READINGS IN THE PHILIPPINE  Is a person of his own who is

HISTORY influenced by his own context,

environment, ideology, education,
HISTORY
and influence among other.
 Derived from the Greek word  Linguists like biologist and
“Historia” means “knowledge biochemist can help with the study of
acquired through inquiry or the past.
investigation.”
HISTORIOGRAPHY
 Existed for around 2,400 years
 Focused on writing about wars,  Study of history itself (historian,
revolutions and other important methods, perspective, sources)
breakthroughs.  It is the history of the history.
 Traditional historians lived with the  The object is history itself.
mantra of “No Document, No
ISSUES
History”
 Study of the events happened in the  History already evolve into complex
past and dynamic field of study as a result
 Objective is the past, the events that this dynamism various perspective on
happened in the past, and the causes the discipline emerged.
of such events.  Accusation that history is always
 Always subjective. written by victors (winners). This
connotes that the narrative of the past
HERODOTUS
is always written from the bias of the
 Was one of the first to write detailed powerful and the more dominant
accounts of past events, focusing on player.
the Greco-Persian wars.
POSITIVISM
 His work, “The Histories”, is still
studied today.  Requires empirical and observable
 A called the “Father of the History” evidences before one can claim that a
particular knowledge is true.
HISTORIANS
 Entails an objective means arriving at
 A person who studies and writes a conclusion.
about the past and is regarded as an
POSTCOLONIALISM
authority on it.
 Giving premium to written  School of thought that emerged in
documents essentially invalidates the the early 20th century when
history of other civilizations that do formerly colonized nations
not keep written records. grappled with the idea of creating
 Use artifacts from a bygone era to their societies against shadows of
study ancient civilizations that were the colonial past.
formerly ignored in history because  Postcolonialisn history is
of lack of documents. therefore a reaction and an
 alternative to the colonial history  It helps point to the reader to a
that colonial powers created and primary or secondary source.
taught to their subjects.
UNWRITTEN SOURCE BUT CAN BE
HISTORICAL METHODOLOGY AUTHORITATIVE
 Certain rules apply in case of  Relics
conflicting accounts in different  Memorabilia
sources, and how to properly treat  Pictures
eyewitness accounts and oral  Drawings / Sketches
sources as valid historical  Fossils
evidences.  Remains
SOURCE OF HISTORY EXTERNAL CRITISISM
 Sources are where the  Is a practice of verifying the
information come from. authenticity of evidence by
 A technical sense the source of examining its physical
historical information is the characteristics
document.  Consistency with the historical
 Document is a written material characteristics of the time when it
that says about a historical event. was produced; and the materials
It can be narration, copy of used for evidence.
speech, a letter, a receipt, an
eyewitness account or a book. INTRNAL CRITISISM

PRIMARY SOURCE  Is the examination of the

truthfulness of evidence. It looks
 Are materials which directly point the content of the source and
or discusses the subject matter. examine the circumstance of its
SECODARY SOURCE production.

 Made by individual who were not THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF

direct participants to the event or NURSING
people who got the information NURSING
from somebody else or prom
primary source.  Diagnosis and treatment of human
 Digested information or responses to actual or potential health
information derived from primary problems.
sources.  Autonomous and collaborative care
of individuals of all ages, families,
groups, and communities, sick or well
GENERAL REFERENCES and in all settings.
 Includes promotion of health,
 Considered to be tertiary source. prevention of illness, and the care of
ill, disabled and dying people.
  A dynamic discipline. An art and a  Theory is a supposition or system of
science of caring for individuals, ideas that is proposed to explain a
families, groups, and communities. given phenomenon.
HISTORY OF NURSING MOSBY (2006)
I. ANCIENT CIVILIZATION  It is an abstract statement formulated
 Nursing is old as time. to predict, explain or describe the
 The human nature of nurturing and relationships among concepts,
caring is nursing. constructs or events.
 The first nurse is our mother.  It is tested by observation and
 Health and healing beliefs of ancient research using factual data.
civilization.
POTTER (2004)
 Illness was seen as “magic”, “sin”, or
“punishment.”  A theory is a set of concepts,
II. CHRISTIAN ORGANIZATIONS & definition, relationships and
ORDERS (THE CRUSADES) assumptions that project a systematic
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem view of phenomena.
(Knights of Hospitallers) the first
COMPONENTS OF A THEORY
nursing order under the monastic
order of St. Augustine. I. CONCEPTS
 Sister of Charity established by St.  A general idea formed in the mind.
Vincent de Paul in France.  A unit of thought.
III. ORDER OF THE DEACONESSESS  A comprehensive idea or
 Recognized the role of women in generalization.
taking care of the sick.  A mental idea of a phenomenon.
 Initiated the establishment of training  Examples: Person, Health,
school for nurses where Florence Environment, and Nursing.
Nightingale trained to become a
nurse.
II. DEFINITIONS
MAJOR DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
 General meaning of the concepts in a
20TH CENTURY
manner that fits the theory.
RATIONALISM  Describe the activity necessary to
measure the constructs, relationships,
 Makes use of reason gained thru
or variables within a theory.
expert study.
III. ASSUMPTIONS
EMPIRICISM  Statements that describe concepts or
connect two concepts that are factual.
 Makes use objective and tangible
 Determines the nature of the
data or those that are perceived by
concepts, definitions, purpose,
the senses.
relationships, and structure of the
KOZIER (2008) theory.
IV. PHENOMENON  To establish criteria to measure in
 An aspect of reality that can be nursing care.
consciously sensed or experienced. In  Enhance autonomy.
nursing, nursing theories focuses on  To build a common nursing
the phenomena of nursing and terminology.
nursing care. II. IN EDUCATION
 Examples: caring, self – care, client  Provide a general focus for
responses to stress. curriculum design.
 Guide curricular decision making.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
III. IN RESEARCH
 Can correlate concepts in such a way  Offer a framework for generating
as to generate a different way of knowledge and new ideas.
looking at a certain facts of  Assist in discovering knowledge gaps
phenomenon. in specific field of study.
 Must be logical in nature.  Offer a systematic approach to
 Must be simple but generally broad in identify question for study, select
nature. variables, interpret findings, and
 Contribute in enriching the general validate nursing interventions.
body of knowledge through the
studies implemented to validate them. NURSING THEORY
 Must be consistent with other  Body of knowledge that describes
validated theories, laws, and or explains nursing and is used to
principles but will leave open support nursing practice.
unanswered issues that need to be  Organized and systematic
tested. articulation of a set of statements
relations to questions in the
discipline of nursing.
 Is a set of concepts, definitions,
relationships and assumptions or
propositions derived from nursing
PURPOSES OF THEORIES models or from other disciplines.
I. IN PRACTICE NURSING PARADIGM
 Assist nurses to describe, explain, and
predict everyday experiences.  Are patterns or models used to
show a clear relationship among
 Serve to guide assessment,
the existing theoretical works in
intervention, and evaluation of
nursing.
nursing care.
 Elements of nursing paradigm
 Provide a rationale for collecting
direct the activity of the nursing
reliable and valid data about the
profession, including knowledge
health status of clients, which are
development, philosophy, theory,
essential for effective decision
educational experience, research,
making and implementation.
 practice, and literature identified  Includes deliberate nursing
with the profession. actions involving and under the
jurisdiction of ethics and
MAJOR CONCEPTS OF NURSING
professionalism.
THEORIES
III. PERSONAL KNOWING
I. PERSON  Encompasses knowledge of the
 Refers to all human beings, the self in relation to others and to
recipients of nursing care. self. Involves the entirety of the
II. ENVIRONMENT NURSE – PATIENT
 Include factors that affect relationship.
individuals internally and  Focused on realizing, meeting
externally. and defining the real true self.
III. HEALTH  One nursing term defines this as
 Addresses the person’s SELF – AWARENESS.
wellbeing. IV. AESTHETIC KNOWING
IV. NURSING  Understanding what is of
 Describe what nursing is, what significance to particular patients
nurses do, and how nurses such as feelings, attitudes, points
interact with clients. of view.
 Also the manifestation of creative
FOUR WAYS OF KNOWING
and expressive styles of the nurse.
I. EMPIRICAL KNOWING  Used process of giving
 First primary model of knowing. appropriate nursing care through
 Scientific research – based, understanding the uniqueness of
theoretical and factual every patient, thus emphasizing
information. use of creative and practical styles
 Traditional ideas of science. of care.
 Accessible through the physical
senses.
 Focused on evidence – based PROFESSIONAL ROLES OF NURSES
research for effective and I. CARE PROVIDER
accurate nursing practice.  Nurses provide care and comfort
 Example: textbooks, lectures, for persons together with
journals, and online resources. preserving the dignity of human
II. ETHICAL KNOWING beings.
 Judgement of right and wrong in  Considered as the mothering role
relation to intentions, reasons, of nurses.
attributes of individuals and II. COMMUNICATOR
situations.
 Understanding and collaboration
 Rooted in the concepts of human of nursing actions with their
dignity, service, and respect for clients and other members of the
life. health care team.
  Also develops rapport with the Nurses defends the client’s right
client which establishes their to be treated equally without any
cooperation. harm intentionally or
III. TEACHER unintentionally.
 Nurses help the clients learn the  Ensures that the client’s needs are
state of their well – being and the met.
therapies that will be done to  Advocacy involves promoting
alleviate their conditions, what is best for client, ensuring
 And provide them imagery of all that his needs are met, and
advantages and disadvantages of protecting his rights.
the actions that will be done to VIII. RESEARCHER
them.  Investigative role of nurses which
 Teaching roles can help in the further improves the nursing
development of the nursing practice.
profession especially in  Research substantiates practices
education. as they were tested and further
IV. COUNSELOR studied upon.
 Nurses helps clients to cope with IX. CHANGE AGENT
stress brought about their health  Identifies the problem
conditions.  Assesses the client’s motivations
 Also facilitates the client’s and capacities for change
growth in all aspects: physical,  Determines alternatives
emotional, psychological, and
even spiritual. EXPANDED ROLE OF NURSES
V. LEADER 1. NURSE GENERALIST
 Positive, goal – oriented behavior  Has mastery in certain practice of
involving an exchange with other nursing.
people. 2. NURSE CLINICIAN
 Leadership is an attempt to  Perform direct nursing actions in
influence others. specialty areas.
 The process of influencing helps  May or may not have advanced
the client in making decisions to educational preparations as long
establish and achieve their goals as they are certified by a
toward alleviating their governing body to perform such
conditions. duties.
VI. MANAGER 3. NURSE PRACTITIONER
 Involves planning, giving  Requires advanced educational or
direction, developing staff, nursing practice and must be certified
monitoring operations, giving governing body that they may
rewards fairly, and representing practice so.
both staff members and
administration as needed.
VII. CLIENT ADVOCATE
  Can prescribe medications, diagnose Catholics and Russian backing
illnesses, and provide treatment much Orthodox Christians. The Russia Czar
like physicians do. Nicholas mobilized his army,
 Do not have to work under the occupying parts of the Ottoman
supervision of a doctor. Empire in present day Romania. In
4. NURSE SPECIALIST response, France and Britain allied
 Requires one to have master’s degree with the ottoman Turks and declared
in nursing and must have war on Russia in March 1854 framing
specialization in a particular field of conflict as a holy war between Easter
nursing. Christianity and Islam.
 Tends to be administrative, research NIGHTINGALE’S CONTRIBUTION
and or program – development DURING THE WAR
oriented.
 During Crimean, she received a
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE (1820 – request from Sidney Herbert who is a
1910) family friend and the Secretary of
 Known as the “Mother of Modern War to go to Scutari, Turkey to
Nursing” provide trained nurses to care
 Born on May 12, 1820 in Florence, wounded British soldiers.
Italy daughter of Edward and  She arrived there on November 1854
Frances Nightingale. accompanied by 34 newly recruited
 Also called the “Lady with the nurses who were young middle class
Lamp”. women with basic general education.
 Studied nursing in three months.  She addressed the environmental
 Focused on changing and problems that existed, including lack
manipulating the environment in of sanitation and presence of filth.
order to put the patient in the best
possible conditions for nature to act
upon them.
 1837, Nightingale decided to help the THE ENVIRONMENTAL THEORY
suffering masses and desired to work
in a hospital. She go to the  Nightingale viewed the manipulation
Kaisersworth, Germany to study of the physical environment as a
nursing from the Fliedner School of major component of nursing care.
Nursing, the first nursing school  She identified the following aspects
managed by Protestant pastor as a major areas of the physical,
Theodor Fliedner. social, and psychological
environment that the nurse could
THE CRIMEAN WAR control such as;
 Arose from conflict over access to I. HEALTH OF HOUSES
holy sites in the Ottoman Empire,  Related to the presence of pure air,
with France supporting Roman pure water, efficient drainage,
cleanliness, and light
  She noted that the cleanliness outside  Noises that may irritate patients are
the house affected the inside. jewelries worn by nurses, snapping of
 According to Nightingale, “badly rubber gloves, the clank of
constructed houses do for the healthy stethoscope against metal bed rails,
what badly constructed hospitals do radios, TV’s, telephones ringing,
for the sick. Once stagnant air is machines that beep or alarm.
stagnant, sickness is certain to V. VARIETY
follow”  The variety in the environment was a
II. VENTILATION AND WARMING critical aspect affecting the patient’s
 She believed that it was essential to recovery.
“keep the air breathes as pure as the  She believed in the need for changes
external air without chilling him” in color and form, including bringing
 Also that foul odors affect the client’s the patient brightly colored flowers or
health. This comes from the raw plants.
sewage, ditches, excrement bedpans,  Noted that the mind greatly affects
urinals and other utensils used to the body.
discard excrement. VI. BED AND BEDDING
 Also emphasized the importance of  Postulated that an adult exhales about
room temperature. The patient should three pints of moisture through the
not be too warm or too cold. lungs and skin in a 24 hrs period. This
III. LIGHT organic matter enters the sheets and
 She noted that light “quite real and stays there unless the bedding is
tangible effects upon the human changed and aired frequently.
body”  Reminded the caregiver never to lean
 She advocated that the sick needs against, sit upon or unnecessarily
both fresh air and light – direct shake the bed of the patient.
sunlight was what clients wanted.  It remains important for the nurse to
 Lack of environmental stimuli like keep bedding clean, neat and dry, and
isolation rooms, NICU or ICU can to position the patient for maximum
lead to confusion or psychosis to the comfort.
lack of the usual cycling of day and VII. CLEANLINESS OF ROOMS AND
night. WALLS
IV. NOISE  She emphasized that “the greater part
 She believed that patients should of nursing consist in preserving
never be waked intentionally during cleanliness”
the first part of sleep.  Urges the removal of dust with the
 The whispered or long conversations use of damp cloth rather than a feather
about patients are thoughtless and duster.
cruel, especially when held so that the  Floors should be cleaned rather than
patients knows or assumes the being covered with dust trapping
conversation is about him. carpets.
  Furniture and walls should be easily  She encouraged the nurse to heed
washed and not damaged by coming what is being said by visitors,
in contact with moisture. believing that sick persons should
VIII. PERSONAL CLEANLINESS hear good news that would assist
 She viewed the function of the skin is them in becoming healthier.
important. XI. OBSERVATION OF THE SICK
 Believed that unwashed skin  “The most important practical lesson
poisoned the patient and noted that that can be given to nurses is to teach
bathing and drying the skin provided them what to observe, how to
great relieved to the patient. observe, what symptoms indicate
 Also advocated that personal improvement, what is the reverse,
cleanliness extended to the nurse and which are of the importance, which
that “every nurse ought to wash her are of none, which are evidence of
hands frequently during the day” neglect.”
IX. NUTRITION  She felt strongly about the importance
 She addressed the importance of of obtaining complete and accurate
variety in the food served to patients. information about the patients that
 She observed that individuals desire she said, “if you cannot get the habit
different foods at different times of of observation on way or another, you
the day and that frequently small had better give up as a nurse, for it is
servings may be more beneficial to not your calling, however kind and
the patient than a large breakfast or anxious you may be”
dinner.  Urges precise, specific, and
 Urged that no business be done with individualized questions and
patient while they are eating because observations and warns against
this was distraction. failure to observe and the use of
 Also urged that the right food be averages to describe expectations of
brought at the right time and “be the individual.
taken away, eaten or uneaten, at the XII. PETTY MANAGEMENT
right time.”  She discussed “petty management” or
X. CHATTERING HOPES AND ways to assure that “what you do
ADVICES when you are there, shall be done
 She perceived that to falsely cheer the when you are not there”.
sick by making light of their illness  Believed that the house and the
and its danger is not helpful. hospital needed to be well – managed
 It considered stressful for patient to and that it is organized, clean, and
hear opinions after only brief with appropriate supplies.
observations had been made. METAPARADIGM IN NURSING
 False hope was depressing to patients,
she felt, and caused them to worry PERSON
and become fatigued.  Nightingale envisioned the person as
comprising physical, intellectual,
 emotional, social, and spiritual SCOPE – is a wide as life itself wherever
components. there is life chemical processes are occurring.
HEALTH PHYSIOLOGY – study of body function

 She wrote “healthy is not to be well, IMMUNOLOGY – employs numerous

but to be able to use well ever power biochemical techniques
we have.”
PHARMACOLOGY & PHARMACY –
ENVIRONMENT rest on a sound knowledge of biochemistry
and physiology. Most drug are metabolized
 She define that environment as by enzyme catalyzed reactions and the
anything that can be manipulated to complex interactions among drugs are best
place a patient in the best possible understood biochemically.
condition for nature to act.
TOXICOLOGY – poisons act on
NURSING biochemical reactions or processes.
 She believed nursing to be a spiritual PATHOLOGY – study of disease.
calling. Nurses were assist nature to
repair the patient. All diseases are manifestations of
abnormalities of molecules, chemical
reactions, or processes.
BIOCHEMISTRY MAJOR CAUSE OF DISEASE
 Science with the various molecules 1. Physical Agent – mechanical trauma,
that occur in living cells and organism extremes of temperature, sudden
with chemical reaction. changes in atmospheric pressure,
 Detained as the science concerned radiation, electric shock.
with the chemical basis of life “bios” 2. Chemical Agents and drugs –
means life. certain toxic compounds, therapeutic
 Science concerned with chemical drugs, etc.
constituents of living cells and with 3. Biologic agents – viruses, rickettside,
the reactions and processes that they bacteria, fungi, higher forms of
undergo. parasites.
 Encompasses wide areas of cell 4. Oxygen lack – loss of blood supply,
biology and all of molecular biology. depiction of the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood, poisoning of
TWO CENTRAL CONCERS OF THE
the oxidative enzymes.
HEALTH SCIENCES
5. Genetic – congenital, molecular.
1. Understanding and maintenance of 6. Immunologic reactions –
health Anaphylaxis, autoimmune disease.
2. Understanding and effective 7. Nutritional Imbalances –
treatment of disease Nutritional deficiencies, nutritional
excesses.
CELL – structural unit of living systems.
 8. Endocrine Imbalances – hormonal TRANSLATION – to synthesize proteins
deficiencies, hormonal excess. for cellular function it produces proteins.
MAJOR ELEMENT OF HUMAN BODY MAJOR INTRACELLULAR
ORGANELLES AND FUNCTION
C-arbon
NUCLEUS (DNA) – site of chromosomes
H-ydrogen
and DNA-directed RNA synthesis
O-xygen (transcription).
N-itrogen MITOCHONDRION (GLUTAMIC
DEHYDROGENASE) – citric acid cycle,
FIVE (5) MAJOR COMPLEX oxidative phosphorylation.
BIOMOLECULES OF CELL AND
TISSUES RIBOSOME (HIGH CONTENT OF
RNA) – site of protein synthesis (translation
1. DNA (DEOXYNUCLEOTIDE) – of mRNA into protein)
genetic material
2. RNA (RIBONUCLEOTIDE) – ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
template for protein synthesis. (GLUCOSE-PHOSPHATASE) –
3. PROTEIN (AMINO ACID) – usually membrane-bound ribosomes are a major site
they are that molecules of the cell that of protein synthesis, synthesis of various
carry out work. lipids.
4. POLYSACCHARIDE (GLUCOSE) –
LYSOSOME (ACID PHOSPHATASE) –
short-term storage of energy as glucose.
site of hydrolases (enzymes catalyzing
5. LIPIDS (FATTY ACIDS) – membrane
degradative reactions)
components and long-term storage of
energy as Triacylglycerol. PLASMA MEMBRANE – transport of
molecules in and out of cells, intercellular
SCHOENHEINMERS – the dynamic who
adhesion and communication.
highlighted the nature of metabolism.
GOLGI APPARATUS (GALACTOSY
CHIEF COMPONENTS OF THE
TRANSFERASE) – intracellular sorting o
HUMAN BODY
proteins glycosylation reactions sulfation
PROTEIN, FAT, CARBOHYDRATE, reactions.
WATER, AND MINERAL
PEROXISOME (CATALASE) –
INTRACELLULAR FLUID – inside of the degradation of certain fatty acids and amino
cell, not functioning if no nucleic acid. acids. Production and degradation of
hydrogen peroxide.
SUBCELLULAR FLUID – outside of the
cell. CYTOSKELETON – microfilaments,
microtubules, intermediate filaments.
TRANSCRIPTION – to make RNA copies
of genes it produces mRNA, tRNA, rDNA CYTOSOL (LACTATE
and non-coding RNA. DEHYDROGENASE) – enzymes of
glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis.
MACRONUTRIENTS – use large amount pH - used to denote the concentration of
of nutrients. The nutritive components of hydrogen ions in cells.
food that the body needs for energy to
- It was introduced in 1909 Sorensen.
maintain the body structure and system.
Define pH as the negative log of the
 Carbohydrates, Protein, Fats – for energy. hydrogen ion concentration.
MICRONUTRIENTS – use of small FORMULA:
amount of nutrients.
 Vitamins, Minerals, Water – for immune
system
WATER MOLECULE
 K – Termed as dissociation constant.
 1mol of water weights 1.8g
 One liter (L) (100g)
FORMULA:

BIOMOLECULES – most essential organic

molecules involve.
FOUR (4) CLASSES OF
BIOMOLECULES
1. PROTEINS – most abundant of all
organic compounds. Well known as
great source of energy.
2. CARBOHYDRATES – most
diverse among biomolecules.
3. LIPIDS – containing chains of
hydrocarbons.
4. NUCLEIC ACID – largest
molecules that is composed of several
nucleotide submits.
BIOMOLECULE MONOMER POLYMER
S S S
Carbohydrates Monosacchari Polysacchari
des des
Protein Amino Acids Polypeptides
Lipids Fatty Acids Fats, Oil,
Steroids,
waxes
 Nucleic Acid Nucleotides DNA, RNA, 3. AMINO ACIDURIAS – disease
ATP due to abnormalities in the transport
amino acids into cells. Characterized
MONOMER – repeating submit, single by increased number amino acids in
atom, small molecule, or molecular fragment urine.
that, when bonded together with identical and Amino acids are the group of organic
similar types of monomers biomolecules that passes 2 oppositely
POLYMER – large molecules charged functional groups covalent bounded
to same carbon atom.
AMINO ACID – building block for proteins.
Basic structural building units of protein and 1. Amino group (NH3+) – positively
other biomolecules. Utilized as energy charged
source. 20 amino acids. 2. Acid/Carboxylic group (COO-) –
negatively charged
KEY ELEMENTS OF AMINO ACID
4 valencies on a single carbon atom (C1) of
1. CARBON Amino Acid is occupied by:
2. HYDROGEN
3. OXYGEN 1. Amino group (NH3+)
4. NITROGEN 2. Acid/Carboxylic group (COOH)
3. Hydrogen (H)
TWO (3) GROUPS OF AMINO ACIDS 4. R chain – can be any group
1. ESSENTIAL – unable to be created CHEMICAL REACTIONS
by body gain through diet/food.
- SALT FORMATION
Phenylalanine Methionine - ESTERFICATION
Valine Histidine - ACYLATION
Threonine Leucine - These are expected reactions of
Tryptophan Lysine carboxyl and amino groups.
Isoleucine
2. NON-ESSENTIAL – can be CHARGE OF AMINO ACID
synthesized by body. - CATION – as an atom or molecule
Alanine that is positively charged.
Serine - ZWITTERIONS – contain positive
Glycine and negative charges within the same
Proline molecule and can act as both an acid
Aspartic Acid and a base in a chemical reaction.
Glutamic Acid - ANIONIC – as an atom or molecule
Glutamine that is negatively charged.
Arginine CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Cysteine
Asparagine - Based in the R chain
Tyrosine
ALIPHATIC SIDE CHAIN – contains only SIDE CHAIN (R)
carbon or hydrogen atoms.
2 CLASSIFICATION
HYROXYLUC (OH) GROUPS – alcoholic
1. POLAR – acidic, neither, basic
group containing amino acid.
2. NON-POLAR – mostly hydrocarbon
SULFUR ATOMS – means the R group is
VISUALIZING AMINO ACID
replaced by sulfur.
NINHYDRIN – commonly used to detect
ACIDIC GROUPS OR THEIR AMIDES
amino acid. The most widely used chemical
– these are the negatively charged amino
reagent for the detection of latent
acid.
fingermarks on porous surfaces. Produces
BASIC GROUPS – they have an excess blue color that is basis for quantitative test of
amount of base. These are positively charged AC.
amino acid.
FLOURESCAMINE – used as a reagent for
CONTAINING AROMATIC RINGS – the detection of amines and peptides. More
aromatic organic compounds that consist sensitive, forms a complex of amine.
only of a conjugated planar ring system.
CHROMATOGRAPHIC SEPERATION
IMINO ACIDS – the amino group is not – a separation method where a mixture is
free, instead it is bond in a ring structure. divided into two phases.
L-a-amino acid – all naturally occurring 1. STATIONARY PHASE – solid
amino acids in proteins. phase or a liquid phase coated on the
surface of a solid phase.
PROTONIC EQUILIBRIA
2. MOBILE PHASE – flowing over the
pKa = logKa+ stationary phase is a gaseous or liquid
phase.
- Expressed the value or the strength of - Separation depends on the association
an acid in an amino acid. of the live molecules in the mixture to
ISOELECTRIC pH either polar or non-polar.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY – method
of separating colored chemicals or dissolved
chemical substances.
FORMATION OF PEPTIDE BONDS –
synthesize peptide bonds between 2 amino
acids by activating the carboxyl group
activation involves initial condensation with
ATP.
BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THREE AND ONE-LETTER
ABBREVIATIONS USED TO NAME
- Peptides are of immense biomedical
AMINO ACIDS IN PEPTIDES
interest, particularly in
endocrinology. POLYPEPTIDES – contains 100 or more
residues, either 3-letter or 1-letter
Major hormones are peptides
abbreviation for the amino acids.
Ex: insulin
Glu – Ala – Lys – Gly – Try – Ala
PEPTIDES – are just chains of amino acids.
Three-letter abbreviation – Alanine = Ala
They’re formed by condensation (change of
the state) of two amino acids. One-letter abbreviation – Valine = V
- The amino acids are covalently linked HEXAPEPTIDE – a peptide made of six
by a peptide bond formed between the amino acid
amino group of one amino acid and
HEPTAPEPTIDDE – a peptide made of 7
the carboxyl group of the next.
amino acid
- Amino acids which have been
incorporated into a peptide are termed HYDROLYSIS - most common way to
“residues”, every peptide has a N- break peptide bonds, using either acid or
terminus and C – terminus residue on base.
the end of the peptide.
PROTEINS – most diverse among the
POLYPEPTIDE – is a long, continuous, and biomolecules. It is a central compound
unbranched peptide. necessary for life, also known as life building
blocks.
PEPTIDE BONDS – amino acids are linked
together by condensation reaction between - It plays major roles as antibodies,
carboxylic and amino groups from two enzymes, hormones, and
different amino acids with removal of water. reproduction, and even normal vision.
- The amine bond formed is called SIMPLE PROTEIN – are peptide chains
peptide bond. having amino acid only.
TYPES OF PEPTIDES COMPLEX PROTEIN – have an
additional, non-amino acid materials such as
1. DIPEPTIDE – contain 2amino acid,
heme, vitamin derivatives, lipid, or
1 peptide bond.
carbohydrate.
2. TRIPEPTIDE – contain 3 amino
acid, 2 peptide bonds. CLASSIFICATION BY SOLUBILITY
3. OLIGOPEPTIDE – contain a small
number of amino acids (typically up - Developed in 1907 – 1908
to 10) - Limited in clinical biochemistry
4. POLYPEPTIDE – longer chains of - Lines of demarcation between the
amino acids, often considered to be classes are not stringent
the building blocks of proteins. CLASSIFICATION BY OVERAALL
SHAPE
2 BROAD CLASSES OF PROTEINS - Contains regions of amino acid chains
that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds
1. GLOBULAR PROTEINS – have
from the polypeptide backbone.
axial ratios less than 10 (generally not
These hydrogen bonds create alpha-
over 3-4)
helix and beta-pleated sheets of the
2. FIBROUS PROTEINS – have axial
secondary structure.
ratios greater than 10, have group of
polypeptide chains coiled in spiral & Alpha-helix – most common spiral
crosslinked by hydrogen bonds. structure of the protein in which the
amino acids are tightly packed and coiled,
HYDROGEN BONDS FORM
formation is lowest energy.
- Form between bonding residues in the
Beta-sheet or Beta-pleated sheet –
side chains of peptides-linked amino
hydrogen bond is formed between the
acids.
neighboring segments of polypeptides.
THE a-helix
- The peptide is held together giving a
- is one structural theme for sheet-like structure.
maintaining ordered conformations in - Can be parallel (same direction) or
proteins. antiparallel (opposite direction)
3. TERTIARY STRUCTURE – the
PARALLEL BATA PLEATED SHEETS three dimensional arrangement of
– a type of polypeptide strands run in the protein structure. The hydrophobic
same direction. Hydrogen bond in parallel side chain is held inside and
beta sheets are less stable. hydrophobic groups are held outside
ANTIPARALLEL BETA SHEETS - a (surface).
type of beta sheets in two polypeptide strands 4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE –
run in the opposite direction. Well oriented essential for the protein’s overall
hydrogen bond (stable). functionality and often plays a key
role in its biological activity.
ASPECTS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURES
X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY – the
1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE – a linear secondary & tertiary structure of proteins is
structure of protein and forms the revealed by x-ray crystallography.
backbone of proteins and responsible
for functions. MYOGLOBIN – is a single polypeptide that
- the sequence of amino acids linked stores oxygen in red muscle tissue. Contains
together to form a polypeptide chain. a heme prosthetic group with a central ferrous
- Peptide bonds form when amino and iron atom that can bind oxygen.
carboxylic groups of two amino acids - Is predominantly nonpolar, with the
interact. exception of two histidine residues
2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE – the involved in oxygen binding.
shape of polypeptide through twisting - Has a compact, globular structure that
and folding. is about 75% a-helix.
HEMOGLOBIN - is s tetrameric protein - Function oxygen storage
found in red blood cells that transports - Oxygen affinity higher
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
PYRROLE - the a carbons are linked by
- Composed of two a and two B methylene bridges in a tetrapyrrole. The B
subunits, each containing a heme carbons bear the substituents of a specific
group. tetrapyrrole such as heme.
- Oxygen-binding curve of hemoglobin
is sigmoidal, indicating cooperative
binding. KOMUNIKASYON SA
AKADEMIKONG FILIPINO
ROLE OF HEME PROTEINS IN
OXYGEN TRANSPORT AND MODERNONG ALPABETONG
STORAGE FILIPINO
- Heme proteins like myoglobin and WIKANG PAMBANSA – binubuo ng iba’t
hemoglobin are essential in oxygen – ibang nasyonalidad at iba’t-ibang wikang
binding and electron transport. katutubo.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE - Itinuturingna isang mabisang bigkis
HEME GROUP sa pagkakaisa at pagkakaunawaan.
Sumisimbolo ang damdamin ng
- Heme group is a tetrapyrrole with a
pagkakaisa ng mamamayang may
central ferrous ion. Essential for
iba-ibang wikang katutubo.
ability of myoglobin and hemoglobin
to store and transport oxygen. The SALIGANG BATAS 1987 ARTIKULO 14
arrangement of pyrrole rings and SEKSYON 6 – wikang pambansa ng
substituents determines function. Pilipinas ay Filipino.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION 1987 – taong pinagtibay ang Filipino bilang
wikang pambansa. Mayroong 28 na titik ang
HEMOGLOBIN – is a tetramer composed
Alpabeto.
of four chains of polypeptides with a
quaternary structure. BAYBAYIN – ginamit ng sinaunang tao
mayroon itong labing pitong (17) pantig,
- Found in red blood cells
labing-apat (14) na katinig at tatlong (3)
- Structure have four polypeptide
patinig.
chain, four heme groups
- Function is oxygen transport DR. JOSE P. RIZAL - isinulat ang Estudios
- Oxygen affinity lower Sobre La Lengua Tagala (1899) kasama sa
MYOGLOBIN – is a monomeric protein panukala niya sa ortogapiyang Tagalog ang
made of a single polypeptide chain of amino limang (5) pantig at labing-limang (15)
acids with a tertiary structure. katinig.

- Found in muscle cells LOPE K. SANTOS - 1930 binuo

- Structure have one polypeptide chain, nya ang Abakada na kinabibilangan ng mga
one heme group tunog mula sa wikang Tagalog. Mayroong
dalawangpu (20) na titik, limang (5) patinig lumalaki sa araw-araw at nadaragdagan
at labing limang (15) katinig. ng salita sa bawat panahon.

MANUEL L. QUEZON – DECEMBER SAMPUNG (10) BAHAGI NG

30, 1937 ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas PANANALITA
ay batay sa Tagalog.
1. PANGNGALAN – salitang tumutukoy
Walong (8) Wikang Panrelihiyon sa ngalan ng tao, hayop, pook, bagay, at
pangyayari.
1. Ilokano Dalawang uri ng pangngalan
2. Pangasinese a. PAMBALANA – tumutukoy sa
3. Pangpango karaniwan o pangkalahatang ngalan.
4. Tagalog (hal. Guro)
5. Bikol b. PANTANGI – tumutukoy sa tiyak na
6. Cebuano ngalan o naguumpisa sa malaking
7. Hiligaynon titik. (hal. Bb. Macapugas)
8. Waray Samaron 2. PANGHALIP – salitang ginagamit na
panghalili sa pangalan ng tao, bagay,
PITONG (7) KATANGIAN NG WIKA lugar at pangyayari upang maiwasan ang
pag-uulit.
1. MAY SISTEMATIK NA
Uri ng Panghalip
BALANGKAS – ang bawat wika ay may
a. PANGHALIP PANAO – ginagamit
pnolohikal at gramatikal na sistema.
na pamalit sa mga pangalan na
2. BINIBIGKAS NA TUNOG –
pangtao. (hal. ako, ikaw)
binubuong mga tunog na nagmumula sa
b. PANGHALIP PAARI – nagsasaad
mga sangkas ng pananalita.
ng pag-aari ng isang bagay. (hal.
3. PINIPILI AT ISINASAAYOS – ang
Akin, kaniya)
wika ay hindi magulo o walang
c. PANGHALIP PANANONG – iyo
kaayusang mga tunog. May mga tamang
ay humahalili sa mga pangngalang
termino para ipahayag ang isang ideya.
nagtatanong. (hal. Sino, ano)
4. ARBITARI – ang bawat wika ay pinipili
at isinasaayos sa paraang d. PANGHALIP PAMATLIG –
ginagamit na pamalit sa mga salitang
napagkasunduan ng mga tao na
nagtuturo. (hal. Dito, doon)
nabibilang.
5. NAKABATAY SA KULTURA – ang e. PANGHALIP PAMILANG -
ginagamit sa bilang, halaga, o dami
wika ay tagapagpanatili at tagapaglipat
ng pangngalan o panghalip. (hal. Ilan,
ng kultura.
marami)
6. PATULOY NA GINAGAMIT – ang
f. PANGHALIP PANAKLAW –
wika ay Sistema ng sinsalita at isinusulat
panghalip na sumasaklaw sa
na mga simbulo sa pamamagitan ng mga
kaisahan, dami, o kalahatang
tao na nabibilang sa isang grupo at bahagi
tinutukoy. (hal. Madla, pangkat)
ng kultura.
3. PANDIWA – salitang nagsasaaad ng
7. DAYNAMIK O NAGBABAGO – ang
kilos o galaw (hal. Kumakain, tumatalon)
wika ay nagbabago, lumalawak at
4. PANGATNIG – ginagamit pang-ugnay mga pangungusap. (hal. ay, pa, ba, nga,
sa isang salita o lipon ng mga salita sa po).
iisang pangusap. (hal. Ngunit, at, subalit)
5. PANG-ABAY – bahagi ng pananalita na LIMANG (5) URI NG WIKA AYON SA
nagbibigay bahagi ng pananalitang turing GAMIT
sa pandiwa, pang-uri o kapwa pang-abay.
(hal. Paano, kalian) 1. PASALAYSAY – nagbibigay ng
impormasyon, opinion, pahayag, o
6. PANG-UKOL – bahagi ng pananalitang
nag-uugnay sa pangalan, panghalip, kaisipan. Ito ay karaniwang nagtatapos sa
pandiwa at pangabay na oinag-uukulan tuldok (.) ( Hal. Maraming magagandang
ng kilos, gawa at balak o layon. lugar na mapupuntahan sa Pilipinas.)
7. PANG-ANGKOP – ito ay katagang 2. PATANONG – ginagamit upang
naguugnay sa magkakasunod na salita sa magtanong o humingi ng impormasyon.
isang pangungusap, upang banayad o Ito ay nagtatapos sa tandang pananong (?)
magaan ang pagbigkas ng mga ito. 3. PADAMDAM – nagpapahayag ng
Na – nag-uugnay ng dalawang salita matinding damdamin tulad ng galak,
kung sa naunang salita ay nagtatapos sa pagkagulat, pahanga, o pagkadismaya.
katinig. (hal. Malinis na hangin.) Ito ay nagtatapos sa tandang padamdam
Ng – isinusulat karugtong ng mga (!)
salitang nagtatapos sa patinig. (hal. 4. PAUTOS – ginagamit upang mag-utos o
Pinipigilan ng malalaking ugat ng mga magbigay ng direksyon. Ito ay maaaring
puno ng baha.) magtapos sa tuldok (.) o tandang
8. PANG-URI – ito ay bahagi ng pananalita padamdam (!)
na binabago ang isang pangngalan na 5. PAKIUSAP – isang uri ng pautos na
karaniwang isinalalarawan ito o mas nagpapahayag ng pakiusap o kahilingan.
ginagawang particular ang pangngalan. Ito ay karaniwang nagtatapos sa tuldok (.)
(hal. Matamis ang inihain na mangga sa o tandang pananong (?)
hapag kainan.)
WALONG (8) URI NG PANGUNGUSAP
9. PANTUKOY – ito ay katagang
NA WALANG PAKSA
ginagamit pantukoy sa pantao, bagay,
lunan, o pangyayari. 1. EKSISTENSYAL – nagpapahayag ng
Dalawang uri ng Pantukoy pagkakaron o pagkawalang
a. Pantukoy na Pambalana – pinaguusapan. (hal. Wala pang bisita)
tumutukoy sa pangngalan pambalana. 2. TEMPORAL – nagsasaad ng kalagayan
Ang – isahan o panahong panandalian lamang. (hal.
Ang mga – maramihan. Umaga na.)
b. Pantukoy na Pantangi – tumutukoy 3. PENOMENAL – nagpapahayag ng
sa pangngalang pantangi o tiyak na kalagayan ng panahon o kapaligiran. (hal.
ngalan. Mainit ngayon.)
(si, sina, ni, nina, kay, kina) 4. PANAWAG – nagpapahiwatig na nais
10. PANGAWING – ito ay ang kausapin ang tinatawag o kumukuha ng
nagpapakilala ng ayos ng mga bahagi ng atensyon. (hal. teka!, Hoy!)
5. SAMBITLA – isang salita na a. Ginagamit sa katapusan ng mga
nagpapahayag ng matinding damdamin. pangungusap na patanong. Hal. Ano
(hal. Aray!, Wow!) ang pangalan mo?
6. PORMULARYONG PANLIPUNAN – b. Sa loob ng panaklong upang
mga ekspresyon na ginagamit sa magpahiwatig ng pag-aalinlangan sa
pakikipagkapwa at nagpapahayag ng diwa ng pangungusap. Hal. Si Manuel
mensahe sa isang maayos na paraan. Roxas ang ikalawang (?) pangulo ng
Tulad ng pagbati, pasasalamat, Republika ng Pilipinas.
paggalawang, o iba pang ekspresyong 3. PADAMDAM (!) – ginagamit sa hulihan
bahagi na ng kultura. ng isang kataga, parilala o pangungusap
7. SAGOT LAMANG – ito ang sagot sa na nagsasaaad ng matindi o masidhing
mga tanong na hindi na kailangan ng damdamin. Hal. Uy! Ang ganda ng bago
paksa. (hal. Oo. Hindi.) mong sapatos.
8. PAUTOS/PAKIUSAP – pangungusap 4. KUWIT (,)
nap autos o pakiusap. (hal. Pakitapon.) a. Ginagamit upang ihiwalay sa
pangungusap ang salitang ginagamit
LABINGISANG (11) MGA BANTSA SA na palagyong panawag. Hal. Nene,
PANGUNGUSAP ano ang ginagawa mo?
1. TULDOK (.) b. Ginagamit pagkatapos ng bating
a. ginagamit na pananda. Ginagamit panimula ng liham pangkaibigan o
din sa katapusan ng pangungusap na pansarili. Hal. Mahal kong ina,
paturol at pautos. c. Ginagamit pagkatapos ng bating
Hal: Mag-aral kayong mabuti. pangwaks ng liham. Hal. Ang iyong
- Kung ang pangungusap ay nagtatapos kaibigan,
sa mga pinaikling salita hindi na d. Ginagamit panghiwalay ng mga
dinadalawa ang tuldok. Hal: Si Jay ay salitang parirala at mga signay na
nag-aaral sa P.S.H.S. sunud-sunod. Hal. Nanguha ako ng
b. Ginagamit din sa mga salitang bayabas, mangga, at santol.
dinaglat gaya ng ngalan ng tao, titulo e. Ginagamit panghiwalay ng mga
o ranngo, pook, sangay ng bilang petsa, o pamuhatang liham.
pamahalaan, kaisipan, buawan, orasa, Hal. Ang ate ko ay ipinanganak
bansa atbp. Hal: Si Gng. Santos ay noong Disyembre 8, 2994 sa Sta.
hindi na nagtuturo. Cruz Manila.
c. Ginagamit din pagtapos ng mga f. Ginagamit panghiwalay ng sinasabu
tambilang at titik sa bawat hati ng ng nagsasalita sa ibang bahagi ng
isang balangkas o ng talaan. Hal: I. A. pangungusap. Hal. “Mag-aral kang
1. a. mabuti,” ang sabi ng ina.
- Hindi tinutuldukan ang mga g. Ginagamit panghiwalay ng di-
tambilangat titik kapag nakinukulong makabuluhang parirala at sugnayan
ng panaklong. Hal. (a) sa mga pangungusap. Hal. Si Nita, na
2. PANANONG (?) aking kapatid, ay mananahi.
h. Ginagamit pagkatapos ng oo o hindi
at mga salitang may himig
 pagdamdam at kung siyang simula ng ang namumulaklak sa hardin tulad
pangungusap. Hal. Oo, pupunta ako ng:Rosal, Rosas, at sampaguita.
sainyo. b. Pagkatapos ng bating panimula ng
5. KUDLIT (‘) – ginagamit bilang kapalit o pormal na liham-pangangalakal. Hal.
kung kumakataawan sa letra o sa mga Dr. Garcia:
salita ay ikinakabit sa unang salita. Hal. c. Paghihiwalay sa mga minuto at oras,
tuwa at hapis – tuwa’t hapis sa yugto ng tagpo sa isang dula, sa
6. GITLING (-) kabanata at taludtod ng bibliya. Hal.
a. Sa pag-ulit ng salitang-ugat o mahigit 8:00 a.m
sa isang pantig ng salitang-ugat. Hal. 8. TUTULDOK – KUWIT (;) – ito ay
araw-araw. naghuhudyat ng pagtatapos ng isang
b. Kung ang unlapi ay nagtatapos sa pangungusap na kaagad sinusundan ng
katinig at ang salitang nilalapian ay isa pang sugnay nang hindi gumagamit
nagsisimula sa patinig na kapag hindi ng pangatnig.
ginitlingan ay magkakaron ng ibang 9. PANIPI (“ ”) – inilalagay sa unahan at
kahulugan. Hal. mag-alis dulo ng isang salita.
c. Kapag may katagang kinaltas sa 10. PANAKLONG ( ( ) ) – ginagamit na
pagitan ng dalawang salitang pambukod sa salita o mga salitang hindi
pinagsama. Hal. pamatay ng insekto – direktang kaugnay ng diwa ng
pamatay-insekto. pangungusap.
d. Kapag may unlapi ang tanging ngalan 11. TUTULDOK-TULDOK o ELIPSIS
ng tao, lugar, brand o tatak ng isang (…) – nagpapahiwatig na kusang ibinitin
bagay o kagamitan, sagisag o ng nagsasalita ang karugtong ng nais
simbolo. Hal. maka-Diyos sabihin.
e. Sa pag-uulit ng unang pantig ng
tanging ngalang may unlapi, ang
gitling ay nalilipat sa pagitan ng inulit
na unang pantig ng tanging ngalan at
ang buong tanging ngalan. Hal.
magja-japan.
f. Kapag ang panlaping ika- ay iniunlapi
sa numero o pamilang. Hal. ika-3 n.h.
g. Isinusulat nang patitik ang mga yunit
ng fraction. Hal. isang-kapat (1/4)
h. Kapag pinagkakabit o pinagsasama
ang apelyido ng babae at ng kanyang
asawa. Hal. Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo.
i. Kapag hinahati ang isang salita sa
dulo ng isang linya.
7. TUTULDOK (:)
a. Kung may lipon ng mga salitang
kasunod. Hal. Maraming halaman