =1 V .
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 2.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.

Find vTH .
Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 2.
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Exercise. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit to the left
of terminals a  b and then find i.

Ans. VTH  6V ; RTH  3; i  1.5 A.

Thevenin’s Theorem
Exercise. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit to the left
of terminals a  b.

Ans. VTH  5.33V ; RTh  0.44

Norton’s Theorem

A linear two-terminal circuit

can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN
where
IN = short-circuit current through
the terminals
RN = input/equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the
independent sources are
turned off.
Norton’s Theorem

RN  RTH
To find IN, determine the
short-circuit current flowing
from terminal a to b.

VTH
IN 
RTH
Norton’s Theorem vs Thevenin’s Theorem

Thus, to find Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuit, find

the open-circuit voltage, voc , across terminals a  b
the short-circuit current, isc , through terminals a  b
the equivalent resistance Rin at terminals a  b when
all independent sources are turned off.

voc  VTH
isc  I N
voc
Rin  RTH  RN 
isc
Norton’s Theorem
Example 1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.
Norton’s Theorem
Example 1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

RN  4
I N  1A
Norton’s Theorem
Example 2. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.
Norton’s Theorem
Example 2. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

RN  1.67
IN  6A
Norton’s Theorem
Example 3. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

RN  1
I N  10 A
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

2
 VTH 
p  i RL  
2
 RL
 RTH  RL 
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power is transferred to the load when

the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as
seen from the load.
2
 VTH 
p  i RL  
2
 RL
 RTH  RL 
dp   RTH  RL 2  2 RL  RTH  RL  
 VTH
2
 0
 RTH  RL 
4
dRL  
  RTH  RL  2 RL  
V 2
 0 RTH  RL  0
  RTH  RL 
TH 3

RTH  RL
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power is transferred to the load when

the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as
seen from the load, i.e.

RTH  RL

2
 VTH 
2
V
p  i RL  
2
 RL pmax  TH

 RTH  RL  4 RTH
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Example 4. Find RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Example 4. Find RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Example 4. Find RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Exercise. Find RL that will draw maximum power from the circuit shown.

4.22, 2.901W
Applications: Source Modeling
• Ideal voltage (or current) sources
provide constant voltage (or current)
regardless of the current drawn by
the load (or the load voltage).

• Practical sources are not ideal

due to their internal resistances
or source resistances, Rs and Rp.
– However, when Rs  0, R p  
practical source becomes ideal.
Applications: Source Modeling
• Consider the effect of the load on voltage sources:

vL will be constant if the internal resistance Rs  0

or, at least Rs RL .
 RL 
vL  vs    The smaller Rs is compared to RL , the closer
 Rs  RL  the voltage source is to being ideal.
Applications: Source Modeling
• Consider the effect of the load on voltage sources:

When load is disconnected  open  circuited , RL    ,

voc  vs . Thus, vs  unloaded voltage source.
 RL 
vL  vs   LOADING EFFECT = connection of load causes
 Rs  RL  terminal voltage to decrease in magnitude.
Applications: Source Modeling
• For practical current sources:

 Rp 
iL  is 
 Rp  RL 
 

iL will be constant if the internal resistance

R p   or, at least R p RL .
iL drops when load is connected.
Applications: Source Modeling
To find the unloaded voltage source, vs , and the internal resistance, Rs , of
a voltage source,

1 Measure voc and set voc  vs .

 2  Connect a variable load RL across the terminals.
Adjust RL until voc  vL 2 because at this point, RL  RTH  RS .
Disconnect RL and measure it.
 3 Set Rs  RL .
Applications: Source Modeling
Example 5. The terminal voltage of a voltage source is 12V when connected
to a 2-W load. When the load is disconnected, the terminal voltage
rises to 12.4V.
 a  Find vs and Rs .
 b  Find the voltage when an 8   load is connected to the source.
Applications: Source Modeling
Example 5. The terminal voltage of a voltage source is 12V when connected
to a 2-W load. When the load is disconnected, the terminal voltage
rises to 12.4V.
 a  Find vs and Rs .
Applications: Source Modeling
Example 5. The terminal voltage of a voltage source is 12V when connected
to a 2-W load. When the load is disconnected, the terminal voltage
rises to 12.4V.
 a  Find vs and Rs .
Applications: Source Modeling
Example 5. The terminal voltage of a voltage source is 12V when connected
to a 2-W load. When the load is disconnected, the terminal voltage
rises to 12.4V.
 a  Find vs and Rs .
 b  Find the voltage when an 8   load is connected to the source.
Applications: Source Modeling
Exercise. The measured open-circuit voltage across a certain amplifier is 9V.
The voltage drops to 8V when a 20- loudspeaker is connected to
the amplifier. Calculate the voltage when a 20- loudspeaker is used
instead.

7.2V
Applications: Resistance Measurements
(Wheatstone Bridge)

• Used to precisely measure resistances of

medium values
• In biomedicine, it provides a good configuration
for many resistive temperature and pressure
transducers for gain accuracies of ±0.1%
• Consists of four resistors, DC voltage source
and current detector (ammeter)

• One of the four resistors is a known variable and

serves as the transducer
Applications: Resistance Measurements
(Wheatstone Bridge)
When balanced,
R1 R2 v1  v2 , i1  i3 , i2  i4
+
V i3 R3  i4 R4 and i1R1  i2 R2
v1 v2
-

R3 R4 is the unknown

• To find R4, adjust R3 until there is no current flow

through the ammeter
• Then, R   R2  R
4   3
 R1 