REVIEWER: AC1 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING  Data Types

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

 Variables

PROGRAMMING
 Keywords

 Logical and Arithmetical Operators

Computer programming is a systematic process of creating
 If else conditions
computer programs to solve specific computing problems. It
 Loops
involves analysis, coding, algorithm generation, and
 Numbers, Characters and Arrays
verification. Selecting the right programming language can be
 Functions
challenging, but it's essential for effective problem-solving.
 Input and Output Operations

BASIC OF PROGRAMMING
COMPUTER PROGRAM

 English is the most popular and well-known Human

 A sequence of statements intended to
Language. The English language hasits own set of
accomplish/perform a certain task
grammar rules, which has to be followed to write in the
 It is a set of instructions for a computer to follow
English languagecorrectly.
EXAMPLE of Computer Program:
 Likewise, any other Human Languages (German,
 A computer program that computes the numbers
Spanish, Russian, etc.) are made of several elements like
using a basic arithmetic operator
nouns, adjective, adverbs, propositions, and
 A program that accepts input from the user then
conjunctions, etc. So, just like English, Spanish or other
print the summary of information
human languages, programming languages are also

made of different elements. PROGRAMMING – Process of planning and creating a

 Just like human languages, programming languages program.

also follow grammar called syntax. There are certain

MACHINE LANGUAGE – The language that the computer
basic program code elements which are common for all
can directly understand.
the programming languages.

EXAMPLE of Machine Language

Most important basic elements for programming languages

are:

 Programming Environment
  In programming, programmer writes a series of

program statements which carry out task the program

has to perform.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

 The symbolic form of machine language that is easier

for people to read (for example ADD AX DX)

 This makes use of instructions in mnemonic form

 A program that translates assembly languages DIFFERENT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

instruction into language is called an assembler

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES COMPILER – A program that translates a program written in

 Most modern programming languages are designed to a high-level language into a low-level language (such as

be relatively easy. These are known as high-level machine language) before executing the statements.

languages.
INTERPRETER – Act as a compiler, but it translates one (1)
 Each high-level language has its syntax, or rules of the
program statement at a time, this executes the statement as
languages (For example, the verb print or write is used
soon as it is translated.
to produce an output)
SYNTAX ERROR – In the process of translation, an invalid

program statement might be encountered known as a syntax

error. (for example, the mathematical expression 3+3 = 6 is

written incorrectly as 3#3=6.

DEBUGGING – The process/act of locating and repairing

the errors of the program is called debugging.

LOGICAL ERROR – Apart from a syntax error, a logical

ALGORITHM DESIGN
error might be encountered as well. Logical Error (Semantic

Error) occurs when the syntax of the program is correct but the
After analyzing the problem, the next step is to design an

expected output is not.

algorithm to solve it. If the problem is broken down into

subproblems, there should be an algorithm for each sub-

PROGRAMMING CYCLE

problem. You should check the algorithm for the correctness

ALGORITHM
and integrate the solution to sub-problems.

 Step by step problem-solving process in which a

CODING

solution is arrived at in a finite amount of time.

The next step is to convert the algorithm into a programming

 The problem-solving process in the programming

language, usually a high-level language. A text editor or IDE

environment involves the following steps:

(Integrated Development Environment) is used to write a

program to make sure that the program follows the language’s

1. Problem Analysis: Analyze the problem and outline

syntax. To ensure the syntax is correct, the code is run through

the problem and its solution requirements

a compiler. If error messages are encountered, the errors must

2. Analysis Algorithm: Design an algorithm to solve a

be identified and resolved (debugging). When the program is

problem
free from any syntax error, the compiler generates the machine

code.
3. Coding: implement the algorithm in a programming

language
Example of Algorithm

4. Execution: Verify that the algorithm works

The following algorithm is designed to know the firstname,  Indentation is used to indicate branches and loops of

lastname, and middlename. It is supposed to concatenate the instructions.

value of the fields to display the fullname. The concatenation

Example:
of fields is : fullname = firstname + “ ” + middlename + “ ” +

lastname The following pseudocode is design to know the firstname,

lastname, and middlename. It is supposed to concatenate the

1. GET the firstname, lastname, and middlename
value of the fields to display the fullname. The concatenation

2. Concatenate fields: fullname = firstname + “ ” + of fields is : fullname = firstname + “ ” + middlename + “ ” +

middlename + “ ” + lastname lastname

3. Display fullname READ firstname

PSEUDOCODE READ lastname

Method of describing computer algorithms using a READ middlename

combination of natural language and programming language.

SET fullname to firstname + “ ” + middlename + “ ” +

Here are some rules that are frequently followed when writing lastname

pseudocode
Print fullname

 Symbols are used for operations

FLOWCHART

 Arithmetic Operations (+, - ,* ,/ )

 Visual representation of an algorithm

 Assignment (=)
 It contains symbols/shapes describing how an

 Comparison (=, <,>, <=,>=) algorithm or program operates.

 Logical (and, or)  Each command/instruction is placed in an appropriate

shape, and arrows are used to direct program flow.

 Certain keywords can be used as a command, such as

PRINT, WRITE, READ, SET, etc.

 from. In this tutorial, we will use an IDE.

VARIABLES – are containers for storing data values.

 It is the basic unit of storage in a program.

 can consist of alphabets (both upper and lower case),

numbers, and the underscore ‘_’ character. However, the

name must not start with a number

 datatype: Type of data that can be stored in this variable.

 variable_name: Name given to the variable.

 value: It is the initial value stored in the variable.

MODULE 2: INTRODUCTION TO C++

C++ – is a general-purpose programming language that was

developed as an enhancement of the C language to include

object-oriented paradigm.

C++ Environment

 To start using C++, you need two things:

How Declare Variable?

 A text editor, like Notepad, to write C++ code

Syntax: type variableName = value;

 A compiler, like GCC, to translate the C++ code into a

Example:

language that the computer will understand

 There are many text editors and compilers to choose

int – stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such

as 123 or -123

double – stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as

19.99 or -19.99

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARIABLE DECLARATION

LOCAL VARIABLES
AND DEFINITION

 A variable defined within a block or method or

The variable declaration refers to the part where a variable is
constructor is called a local variable.
first declared or introduced before its first use. A variable

definition is a part where the variable is assigned a memory  These variables are created when entered into the block

location and a value. Most of the time, variable declaration and or the function is called and destroyed after exiting from

definition are done together. the block or when the call returns from the function.

TYPES OF VARIABLES  The scope of these variables exists only within the block

in which the variable is declared. i.e. we can access this

There are three types of variables based on the scope of
variable only within that block.
variables in C++

 Initialization of Local Variable is Mandatory.

 Local Variables

INSTANCE VARIABLE
 Instance Variables

 1s are non-static variables and are declared in a class

 Static Variables
outside any method, constructor, or block.
  As instance variables are declared in a class, these message and it won’t halt the program. The compiler

variables are created when an object of the class is will replace the object name with the class name

created and destroyed when the object is destroyed. automatically.

 Unlike local variables, we may use access specifiers for  If we access the static variable without the class name,

instance variables. If we do not specify any access the Compiler will automatically append the class name.

specifier then the default access specifier will be used.

DATA TYPES – The data type specifies the size and type of

 Initialization of Instance Variable is not Mandatory. information the variable will store

STATIC VARIABLE

 are also known as Class variables.

 These variables are declared similarly as instance

variables, the difference is that static variables are

declared using the static keyword within a class outside

NUMBER TYPES
any method constructor or block.

 Unlike instance variables, we can only have one copy of

Use int when you need to store a whole number without

decimals, like 35 or 1000, and float or double when you need a

a static variable per class irrespective of how many

floating point number (with decimals), like 9.99 or 3.14515.

objects we create.

 Static variables are created at the start of program

BOOLEAN TYPES

execution and destroyed automatically when execution

A boolean data type is declared with the bool keyword and can

ends.
only take the values true or false.

 Initialization of Static Variable is not Mandatory. Its

CHARACTER TYPES

default value is 0

 The char data type is used to store a single character. The

 If we access the static variable like the Instance variable

character must be surrounded by single quotes, like 'A'

(through an object), the compiler will show the warning

or 'c'.
  Alternatively, you can use ASCII values to display

certain characters.

STRING TYPES

 The string type is used to store a sequence of characters BINARY OPERATORS – These operators operate or work

(text). This is not a built-in type, but it behaves like one with two operands.

in its most basic usage. String values must be

surrounded by double quotes:

 To use strings, you must include an additional header

file in the source code, the <string> library

OPERATORS – is a symbol that operates on a value to

perform specific mathematical or logical computations. They

form the foundation of any programming language. In C++,

we have built-in operators to provide the required

functionality.

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
RELATIONAL OPERATORS – These operators are used for

 Arithmetic operators are used to perform common

the comparison of the values of two operands.

mathematical operations.

 used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations

on the operands.

Arithmetic Operators can be classified into 2 Types: Unary

Operators and Binary Operators.

UNARY OPERATORS – These operators operate or work

with a single operand.

LOGICAL OPERATORS – are used to combine two or more

conditions or constraints or to complement the evaluation of

the original condition in consideration.

BITWISE OPERATORS – These operators are used to

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS – Used to assign value to a
perform bit-level operations on the operands. The operators
variable. The left side operand of the assignment operator is a
are first converted to bit-level and then the calculation is
variable and the right side operand of the assignment operator
performed on the operands. Mathematical operations such as
is a value. The value on the right side must be of the same data
addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. can be performed at
type as the variable on the left side otherwise the compiler will
the bit level for faster processing.
raise an error.
 PRE-PROCESSORS – are programs that process the source

code before compilation.

TERNARY OR CONDITIONAL OPERATORS (?:) –

Determines the answer on the basis of the evaluation of

Expression1. If it is true, then Expression2 gets evaluated and is

used as the answer for the expression. If Expression1 is false,

PRE-PROCESSING IN C++ – means to execute/process the
then Expression3 gets evaluated and is used as the answer for
program file before the execution of the main program.
the expression.

DIRECTIVES – provide preprocessor directives that tell the

compiler to preprocess the source code before compiling.

All the statements starting with the # (hash) symbol are known

as preprocessor directives in C++. Now, like a coach instructs

his/her students to perform certain tasks to improve/her

performance, the directives instruct the preprocessor to  Conditional Compilation – a type of directives that

perform certain tasks to improve the program's helps to compile a specific portion of the program or to

performance/capabilities. skip the compilation of some specific part of the

program based on some conditions.

A # (hash) symbol (All the preprocessor directives in C++ start

with the # (hash) symbol).  Other directives – Apart from the above directives,

there are two more directives that are not commonly

A pre-processor instruction after the # (hash) symbol. For
used. These are:
example, #include, #define, #ifdef, #elif, #error, #pragma etc.

 #undef Directive – used to undefine an existing

Arguments are based on the type of the directive. For example,
Macro. This directive work as: #undef LIMIT.
<iostream> is argument for #include, PI 3.14 are arguments for

#define directive.  #pragma Directive – this directive is a special

purpose directive and is used to turn on and off some

Example: #include<iostream>, #define PI 3.14, #ifdef PI etc.
features.

MODULE 3: INPUT AND OUTPUT AND FUNCTIONS

IN C++ PROGRAMMING

STREAMS IN C++

In C++, a stream is a sequence of characters that represents an

input or output source. Streams are used to perform input and

output operations in C++ programs. The two main types of

There are 4 Main Types of Preprocessor Directives: streams are:

 Macros – In C/C++, Macros are pieces of code in a  Input Stream (istream): This stream is used for reading

program that is given some name. data from a source, such as the keyboard or a file. The

primary input stream in C++ is associated with the cin

 File Inclusion – This type of preprocessor directive tells
object.
the complier to include a file in the source code program.

 Output Stream (ostream): This stream is used for writing

 data to a destination, such as the console or a file. The operations.

primary output stream in C++ is associated with the

4. fstream (Combined Input/Output File Stream) Class:
cout object.

The fstream class combines both input and output

OTHER STREAMS
operations. It allows you to open a file for both reading

So far, we have been using the iostream standard library, which and writing.

provides cin and cout methods for reading from standard

OPENING FILES WITH SPECIFIC MODES (IOS::IN,
input and writing to standard output respectively.
IOS::OUT, IOS::APP, ETC.):

In C++, the fstream library provides facilities for file-based

When opening files, you can specify different modes using
input and output operations. The fstream library is an
flags like ios::in (input), ios::out (output), ios::app (append), and
extension of the iostream library and includes classes like
more.
ifstream (input file stream) and ofstream (output file stream) to

work with files.

1. fstream Class:

The fstream class is a combination of both ifstream and

ofstream. It allows you to perform both input and

output operations on files.

2. ifstream (Input File Stream) Class:

The ifstream class is used for reading data from a file.

You can use it to open a file for reading and perform

input operations.

3. ofstream (Output File Stream) Class:

The ofstream class is used for writing data to a file. You

can use it to open a file for writing and perform output

INPUT FUNCTIONS BASIC STRUCTURE OF A C++ PROGRAM

Input functions in C++ are used to receive data from the user A basic C++ program follows a structure that typically

during program execution. The most common input function includes:

is cin, which is associated with the standard input stream. It is

 Header Files: These are included at the beginning of the
used to read data from the keyboard or another input source.
program and provide declarations and definitions

needed for the program. Commonly used header files

include <iostream> for input and output operations.

 Main Function (main): Every C++ program must have

a main function. It serves as the entry point of the

program, and execution starts from here.

OUTPUT FUNCTIONS  Statements and Expressions: These are the actual

instructions that the program will execute. They

Output functions in C++ are used to display information to
perform actions, make decisions, and control the flow of
the user during program execution. The primary output
the program.
function is cout, which is associated with the standard output

stream. It is used to print data to the console or another output  Comments: These are used to add explanatory notes to

destination. the code. They are ignored by the compiler.

FUNCTIONS USE IN BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT Format String Example (using printf):

STATEMENT IN C++
#include <cstdio>

Functions in C++ are blocks of code that perform a specific

int main() {
task. In the context of basic input/output statements, functions

can be used to encapsulate repetitive or complex operations. int intValue = 42;

double doubleValue = 3.14159;

char charValue = 'A';

// Using printf with format string

printf("Integer: %d, Double: %.2f, Character: %c\n", intValue,

doubleValue,

charValue);

MODULE 4: Format Strings and Escape Sequence, Control return 0;

Structures, Function andArrays

}

FORMAT STRINGS AND ESCAPE SEQUENCES

In this example, the format string is "Integer: %d, Double: %.2f,

In C++, a format string is a string that contains placeholders Character: %c\n". Here:

that will be replaced by the values of variables during runtime.

%d is a placeholder for an integer.
Format strings are commonly used with functions like printf

from the C Standard Library or with stream manipulators in

%.2f is a placeholder for a floating-point number with two

the context of C++ I/O streams (cout, cin). Escape sequences,

decimal places.

on the other hand, are special characters in a string that

%c is a placeholder for a character.

represent non-printable or special characters.

\n is an escape sequence representing a newline character.

Escape Sequences Example:  Many times in our code, we will need that a particular

piece of code should only execute if a specific condition

#include <iostream>
gets fulfilled. In C++, along with Conditional Control

int main() { Structures, we also have the Iteration or Loop Control

Structure.
// Using escape sequences in a string

TYPES OF CONTROL STRUCTURE IN C++

std::cout << "This is a line of text.\n";

There are three types of Control Structures in C++, And all the
std::cout << "This string contains a tab character\tand
program processes we write can only be implemented with
continues after the tab.\n";
these three control structures

return 0;
SEQUENCE STRUCTURE

}
This is the most simple and basic form of a control structure. It

In this example: is simply the plain logic we write; it only has simple linear

instructions, no decision making, and no loop. The programs

\n is an escape sequence representing a newline character.
we all wrote at the start of our programming journey were this

\t is an escape sequence representing a tab character. control structure only. It executes linearly line by line in a

straight line manner.

Both format strings and escape sequences are essential in string

manipulation and formatting in C++ applications. Format Let's understand the program flow and how it happened.

strings provide a way to control the layout and appearance of

 Firstly, num1 and num2 were declared and initialized.
output, while escape sequences allow you to include special

characters in your strings, such as newline or tab characters.  Then, the sum variable was declared and was assigned

the numerical sum of num1 and num2.

CONTROL STRUCTURE IN C++

 We are then printing the sum.

 The work of control structures is to give flow and logic

to a program. There are three types of basic control We can see that our program came one way, in a straight-line

structures in C++. manner, with no bending, no reverse, simply a straight flow.

This is simply what Sequence Control Structures are. Here,

SELECTION STRUCTURE  We are first asking the user to enter their age and then

ask if they have a driving license

Sometimes in our program, we will need to write certain

condition checks that this part of code should only execute if a  Then we are checking the condition using an if-else

particular condition meets or another part of code should run. control statement, and if it satisfies, then executing the

first block of code, else executing the other block of the

For example: The example we took at the start is that we have
code.
to write a program that will validate if a user is eligible to drive

or not based on two conditions:  A block means a group of statements enclosed in curly

brackets {....}, and those specific statements are part of

 if the age is equal to or above 18
that specific block.

 if the user has their driving license

In C++, we have two types of Selection Control statements:

Let's understand it with the help of a program

 If else statements

 Switch case statements

We will be understanding in-depth about each of these in the

coming section.

LOOP STRUCTURE

Whenever in our program we see that a certain piece of code is

being repeated repeatedly, then we can enclose that in a loop

structure and provide the condition that this code should

execute these specific number of times. Loops in C++ are

essential for repetitive or iterative tasks, where you want to

execute a block of code multiple times without writing the

same code over and over.

We have three types of Loops in C++: The if –else structure / else statement

 While Loop Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed

if the condition is false.

 Do While Loop

 For Loop

Now you know the different types of Control Structures, let us

know see the different ways on how to use this.

CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

The If Structure

Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be

Else –If Statement

executed if a condition is true

else the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first

condition is false.

Output: x is greater than y

In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test

whether x is greater than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and

y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the

screen that "x is greater than y".

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator) specified condition is true:

There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary

operator because it consists of three operands. It can be used to

replace multiple lines of code with a single line. It is often used

to replace simple if else statements:

Do While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will

execute the code block once, before checking if the condition is

true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is true.

THE ITERATION STRUCTURE

Iteration statements cause statements (or compound

statements) to be executed zero or more times, subject to some

loop-termination criteria. When these statements are

compound statements, they are executed in order, except when

either the break statement or the continue statement is

encountered. C++ provides four iteration statements — while,

do, for, and range-based for. Each of these iterates until its

termination expression evaluates to zero (false), or until loop

termination is forced with a break statement. For Loop

The While Loop When you know exactly how many times you want to loop

through a block of code, use the for loop instead of a while loop:
The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a
Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the Continue Statement

code block.
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block. specified condition occurs, and continues with the next

iteration in the loop.

Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has

been executed.

The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Go to Statement

A goto statement provides an unconditional jump from the

goto to a labeled statement in the same function.

JUMP STATEMENTS
Use of goto statement is highly discouraged because it makes

Break Statement difficult to trace the control flow of a program, making the

program hard to understand and hard to modify. Any

The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
program that uses a goto can be rewritten so that it doesn't need
Example:
the goto.

Switch Case Statements:

Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to

be executed.

This is how it works:

 The switch expression is evaluated once FUNCTIONS:

 The value of the expression is compared with the values A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

of each case
Functions are used to perform certain actions, and they are

 If there is a match, the associated block of code is important for reusing code: Define the code once, and use it

executed many times.

 The break and default keywords are optional, and will C++ provides some pre-defined functions, such as main(),

be described later in this chapter which is used to execute code. But you can also create your own

functions to perform certain actions.

To create (often referred to as declare) a function, specify the

name of the function, followed by parentheses ():

THE USE OF VOID

In C++, the void keyword is used in the context of functions to

indicate that the function does not return any value. When a

function's return type is specified as void, it means that the

function performs a task or action but does not produce a result

that can be used in an expression.

OVERLOADED FUNCTIONS: INITIALIZING ARRAYS:

Overloaded functions in C++ are multiple functions with the You can initialize an array at the time of declaration or later

same name but different parameter lists. The compiler during the program. Here are examples:

differentiates between these functions based on the number or

// Initializing at declaration
types of parameters. Function overloading allows you to use
int numbers[3] = {1, 2, 3};
the same function name for operations that conceptually do

the same thing but with different types or numbers of inputs. MULTIDIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

C++ supports multidimensional arrays. A common example

RECURSIVITY:
is a 2D array:
Recursivity refers to the ability of a function to call itself.

// 2D array
Recursive functions can be a powerful and elegant way to solve

int matrix[3][3] = {
certain problems, especially those that exhibit a recursive

{1, 2, 3},
structure.

{4, 5, 6},
DECLARING FUNCTIONS:
{7, 8, 9}
Function declarations in C++ provide information to the
};
compiler about the function's name, return type, and

parameter types. A function declaration is necessary if you ARRAYS AS PARAMETERS:

define a function later in the code or if you want to use a Arrays can be passed to functions as parameters. When an

function before its actual definition. array is passed to a function, the function receives a pointer to

ARRAYS: the first element of the array. Here's an example:

In C++, an array is a collection of elements of the same data

type stored in contiguous memory locations. Arrays are

defined using a specific syntax:

// Example of an integer array

int myArray[5]; // Declare an integer array with a size of 5