BBMTRCRTL

BeyondBits
Issue 8
MOTOR CONTROL EDITION

Motor Control
Introducing Motor Control

Motor control and motor drive solutions
With a rich history of innovation in motor control, Freescale is dedicated to continue our commitment to
understand and solve the current roadblocks developers face with a comprehensive portfolio of solutions.
The latest edition of Beyond Bits captures the attention of both novice and advanced motor control
developers looking to:
• Reduce development time by jump starting their effort with reference designs, application notes
and a global support team
• Increase power efficiency by using the most advanced control techniques available through
differentiated hardware platforms and peripherals, motor control libraries, and unique tools to
optimize these systems
• Decrease system costs via a best-in-class portfolio of high-performance, low-power MCUs

capable of very flexible, innovative control implementations
• Comply with safety and energy mandates via complimentary libraries and advanced algorithms
Beyond Bits provides a brief glimpse into the breadth and scope of the Freescale motor control portfolio,
much of it unique and built over decades of research and development. We discuss the advantages of
different motor types and the methods of control, followed by a portfolio overview and a helpful selection
guide. Next, we provide application examples and techniques we’ve implemented using our solutions,
and we close with our software and development tools offerings. Solutions such as reference designs,
application notes, software, tools and MCU families are listed at the end of each article to help you get
started right away on your next design.
Freescale continues to partner with innovators to make motors quieter, more efficient, smaller and to
reduce mechanical vibration, and hopefully we can help you make them even smarter.
To refine your motor skills, visit freescale.com/motorcontrol or contact your local Freescale field
applications engineer.
Regards,
Geoff Lees
Vice President and General Manager,
Industrial and Multi-Market Microcontroller Business
Freescale Semiconductor
freescale.com/motorcontrol
1
Introduction
4 Motor Types and Their Control
7 An Introduction to Freescale MCUs
8 Control Wizard in the Freescale Solution Advisor
Market Trends
10 BLDC Motor Control
13 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control
15 AC Induction Motor Control
17 Switched Reluctance Motors
19 Encoder Signal Processing
Three-Phase Current Measurement
21
Application Examples
25 Select Freescale Solutions for Your Application
27 Motor Applications for Small Appliances
29 Digital Control of Switched Reluctance Motor Drives
31 Industrial/Appliance Consumer Ceiling Fan
Household Washing Machines
34
36 Dual Motor Control for Air Conditioning with 100 MHz/32-bit DSC
38 Industrial/Appliance PMSM Drive
40 Industrial Drives
43 Digital AC Drive Control
45 Servo Robots for Industrial Applications: PMSM with Encoder
47 Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) Machine
49 BLDC Motor Control for Respirators
51 Motor Control Using MQX RTOS
Enablement
53 Freescale Motor Control Boards
55 Freescale Embedded Software Libraries
56 Motor Control Development Toolbox
59 Motor Application Tuning Wizard
60 FreeMASTER
Summary
Table of Contents
Introduction
Introduction
Motor Types and Their Control

Summary of key motor types and control
Overview Motor types that most effectively sensor wiring, sensor power supply
Freescale provides comprehensive meet these requirements include AC and increases reliability. Still, there
motor control solutions for almost all induction motors (ACIM), permanent are applications where higher cost of
electric motor topologies. magnet synchronous motors (PMSM), sensors is not as important as higher
brushless DC motors (BLDC) and position resolution. The most common
Motor Control Application switched reluctance motors (SR). speed/position sensors are:
Requirements The following pages will cover their • Tachogenerators
• Minimize energy losses main characteristics, types of control,
• Hall sensors
• Prevent environment pollution advantages and typical applications.
• Encoders
• Decrease acoustic noise and
power harmonics
Digital Motor Control • Resolvers
Digital control allows more efficient Applications requiring the motor to
• Increase system performance-
motor control with variable speed and operate with a required speed (pumps,
versus-cost ratio
sensorless control. The term sensorless fans, compressors, etc.) are speed
• Increase productivity, flexibility control means that there is no position/ controlled. In variable frequency drives,
and robustness velocity sensor on the motor shaft, so motor speed is typically proportional
• Increase safety and reliability the rotor position/velocity is calculated to frequency. The actual motor speed
• Reduce system size and weight from measured current and voltage. is maintained by a speed controller
• Growth of digital control and The sensorless control provides a to reference speed command.
reducing usage of analog cost-effective and reliable solution that Speed control offers low dynamic
components and total system cost eliminates the position/velocity sensor, performance. For high dynamic and
Figure 1: Electric Motor Type Classification
Electric Motors
AC DC
Asynchronous Synchronous Variable Reluctance
Induction Sinusoidal Brushless Reluctance SR Stepper
Permanent Magnet
Surface PM
Interior PM
Wound Field
4
Beyond Bits Motor Control Edition
stability performance, speed control This requires additional connections Permanent Magnet
with inner current loop (cascade to the motor, which may not be Synchronous Motor
control) is required. The majority of acceptable in some applications.
variable speed drives are controlled by Also, the additional cost of the
cascade control. Most complex drives position sensors and the wiring
(servos, industrial robots, linear motors) may be unacceptable. The physical
require additional position control. connection problem could be solved
Applications requiring the motor by incorporating the driver in the motor
to operate with a specified torque body, however, a significant number
regardless of speed (hand tools, electric of applications do require a sensorless
power steering, traction, vehicles, etc.) solution due to their low-cost nature.
employ torque control. Most BLDC sensorless techniques
are based upon extracting position
Brushless DC Motor
information from the back EMF voltage
of the stator windings while the motor
is spinning. Those techniques could be Similar to BLDC motors, PMSMs
used from 5 percent of nominal speed, have a three-phase stator and a
when back EMF is measurable. BLDC rotor with surface/interior-mounted
back EMF sensorless techniques permanent magnets.
can be used without complex control
A PMSM provides rotation at a fixed
algorithms, due to back EMF voltage
speed in synchronization with the
sensing in unexcited motor phase.
frequency of the power source. PMSMs
Advantages are therefore ideal for high-accuracy
• Heat generated in stator is easy fixed-speed drives. Boasting very high-
to remove power density, very high efficiency and
high response, the motor is suitable for
• High torque per frame size
BLDC motors have a three-phase most sophisticated applications in the
• Reliability due to absence of brushes industrial segment. It also has a high
stator winding and a rotor with
and commutator overload capability. A PMSM is largely
surface-mounted permanent magnets.
A BLDC motor does not have a • Highest efficiency maintenance free, which ensures the
commutator and is more reliable than • Good high-speed performance most efficient operation.
a DC motor. The digital control and • Precise speed monitoring and Synchronous motors operate at
power electronics replace the function regulation possible an improved power factor, thereby
of the commutator and energize the improving the overall system power
proper winding. They are used in home Drawbacks factor and eliminating or reducing utility
appliances (such as refrigerators, • Rotor position sensing required for power factor penalties. An improved
washing machines and dishwashers), commutation power factor also reduces the system’s
pumps, fans and other devices that • Torque ripple voltage drop and the voltage drop at
require high reliability and efficiency. • Position sensor or sensorless the motor terminals.
In the BLDC motor, the rotor position technique is required for motor
Advantages
must be known to energize the phase operation
• Heat generated in stator is easy
pair and control the phase voltage. • Difficult to startup the motor for
to remove
If sensors are used to detect rotor variable load using sensorless
• High torque per frame size
position, then sensed information must technique
• Reliability due to absence of brushes
be transferred to a control unit.
and commutator
• Highest efficiency
• Synchronous operation makes field
orientation easy
5
Introduction
• Good high-speed performance Advantages tries to minimize the reluctance (air gap
• Precise speed monitoring and • Low cost per horsepower distance) of the magnetic circuit. The
regulation possible (no permanent magnets) magnetic field creates a force on the
• Inherent AC operation (direct rotor so that its poles line up with the
• Smooth torque
connection to AC line) poles of stator phase.
Drawbacks
• Very low maintenance (no brushes) Advantages
• Rotor position sensing required
and rugged construction • Low cost resulting from simple
• Position sensor or sensorless
• Available in wide range of construction
technique is required for
power ratings • High reliability
motor operation
• Low-cost speed control • High fault tolerance
• Difficult to startup the motor using
with tachogenerator
sensorless technique • Heat generated in stator is easy
• Simple control (volt per hertz + PFC to remove
AC Induction Motor can handle 8-bit MCU)
• High-speed operation possible
Drawbacks
Drawbacks
• Inefficient at light loads
• Acoustically noisy
• Rotor temperature change
• High vibration
complicates sensorless control
• Magnetic non-linearities make
• Speed control requires varying
smooth torque control difficult
stator frequency
• Dependent on electronic control
• Position control difficult (field
for operation
orientation required)
For more information about Freescale
Switched motor control solutions, visit
Reluctance Motor freescale.com/motorcontrol.
ACIM is the most popular motor for

industrial and consumer applications.
This is due to many factors such
as the lack of commutator/brushes
(high reliability), high efficiency at
high loads and the ability to connect
directly to the AC line. ACIMs have
a classic three-phase stator and
commonly have a “squirrel cage” rotor
in which the conductors are shorted
together at both ends. The operation
principle of ACIM is very similar to a SR motors do not contain magnets
transformer. A rotor current is induced and are constructed such that both
in the rotor circuit from the stator the stator and rotor have salient poles.
windings. This current produces rotor The motor is driven by a sequence of
flux, which interacts with the stator current pulses applied at each phase,
electromagnets to produce torque. which requires control electronics for
operation. The SR motor works on the
principle that the magnetic circuit
6
An Introduction to Freescale MCUs

For motor control
Freescale is a leading supplier of DSC solutions can tailor almost any Our Commitment to
embedded controllers with a strong motor control application. Long-Term Supply
legacy of offering solutions for motor
Freescale is committed to ensuring
control applications. Our broad Kinetis MCUs
our products are available for our
portfolio of MCUs spans across 8-, Based on the 32-bit
customers through the entire lifetime
16- and 32-bit platforms, featuring ARM® Cortex™-M Core of their systems. To that extent,
low-power, analog, control and 32-bit Kinetis MCUs represent the most Freescale commits to a minimum
communications hardware. scalable portfolio of ARM Cortex-M
product cycle of 10, and in some
core-based MCUs in the industry.
cases, 15 years for our MCUs
Freescale 8-bit HC(R)S08 There are more than 300 MCUs in
targeting the industrial, automotive and
MCU portfolio the portfolio spanning the entry-level
medical markets. For product longevity
Our portfolio of 8-bit MCUs provides Kinetis L MCUs based on the ARM
terms and conditions, and to obtain a
a wide range of highly functional Cortex™-M0+ core and Kinetis K series
list of available products, visit
solutions for low- to mid-range MCUs based on the ARM Cortex™-M4
freescale.com/productlongevity.
industrial and automotive motor core with IP compatibility across the
control applications. From tiny RS08 range as well as pin compatibility
devices to highly functional S08 across parts offered within the same
controllers combining timers and portfolio. Enabled by innovative 90 nm
analog integration along with a range thin film storage (TFS) flash technology
of connectivity and HMI peripherals, with unique FlexMemory (configurable
8-bit MCUs are an ideal solution for embedded EEPROM), Kinetis MCUs
simple, cost-sensitive motor control feature the latest low-power innovations
applications. Within the S08 family and high-performance, high-precision
there is a wide range of 5-volt options mixed-signal capability. Kinetis MCUs
are supported by market-leading
that offer more durability and reliability
enablement from Freescale and our
in harsh industrial environments,
ecosystem partners. The Kinetis line is
meeting appliance safety standard
suitable for a wide range of low- to mid-
IEC60730. Our 5-volt S08 families offer
range motor control applications.
exceptional EFT/ESD performance.
16- and 32-bit DSCs It’s More Than Just Silicon

Freescale is dedicated to providing
Freescale DSCs combine DSP
semiconductor solutions that build value
speed with MCU control for the ideal
into your products. When you purchase
industrial motion control solution.
from us, you’re buying more than
These flexible 16- and 32-bit devices
just an embedded processor. You’re
are particularly well suited for electric
getting access to a broad ecosystem of
motor control with timers and analog
technical support services, development
peripherals specifically designed to
tools and training—all designed to make
meet the requirements of the most
your job easier and your end products
demanding motor control application.
better. In this brochure, you will learn
With a range of solutions from cost-
more about the resources we are
effective options in small flash and
providing beyond our MCUs that you
package combinations to highly
can harness through your design effort.
integrated and optimized options, our
7
Introduction
Control Wizard in the

Freescale Solution Advisor
Not sure where to start? The
Figure 1: Find Best-Fit Motor Control Process Solutions
Freescale Solution Advisor is a web-
based tool that helps identify best-fit
processors and tools for any type
of design. The tool can check pin
muxing, identify supporting Tower
System modules, link related reference
platforms, software and application
notes, and then save the details in
one place to share with your team.
The Solution Advisor is so powerful
that we like to call it our “virtual FAE”
who never sleeps.
To recommend best options for
your motor control application, the
embedded Motor Control Wizard
• Which control algorithm? After the Motor Control Wizard works
begins by asking six simple, multiple-
BLDC trapezoidal commutation its magic, you can further refine
choice questions:
control, scalar control (V/Hz), or the recommended processors by
• What is your application? sinusoidal vector control (field- identifying specific requirements, such
oriented control) as the number and type of analog-to-
Large appliance, small appliance,
digital (ADC) interfaces, timers, pulse
power tool, portable electronics, • Which sensor type? width modulators (PWM) and the
computing, data storage
Open loop, hall sensor, encoder, support for tools such as Freescale
equipment, robotics, HVAC,
tacho generator, sensorless, etc. FreeMASTER and the Mathworks
heavy industrial
MATLAB™/Simulink™. The Solution
The Motor Control Wizard knows
• What is your function? Advisor can then recommend
which specialized peripherals and
Compressor, pump, fan, rotator, appropriate Tower System modules,
performance are needed for hundreds
actuator or servo, dual motor link related reference platforms and
of requirement combinations, and how
control, inverter application notes, and save sessions
they map to the available Freescale
for later. No matter when you need
• What motor type are you using? solutions. For example:
assistance, the Freescale Solution
AC induction motor (ACIM), •F
or small motors and appliances, Advisor is ready to help.
brushless DC motor (BLDC), use 8-bit S08 or Kinetis L series
For more information, visit
permanent magnet synchronous controllers
freescale.com/solutionadvisor.
motor (PMSM), etc. •F
or cost-optimized high-performance
motors requiring 20 microsecond
• Select all the features you’d like
control loops, use DSCs
from the list below.
•F
or high-performance motors with
Quiet motor operation, high-
high reliability and IEC61508 safety
speed motor (> 10K RPM),
requirements, use Qorivva MCUs
precise speed, precise torque
control, heavy lifting or high
torque, etc.
8
Market Trends
Market Trends
BLDC Motor Control

Trapezoidal back EMF BLDC motor control techniques
Three-Phase BLDC Motor Figure 1: Six-Step Commutation

The brushless DC (BLDC)
Voltage
motor is also referred to as an +UDCB
electronically commutated motor.

Phase A
There are no brushes on the rotor,
and commutation is performed -UDCB
+UDCB
electronically at certain rotor positions.
Phase B
The stator magnetic circuit is usually
made from magnetic steel sheets. -UDCB
+UDCB
Magnetization of the permanent
magnets and their displacement Phase C
on the rotor are chosen in such a -UDCB
way that the back EMF (the voltage 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º 210º 240º 270º 300º 330º Electrical
induced into the stator winding due to Angle
rotor movement) shape is trapezoidal.

This allows a rectangular shaped
three-phase voltage system (see Figure 2: Power Stage Topology
figure 1) to be used to create a
Three-Phase Power Stage
rotational field with low torque ripples. C
Six-Step BLDC Motor PWM1

SAT
PWM3
SBT
PWM5
SCT
Commutation
The rectangular shape of applied Power
Source A
B
voltage ensures the simplicity of DC Voltage
control and drive. The BLDC motor

PWM2 PWM4 PWM6
rotation is controlled by a six-step SAB SBB SCB
Three-Phase BLDC Motor
commutation technique (sometimes
called 60, 120 degree control).
The six-step technique creates the MOSFET/1 GB Drivers
voltage system with six vectors over PWM1 PWM2 PWM3 PWM4 PWM5 PWM6
one electronic rotation as shown in

Pulse Width Modulator
figure 1. The applied voltage needs (PWM) Module (Flex Timer) MCU
to have amplitude and phase aligned
with the back EMF. Therefore, the
BLDC motor controller must:
motor is controlled with minimal torque Voltage Amplitude
• Control the applied amplitude ripple and maximal power efficiency. Controlled by PWM
•S
ynchronize the six-step
One possibility to control the three-
commutation with the rotor position Three-Phase Power Stage
phase six-step voltage amplitude is
The rotor position must be known at The three-phase six-step voltage
to have a variable power source DC
certain angles in order to synchronize system is created by a three-phase
voltage. This solution requires DC bus
the applied voltage with the back EMF power stage with six IGBTs (MOSFET)
voltage controlled with quite complex
(voltage induced due to movement of power switches controlled by the MCU
topology. The benefit of such a solution
the PM). Under that condition, the BLDC on-chip PWM module.
is the lack of high-frequency current
10
ranges. In that case, one PWM pulse

Figure 3: Six-Step Commutation Specifics
per motor commutation is introduced.
This also means the PWM frequency
A B C varies according to motor speed.
0 Position Feedback
% The rotor position must be known in
1. 3. 5. order to drive a BLDC motor. This is

provided with:
0 • Position sensors, or
%
• Sensorless
2. 4. 6. The solution with position sensors
usually utilizes hall sensors. The main
disadvantages are:
BLDC
ØA •N
ecessity for additional connections
between position sensors and the
ØC ØB control unit
USc = UbackEMFc • Cost of the sensors and wiring
Therefore, sensorless techniques
are much more widespread today.
There are two main groups for the
ripples in the BLDC motor windings, determined by all six transistors (Sat to
sensorless techniques:
resulting in lower loss (especially the Scb) switching as shown in Figure 2.
motor magnetic circuit loss). • Those based on back EMF sensing
The four quadrant control requires
For the majority of the motors and complementary PWMs. The • Low-speed techniques
applications, this is not critical and a complementary PWM means that the The sensorless techniques based on
constant power source DC voltage bottom switch (transistor) is controlled back EMF sensing are dedicated for
is used. The three-phase average with a signal inversed to the top medium (>5 percent of nominal speed)
voltage amplitude is then controlled switch transistor of the same phase. to high-speed range because they
by a PWM technique on the top and The two quadrant control does not require significant value of the induced
bottom transistors of two conducting require complementary control of the back EMF voltage. This voltage is
motor phases (the third phase is off). inverter switches. The unipolar PWM proportional to rotor speed.
The six-step controller uses one of complementary switching is more The low-speed techniques are
two PWM techniques: popular due to lower loss. The applied based mainly on motor inductance
voltage vector at one PWM cycle has alteration on rotor position, so this
• Bipolar PWM switching
the same polarity. The vector amplitude does not require the back EMF
• Unipolar PWM switching
changes from DC bus voltage and and can be used at low-speed, or
There are a few derivatives of the two zero. In the case of the bipolar PWM zero-speed control range. Some of
PWM switching techniques. According switching, the applied voltage vector these techniques require complex
to the operating quadrants of the polarity changes during the PWM hardware which increases system
power stage voltage and current: cycle, so the applied amplitude cost. At high speed, the back EMF is
•F
our quadrant power stage control changes from positive DC bus voltage more significant than the inductance
for motoring and generating mode to negative DC bus voltage. alteration, so most of the controllers
•T
wo quadrant power stage control The PWM frequency is usually use a combination of a low-speed
with motoring mode only constant at >10 kHz. However, a control technique with the back EMF
derivative of the PWM switching based technique. Or, they use the
The bipolar/unipolar switching and
technique is a technique which can back EMF techniques only.
the operating quadrant control is
be used for very high motor speed
11
Market Trends
Sensorless Technique Speed Controller Freescale Enablement

Based on Back EMF The motor rotation speed is usually BLDC controllers usually require
Zero Crossing controlled using the rotor position MCU or DSC devices with PWM,
The rotor position estimation is based feedback provided to the speed ADC, PDB and other modules
on the back EMF voltage induced in regulator. The speed regulator controls supporting BLDC motor control.
the stator phases due to rotor flux the three-phase power stage PWM Freescale motor control devices
(permanent magnet) rotation. The (applied voltage amplitude). support the BLDC motor control.
back EMF voltage phase corresponds Reference designs, application notes
with the rotor position relative to BLDC Motor Control with
and software solutions for BLDC
stator position. PLL Commutation motor control applications are available
One advantage of BLDC motor at freescale.com/motorcontrol.
The six-step commutation specific
control compared to standard DC
feature is that one of the three phases
motors is that the speed can be
is off at a time.
exactly determined with the six-step
After the commutation transient commutation frequency. This allows
(current recirculation, the fly-back for very accurate speed control.
diodes conduct the decaying phase One of the benefits of accurate
current), the current of phase x: BLDC motor speed control is that
ISx = 0 and so USx = BEMFC the commutation period is constant
and the six-step amplitude feedback
The phase back EMF voltage zero
is based on the phase difference
crossing can be measured.
between estimated back EMF zero
The back EMF zero crossing sensing crossing and the required zero
can be provided using ADC or crossing instant.
comparators that usually build inside
the controller devices.
12
Permanent Magnet Synchronous

Motor Control
High-performance and power-efficient motor control
Introduction Figure 1: Field-Oriented Control Vector Explanation
Permanent magnet synchronous
motors (PMSM) are typically used for The “d” axis refers
Axis of phase B to the “direct” axis
high-performance and high-efficiency of the rotor flux
motor drives. High-performance motor
The “q” axis is the axis of Rotor position
control is characterized by smooth motor torque along against phase A
which the stator field (measured by
rotation over the entire speed range must be developed position sensor)
of the motor, full torque control at N
zero speed, and fast acceleration and Rotation Axis of phase A
deceleration. To achieve such control, S

vector control techniques are used for
PM synchronous motors. The vector
Stator windings
control techniques are usually also
referred to as field-oriented control
(FOC). The basic idea of the vector maximal, when they are perpendicular How to Simplify Control
control algorithm is to decompose to each other. It means that we want of Phase Currents to
a stator current into a magnetic to control stator current in such a
field-generating part and a torque-
Achieve Maximum Torque
way that creates a stator vector
generating part. Both components DC motor control is simple because
perpendicular to rotor magnets. As
can be controlled separately after all controlled quantities are DC values
the rotor spins we must update the
decomposition. Then, the structure in a steady state and current phase/
stator currents to keep the stator flux
of the motor controller (vector control angle is controlled by a mechanical
vector at 90 degrees to rotor magnets
controller) is almost the same as a commutator. How can we achieve that
at all times. The reactance torque of
separately excited DC motor, which in PMSM control?
an interior PM type PMSM (IPMSM)
simplifies the control of a permanent is as follows, when stator and rotor DC Values/Angle Control
magnet synchronous motor. magnetic fields are perpendicular. First, we need to know the rotor
Let’s start with some basic Torque =32pplPMIqs position. The position is typically
FOC principles. related to phase A. We can use
pp – Number of pole pairs
an absolute position sensor (e.g.,
Torque Generation lPM – Magnetic flux of the permanent resolver) or a relative position sensor
A reactance torque of PMSM is magnets (e.g., encoder) and process called
generated by an interaction of two Iqs – Amplitude of the current in alignment. During the alignment, the
magnetic fields (one on the stator and quadrature axis rotor is aligned with phase A and we
one on the rotor). The stator magnetic know that phase A is aligned with
As shown in the previous equation, the direct (flux producing) axis. In
field is represented by the magnetic
reactance torque is proportional to the this state, the rotor position is set to
flux/stator current. The magnetic field
amplitude of the q-axis current, when zero (required voltage in d-axis and
of the rotor is represented by the
magnetic fields are perpendicular. rotor position is set to zero, static
magnetic flux of permanent magnets
that is constant, except for the field MCUs must regulate the phase stator voltage vector, which causes that rotor
weakening operation. We can imagine current magnitude and at the same attracted by stator magnetic field and
those two magnetic fields as two bar time in phase/angle, which is not such to align with them [with direct axis]).
magnets, as we know a force, which an easy task as DC motor control.
tries to attract/repel those magnets, is
13
Market Trends
1. Three-phase quantities can

Figure 2: Basic Principle of Field-Oriented Control
transform into equivalent two-phase
quantities (stationary reference Measured Current Generated Voltage
frame) by Clarke transformation.
2. Then, we transform two-phase
quantities into DC quantities by rotor Phase A α d d α Phase A
electrical position into DC values Three-Phase Stationary Rotating
Process
Control
Phase B Phase B
to β to q q to β SVM
(rotating reference frame) by Phase C Two-Phase Rotating Stationary Phase C
Park transformation.
The electrical rotor position is a Electrical rotor Electrical rotor
position position
mechanical rotor position divided by
numbers of magnetic pole pairs pp.
7. Using the space vector modulation, voltage. The calculation of the BEMF
After a control process we should
the output three-phase voltage observer requires math computation
generate three-phase AC voltages
is generated as multiply accumulation, division,
on motor terminals, so DC values
A complete FOC speed PMSM control sin/cos, sqrt which is suited for DSCs,
of the required/generated voltage
structure with Freescale motor control Kinetis ARM core-based MCUs or the
should be transformed by inverse
library functions is shown in the article Power Architecture family.
Park/Clarke transformations.
titled, “Industrial/Appliance PMSM
Amplitude Control Drive,” page 39, figure 2. Field/Flux Weakening
All quantities are now DC values, Control
which are easy to control, but how do Sensorless Control The operation beyond the machine
we control them in magnitude? The rotor position information is base speed requires the PWM inverter
For magnitude control we use PI needed to efficiently perform the to provide output voltages higher than
controllers in the cascade structure. control of the PMS motor, but a rotor its output capability limited by its DC
We can control many state variables position sensor on the shaft decreases link voltage. To overcome the base
as phase current (torque loop), speed the robustness and reliability of the speed limitation, a field-weakening
or position as with DC motors. overall system in some applications. algorithm can be implemented. A
Therefore, the aim is not to use this negative d-axis required current will
FOC in Steps mechanical sensor to measure the increase the speed range, but the
To perform vector control: position directly but instead to employ applicable torque is reduced because
some indirect techniques to estimate of a stator current limit. Manipulating
1. Measure the motor phase currents
the rotor position. These estimation the d-axis current into the machine
2. Transform them into the two- techniques differ greatly in approach has the desired effect of weakening
phase system (a, b) using Clarke for estimating the position or the type the rotor field, which decreases the
transformation of motor to which they can be applied. BEMF voltage, allowing the higher
3. Calculate the rotor position angle stator current to flow into the motor
At low speed, special techniques like
4. Transform stator currents into the with the same voltage limit given by
high frequency injection or open-loop
d,q-coordinate system using the DC link voltage.
start-up (not very efficient) are needed
Park transformation to spin the motor over the speed
Freescale Enablement
5. The stator current torque (isq) and where BEMF is sufficiently high for the
Reference designs, application notes
flux (isd) producing components BEMF observer. Usually, 5 percent of
and software solutions for PMSM
are controlled separately by the base speed is enough for proper
control applications are available at
the controllers operation in sensorless mode.
freescale.com/motorcontrol.
6. The output stator voltage space- At medium/high speed, a BEMF
vector is transformed back from the observer in d/q reference frame is
d,q-coordinate system into the two- used. The PWM frequency and
phase system fixed with the stator control loop must be sufficiently
by inverse Park transformation high to get a reasonable number of
samples of phase current and DC bus
14
AC Induction Motor Control

Operation principles
Introduction was used for speed regulation and

Figure 2: ACIM Incision
This article describes the basic startup. The more common type
operation principles and control of AC consists of a rotor in a squirrel
induction motors (ACIMs). cage form.
AC induction machines are popular Operation Principle

due to their simplicity, reliability and The principle of operation for an ACIM
direct operation from an AC line is based on the voltage induction
voltage. ACIMs are asynchronous from the stator to the rotor. When
machines and always have a lower the stator winding is fed by a three-
mechanical rotor speed than the phase supply voltage, the current
power line frequency. flows in the winding and the stator
Historically, variations to speed rotating magnetic field is generated.
requests was a limitation for AC Induced voltage in the rotor windings
machines, but the development of will create the rotor current and the
frequency converters has simplified rotor magnetic field. The interaction For example, a 50 Hz, six-pole
motor speed changes, and are now between two magnetic fields creates ACIM with 7 percent slip results in
widely used. the mechanical torque needed to turn the following:
the rotor.
ACIM Fabrication
The operational rotor speed is lower
ACIM fabrication begins with a three-
than the stator magnetic field speed in
phase winding placed in the winding
order to achieve rotational torque.
slot of the stator. There are two basic
types of rotor winding concepts. The There are three defined operational
first type places the rotor winding variables of ACIM: synchronous
placed in the winding slot with a slip speed, slip speed and slip. From these results, it is apparent
ring on the shaft, which historically The synchronous speed is proportional that the motor runs at a lower speed
to supply frequency and inversely than the supplied voltage frequency
Figure 1: Example of ACIM proportional to the number of and requires regulation for precise
paired poles. speed operation.
Speed Torque
Characteristic
The slip speed is represented in the The speed torque characteristic shows
difference between the synchronous the ACIM reaction on the load.
speed and the rated speed. The slip The convenient operating point
is the ratio between slip speed and selection is in the middle of the speed
synchronous speed and shows how torque characteristic of the stable part
much the rotor speed falls with of the motor region. In this area, the
the load. speed falls slightly with the load.
15
Market Trends
control of motor torque and

Figure 3: ACIM Speed Torque Characteristic
magnetic flux. The control is based
Torque on the transformation of current/
voltage coordinates from stationary
Operating Point to rotation that makes the control
Motor
similar to DC machine control. The
Stable
Unstable Part Part control incorporates fast torque/
Braking Motor Generator flux current control loops and slower
Region Region Region speed/position control loops. The
FOC requires the knowledge of
Generator
the actual rotor position, which is

typically measured by the encoder or
resolver. In some cases, the sensor
cannot be used and the rotor position
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Speed in percent of synchronous speed
is calculated using the sensorless
observer from measured machine
2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2
Slip as a fraction of synchronous speed currents and voltages.
Advanced control techniques provide
an excellent dynamic performance,
ACIM can operate as a generator There are two groups of control wide speed range from zero speed
but it is necessary to supply machine methods. First, the simple method is and excellent efficiency. They can be
reactive energy because there is named voltage/frequency control (or used for industrial and servo drives
no source of magnetic field. The scalar control) and refers to applied but also for advanced appliance
generator speed torque characteristic voltage that is proportional to applied applications such as washers.
region is central symmetry to torque frequency. This method is simple, is
On the other hand, they require
zero crossing point. On the left there not dependent on motor parameters
a high-performance MCU with
is a braking region. In the case of and can use the entire speed range.
dedicated motor control peripherals.
ACIM in generator mode the slip is a On the other hand, it does not
Freescale offers a family of DSCs, the
negative value. include current controllers and does
MC56F8xxx based on 56F800E/X
not control the machine optimally in
It is evident from the characteristic, cores and ARM Cortex-M4 core-
transient states. This technique is
that the motor start torque is based Kinetis MCUs that provide the
appropriate for fans, pumps
restricted. The full motor start torque ideal solution for advance control of
and compressors.
can be achieved using an advanced AC induction motors.
control method. Freescale offers 8-bit MCUs such as
Reference designs, application notes
the MC9S08P/MP with dedicated
and software solutions for ACIMs,
ACIM Control peripherals that can easily handle
are available at freescale.com/
ACIM changes speed according the task.
motorcontrol.
to supply frequency and voltage
Second, there are advanced control
provided by the frequency converter.
methods such as field-oriented
This is efficient and allows the entire
control (FOC) or direct torque control
machine speed range to be used.
(DTC). FOC enables independent
16
Switched Reluctance Motors

Control techniques using Freescale solutions
Switched Reluctance Figure 1: Two-Phase 4/2 Switched Reluctance (SR) Motor

Motor Features
Stator
A switched reluctance (SR) motor is a (4 Poles) Phase B
rotating electric machine where both
stator and rotor have salient poles. Phase A
The stator winding comprises a set
of coils, each of which is wound on
one pole. The rotor is created from
lamination in order to minimize the Rotor
(2 Poles)
eddy current losses.
SR motors differ in the number of
phases wound on the stator. Each
has a certain number of suitable Aligned Rotor Position Unaligned Rotor Position
combinations of stator and rotor poles.
Figure 1 illustrates a typical two-phase defined by the turn-on Qon and the the SR power stage defines
SR motor with a 4/2 (stator/rotor) pole turn-off Qoff angles. the freedom of control for an
configuration and a stepped gap. The individual phase.
When the voltage is applied to the
stepped gap is used to eliminate dead stator phase, the motor creates There are a number of control
zones, where motor torque is zero at a torque in the direction of increasing techniques for SR motors. They
symmetrical SR motor and it ensures inductance. When the phase is differ in the structure of the control
motor startup in the proper direction. energized in its minimum inductance algorithm and in position evaluation.
The motor is excited by a sequence position, the rotor moves to the Three basic techniques for controlling
of current pulses applied at each forthcoming position of maximal SR motors can be distinguished,
phase. The individual phases are inductance. The movement is defined according to the motor variables
consequently excited, forcing the by the magnetization characteristics that are being controlled:
motor to rotate. The current pulses of the motor. A typical current profile • Angle control
need to be applied to the respective for a constant phase voltage is shown
• Voltage control
phase at the exact rotor position in figure 2.
• Current control
relative to the excited phase.
Control of SR Motor In angle control techniques, the
The inductance profile of SR motors
The SR motor is driven by voltage constant full voltage is applied in the
is triangular shaped, with maximum
strokes coupled with the given SR motor. The speed of the motor is
inductance when it is in an aligned
rotor position. The profile of the controlled by changing on/off angles.
position and minimum inductance
phase current together with the The speed controller processes the
when unaligned. Figure 2 illustrates
magnetization characteristics defines speed error (the difference between
the idealized triangular-like inductance
the generated torque and thus the the desired speed and the actual
profile of both phases of an SR
speed of the motor. Due to this fact, speed) and calculates the desired
motor with phase A highlighted. The
the motor requires electronic control on/off angles. This technique is not
individual phases A and B are shifted
for operation. Several power stage suitable for full speed range operation
electrically by 180 degrees relative
topologies are being implemented, since during low-speed operation the
to each other. When the respective
according to the number of motor maximal voltage amplitude generates
phase is powered, the interval is
phases and the desired control high current peaks in the motor
called the dwell angle: Qdwell. It is
algorithm. The particular structure of phases. This technique is used to run
17
Market Trends
switching of individual phases.

Figure 2: Ideal Phase Inductance and Current Profile
Also, the motor structure causes
noise and torque ripple. The greater
Stator Phase A
the number of poles, the smoother
Aligned Just in Touch Aligned
the torque ripple, but motor
construction and control electronics
become more expensive. Torque
Rotor
ripple can also be reduced by
iphA LA advanced control techniques such
LB as phase current profiling.
The selection of suitable MCUs for
control of SR motors depends on
OFF selected algorithms and required
ON Dwell
Position /Time
speed range. In the case of sensor
application and low-speed range,
the SR motor over nominal speed. At current reaches desired amplitude, the 8-bit MCU with a PWM module
the nominal speed, the full voltage is the current controller keeps the phase is a sufficient option. The Freescale
applied on the motor phases and by current at the desired level. MC9S08MP16 MCU includes
properly adjusting on/off angles the a 6-channel PWM module with
As is apparent from the description,
motor can achieve operation over the commutation support, which is
the SR motor requires position
nominal speed. very important for applications with
feedback for motor phase
high-speed range where precise
In voltage control techniques, the commutation. In many cases, this
commutation is required. The
speed of the motor is defined by requirement is addressed by using
sensorless algorithms are too complex
the voltage applied to the motor position sensors, such as encoders
for 8-bit devices without additional
phases. The voltage applied to the and Hall sensors. The result is that the
external components. The Freescale
phase is directly controlled by a implementation of mechanical sensors
DSC family provides an optimal
speed controller. The speed controller increases costs and decreases system
solution. This family offers advanced
processes the speed error (the reliability. Traditionally, developers
PWM modules, very fast ADC with
difference between the desired speed of motion control products have
PWM to ADC synchronization and
and the actual speed) and generates attempted to lower system costs by
a powerful DSP core, such as an
the desired phase voltage. The reducing the number of sensors. A
MC56F8006 or MC56F8013. Both
desired voltage is generated by the variety of algorithms for sensorless
are the smallest representatives of
SR inverter using PWM modulation. control have been developed,
the DSC family and offer the best
During PWM modulation, the on/off most of which involve evaluation
performance/price ratio. Several other
times are constant. Once the applied of the variation of magnetic circuit
members of the Freescale DSC family
voltage has achieved its maximal parameters that are dependent on
are suitable for these applications.
value, the motor speed can be the rotor position.
increased over the nominal speed by Reference designs, application
changing on/off times. SR Motor Applications notes and software solutions for
The SR motor itself is a cost-effective SR motor control are available at
In the case of current control, there is
machine of simple construction. Since freescale.com/motorcontrol.
one more control loop: inner current
control loop employed in the control of high-speed operation is possible,
the SR motor. In this type of control, the motor is suitable for high-speed
the output of the speed controller applications, such as vacuum
defines the required current amplitude cleaners, fans and white goods. As
in the motor phase. Based on the discussed above, the disadvantage
required current amplitude, the new of the SR motor is the need for shaft-
on/off times are calculated. Once the position information for the proper
18
Encoder Signal Processing

Devices for industrial applications
Introduction Quadrature Incremental processed by the on-chip hardware

Quadrature encoders are widely used Encoder of the controlling MCU.
in industrial motor control applications The quadrature incremental encoder The quadrature encoder typyically
as precise rotor position sensors is a position feedback device that has three output signals. The “phase
mounted directly on the motor shaft. provides incremental counts. The A” and “phase B” signals consist
This article will provide information on incremental encoder provides relative of a series of pulses, the phase
the principle of the encoder operation information, where the feedback shifted by 90° (therefore the term
and the quadrature decoder MCU signal is always referenced to a start “quadrature” is used). The third signal,
module used for decoding of the position. The signals are directly called “index,” provides the absolute
position information. position information, in motion
Figure 1: Quadrature Encoder Output Signals and Position Encoding Modes
Phase A
Phase B
Counter
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
Increment/
Decrement
Counter
Value
Time
Phase A
Phase B
Counter
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Increment/
Decrement
Counter
Value
Time
19
Market Trends
control used to check the pulse Implementation of the More information on the initialization
counting consistency. That means, Quadrature Decoder and configuration of the quadrature
after each revolution, the value of on DSCs decoders can be found in the
the counted pulses is captured and following application notes, design
The special purpose enhanced
compared against the defined value. reference manuals and device
quadrature encoder/decoder module
If a difference is detected, the control reference manuals:
is part of the newly introduced
algorithm then must perform the
MC56F84xx family of DSCs. It •A
N4381 (Configuring the
position offset compensation.
provides interfacing capability to FlexTimer for Position and Speed
position/speed sensors used in Measurement with an Encoder)
Quadrature Decoder
industrial motor control applications •D
RM128 (PMSM Vector Control
The quadrature decoder is the MCU
and has four input signals: phase with Quadrature Encoder on Kinetis)
peripheral module used for hardware
A, phase B, index and home. This •D
RM102 (PMSM Vector Control
decoding of the encoder signals
module is used to decode shaft with Single-Shunt Current-Sensing
and is a standard component of
position, revolution count and speed. Using MC56F8013/23)
Freescale motor control dedicated
It also supports different sources of
chips. Though there are differences in •M
C56F844XXRM,
interrupt events.
the implementation of the quadrature K40P100M72SF1RM
decoders in particular MCU families, the Implementation of the These documents are available at
principle is the same: it counts rising
Quadrature Decoder freescale.com/motorcontrol.
and falling edges of both phase signals.
on Kinetis MCUs
The internal logic of the quadrature
The quadrature decoder is one of
decoder evaluates the direction of the
several features of the FlexTimer
rotation by increasing or decreasing
module that is part of the Kinetis family
the counter value. There are also other
of MCUs. It is not as rich in features
arrangements of the output encoder
as the previously mentioned module
signals. For example, the phase A
and only has two input signals, phase
signal is a chain of the pulses while
A and phase B, so only the position
the polarity of phase B determines the
can be evaluated directly. If required,
counting direction, as shown in the
processing of the index signal has to
lower time diagram in figure 1.
be made by another on-chip timer.
20
Three-Phase Current Measurement

Freescale dedicated MCUs make it easy
Overview Figure 1: Three-Phase Inverter Topology

Advanced motor control algorithms
such as field-oriented control (FOC)
and direct torque control (DTC) require T1 T3 T5
sensing of motor phase currents. To
reduce the number of sensors and
Vdc T2 T4 T6
overall cost of the solution, the phase
currents can be measured by means of
low-cost shunt resistors with a simple R1 R2 R3
interface between the shunt resistors Rdc
and MCU inputs. The phase current is
measurable only at a certain instant and
thus the current sensing based on the Ph. B
shunt resistors requires support from Ph. A
the MCU. Freescale dedicated motor
Ph. C
control devices provide exceptional
hardware support, allowing the user to
solve specific application needs.
Figure 2: Current Sensing
PWM1-T1
PWM2-T2
PWM3-T3 PWM1-T1
PWM4-T4
PWM5-T5
PWM6-T6 PWM2-T2
ISA
Dead
Time
ISB
ISC
Isense_A
Isense_A Time to Current

Stabilization
Isense_B
ADC Current Sensing
Conversion Duration
Isense_C
time Critical PWM
Pulse Width
PWM PWM PWM

Current
Reload Current Reload Current Reload
Sampling
Sampling Sampling
21
Market Trends
synchronization via hardware without

Figure 3: Hardware Interconnection of Internal Modules
software intervention. The PWM
module generating the output voltage
PWM out 0
PWM out 1 as the variable duty cycle signal also
6-ch. from PWM out 2
8-ch. PWM out 3 Crossbar generates the synchronization signal.
eFlex PWM PWM out 4 This synchronization signal is internally
PWM out 5
processed by a timer that defines
Triggers delay between the synchronization
signal and a signal triggering the
ADC module. Once the timer value
is set, the synchronization and ADC
Min. Three Min. Three conversion work automatically. If
Event Triggers Event Triggers
needed, it is simple to manage the
Simultaneous value in the timer register in runtime
Acquisitions and thus the instant of ADC sampling.
Another great feature of Freescale
Current: Phase A Current: Phase B
Current: Phase C Current: Phase C motor control MCUs is that the ADC
12-bit, 12-bit, VDC bus module contains two independent
8-ch. ADC0 8-ch. ADC1
AD converters with two independent
sample and hold circuits. This feature
allows the user to sample, hold and
Rslt3
Rslt3
Rslt1
Rslt2
Rslt1
Rslt2
convert two analog signals, in this

case currents, at the same time.
This ADC operation is called the
Current Sensing transistors and thus with the voltage simultaneous operating mode. Since
Fundamentals generation peripheral module, which is we always measure just two currents
the PWM module. and the third is calculated from the
Electric motors are powered by
following equation, i a+i b+i c = 0, we can
inverters. Figure 1 depicts the typical Detailed switching conditions of all
calculate the third current as precisely
topology of the three-phase inverter. inverter phases in the case of the
as possible.
The inverter consists of three half- complementary PWM mode are
bridge units with top and bottom shown in figure 2.
Current Sensing Using the
transistors. The shunt resistors (R1, R2 MC56F84xxx DSC Family
and R3) used for current sensing are
Freescale MCU Support
for Current Sensing This very powerful DSC family provides
placed below the bottom transistors of
flexible support for hardware triggering.
the corresponding phase. Freescale dedicated motor control
ADC conversions can be synchronized
MCUs provide wide flexibility for all
In some cases, it is possible to by any module connected to the
possible current sensing configurations
reconstruct the three-phase current internal crossbar modules, such
with shunt resistors. The Freescale
just from a DC link shunt resistor as PWM, timer modules, GPIO
MCU portfolio that supports the
Rdc. A voltage drop on the shunt and comparators. Apart from the
smart current sensing comprises
resistor is amplified by the operational simple synchronization support, the
MCUs based on DSCs, Qorivva
amplifier and sampled and converted MC56F84xxx DSC family also provides
MCUs (based on Power Architecture
by the ADC peripheral module. Since support for multitriggering modes
technology) and Kinetis solutions
the current flows through the shunt with a programmable number of
(based on the ARM core).
resistors when the bottom transistor conversions on each trigger.
is switched on (T2, T4, T6), an instant The current sensing mechanism
of ADC sampling must be precisely requires synchronization between
defined and synchronized with the PWM and ADC peripheral modules.
switching conditions of inverter It is necessary to control the
22
The typical configuration of internal

Figure 4: Principle of Synchronization
peripheral modules allowing the
hardware synchronization is shown
Compare Value 1
in figure 3.
The eFlex PWM module is used for
both the PWM output generation
eFlexPWM Counter
(PMW out 0, PWM out 1,…, PWM Init
out 6) and ADC sampling instant eFlex PWM SYNC
generation. The trigger events are
connected through the crossbar eFlex PWM
Generator
switch module to the ADC module Outputs 0, 1
(internally two ADCs: ADC0 and Dead Time/2 Dead Time/2
ADC1). ADC0 and ADC1 run eFlex PWM

Pins 0, 1
simultaneously and can convert
not only the currents but also other
Power
analog signals such as VDC bus Stage Dead Time Dead Time
Voltage
and temperature.
eFlex PWM
The principle of synchronization Compare Value
t1
between the eFlex PWM module and eFlex PWM
Compare Event
ADC modules is shown in figure 4. ADC S&H and
t2
Conversion
The PWM period is defined by two
ADC
registers: init and compare value. The ISR t3
synchronization signal is generated
at the beginning of the PWM period
(SYNC signal). Since the ADC module has 16 result Comprehensive information about
Each eFlex PWM submodule has one registers, it is possible to convert up the hardware synchronization for the
counter and six compare registers. to 16 analog signals without reading corresponding device can be found
The compare registers that are not the results. All 16 conversions can at freescale.com. Here, you can find
used for the PWM signal generation be triggered by one trigger or several application notes and design reference
can be used for a synchronization triggers. The results can be read after manuals describing how to configure
purpose. When the eFlex PWM the ADC conversion is complete using the current sensing, process ADC
submodule counter reaches the an interrupt service routine or DMA. results, manage the synchronization in
compare value defining the trigger runtime and calculate or reconstruct
event, the trigger output from the
Conclusion motor phase currents.
eFlex PWM module is generated and Freescale current sensing and analog
Design reference manuals: DRM092,
starts the ADC conversion process. If signal measurement solutions allow
DRM102
the ADCs are set up for simultaneous the user to simplify the overall solution
and reduce the system cost. The smart Application notes: AN1930, AN3234,
operation then both ADCs are
hardware synchronization provides AN3731, AN1933, AN4410
triggered at the same instant. In
the case of the ADC module on the extremely precise definition of the
MC56F84xxx devices, the conversion instant of sampling the analog signals
times are as follows: (current, voltage, temperature, etc.).
Moreover, the hardware synchronization
• Single conversion time: 425 ns
increases MCU throughput.
• Additional conversion time: 300 ns
• Eight conversions using parallel
mode: 1.325 us, 16 results
23
Select Freescale Solutions

for Your Application
Find the right device based on your requirements
Overview Figure 1: Freescale MCU for Motor Control
Selection of an embedded MCU for
motor control applications requires
a developer to consider multiple
parameters. Nowadays, motor
control applications are not dedicated
drives for rotating machines but have
become complex systems including
several interfaces, real-time operating
systems, high-performance peripherals
and other elements.
Freescale offers MCUs designed for
motor control applications that range
from low-end to high-end devices
covering most performance and
peripheral requirements.
Sensorless the application dependent code is
For consumer, industrial and appliance
Open loop without actual speed designed individually for a dedicated
drives, Freescale offers MCUs based
feedback application and includes user
on S08, DSC, Power Architecture
interfaces, communication protocols,
technology, and Kinetis MCUs based on • Control algorithm: BLDC
safety features and additional state
ARM Cortex-M0+ and Cortex-M4 cores. commutation control, sinusoidal
machine functionality.
scalar control, sinusoidal
Requirements vector control Complexity of the motor control
The definition stage of a new motor • Memory requirements: RAM/ algorithms can be divided into
control project is one of the most flash space required for specific several segments based on
important parts of the application applications initial requirements. The following
development process. These segmentation of a typical motor
• Real-time operating system (RTOS)
parameters should be considered control application defines the
• Preferred core: 8-, 16- or 32-bit
when selecting an MCU: main groups which contain a list of
• Safety standards (i.e., appliance peripherals, memory sizes and typical
• Target applications: fan, pump, safety IEC60730 standard) applications as well as MCU cores
washer, dryer, servo, general control,
which are recommended to run certain
industrial control, etc. Application Complexity control algorithms.
• Motor type: PMSM, ACIM, BLDC, The typical motor control application
SRM, stepper motor can be divided into two parts: the 1. Very Low-End Segment
• Required speed or torque accuracy motor control algorithms and the Motor types related to this segment
application dependent code. The are single-phase AC, DC and
• Speed/position sensor
motor control algorithms are almost universal motors. The motor is
Mechanical sensor (Hall sensors, identical for a certain type of motor controlled with low dynamics, such as
quadrature encoder, tacho and a selected control technique. slow changes in the control loop. The
generator, SinCos) They do not depend on the closed loop, if implemented, is usually
application type. On the other hand, only one speed loop or the motor is
driven in an open loop.
25
MCU requirements
Figure 2: Motor Control Applications
• CPU speed <= 32 MHz
Very Low End Low End Middle End High End
• Timer with three-phase output PWM On/Off motors Pumps Washers and dryers Complex industrial
capability drives
• Single ADC Single-phase motors Residential Commercial Dual motor control

compressors compressors
• Comparator
Hand and power Fans Industrial drives Servo drives
• Package <= 32 pins tools
Food processor Respiratory HVAC Military drives
• Flash memory 8–32 KB
Freescale S08 MCUs and Kinetis
MCUs based on the ARM Cortex-M0+ • Timer with three-phase output Freescale MCUs, DSCs, Cortex-M4
core are suitable for such applications. PWM capability and Power e200 cores with FPU are
• Dual ADC capable parallel sampling suitable for such applications.
2. Low-End Segment
• Comparator with DAC
This segment covers PM synchronous, Design Considerations
AC induction and BLDC motors that • Quadrature decoder
These additional factors should be
are used in low dynamic, sensor or • Package 32–64 pins considered when selecting an MCU:
sensorless applications. • Flash memory 32–100 KB • Future system extension: reserved
The MCU core is capable to run Freescale MCUs, DSCs and memory space for firmware update
the FOC algorithm and the timer is Cortex-M4 cores are suitable for • Device package: pin-to-pin compatible
capable of generating three-phase such applications. devices enable simple upgrade to
sinusoidal or trapezoidal PWM signals. a higher performance device when
4. High-End Segment
MCU requirements High-end motor control applications system requirements increase
• CPU speed <= 50 MHz predominantly comprise of PMSM • Power consumption: MCU for
• Timer with three-phase output or ACIM high dynamic field-oriented battery supplied applications should
PWM capability sensorless control and servo drives. have lower power consumption to
The control algorithms are very increase battery life
• Single ADC (with two sample and
hold modules for FOC) complex and computed in high • On-chip peripherals: analog and
precision arithmetic. Control loops can digital peripherals can reduce the
• Comparator with DAC
contain an outer position loop that is use of external components like
• Package <= 32 pins implemented apart from conventional comparators, program gain amplifiers
• Flash memory 12–32 KB speed and current controllers. and independent clock source
Freescale MCUs, DSCs and Kinetis The PFC is required. The MCU • Application support: available
MCUs based on the ARM Cortex-M0+ performance is capable to control two example applications can speed
core are suitable for such applications. motors independently. code development
MCU requirements • Available hardware and software
3. Middle Segment
The type of application related to • CPU speed: 150+ MHz tools using Tower System kits
this segment is sensorless control of • Floating point unit (FPU) enable the preparation of application
PM synchronous and AC induction code while the final hardware
• Timer with three-phase output
motors. The MCU core is sufficient s designed
PWM capability
for performing high dynamic, FOC
• 4x fast ADC capable parallel Conclusion
algorithms with optional power
sampling for dual motor control Choosing the right device for
factor correction (PFC) routines. The
• Comparator with DAC the application is the key factor
core supports fast mathematical
operations (one cycle multiplication) • Quadrature decoder for a successful design concept.
and DSP instructions. The selection guide, reference
• Ethernet
designs, hardware and software
MCU requirements • Advanced UART
tools help to simplify the process.
• CPU speed 50–100 MHz • Package 64–144 pins For more information, visit
• Flash memory 512 KB–2 MB freescale.com/motorcontrol.
26
Motor Applications for

Small Appliances
Using BLDC motors in small home appliances
Introduction Figure 2: Freescale Kinetis BLDC Sensorless Reference
Brushless motors are more efficient at Design Block Diagram
converting electricity into mechanical
power than brushed motors. Lack BLDC Sensorless Input Voltage
Three-Phase Inverter
of a commutator allows for reduced Motor Control for K60 Overcurrent
Three-Phase
MC33927 Low-Voltage Three-
complexity and maintenance, as well Flag
MOS-FET Power Phase
driver Stage BLDC
as lower electromagnetic interference. Browser Motor
BEMF
DC Bus U,I
Brushless motors can develop high Input Voltage
torque with a good speed response Kinetis K60 PBD

App. PWM
ADC
State FlexTimer0
and can be easily controlled by an Ethernet
Machine Commutation
BE/MF Sense
MCU. They can also operate in a Buttons API

Speed
very wide speed range to enable SCI
PI Controller
Computing FlexTimer1
Fault
Speed Ramp and Scaling Protection
fine motion control and hold torque
when stationary. Input
FreeMASTER
Brushless motors have come to
dominate many applications, namely Kinetis Peripheral Input Software Motor Parts Device on Three-Phase Inverter
hard drives, CD/DVD players, pumps,

fans, robotic vacuum cleaners, coffee application reference designs and/or cleaner is a typical example of when
machines, mixers, hairdryers, bread demo software which can be easily MCU speed control is needed. It
cutters and spindle drives in adjustable reconfigured according to application- enables bi-directional operation with
or variable speed applications. They specific needs. fast torque response and low noise.
are also a popular motor choice for RC toys and vacuum cleaners also
High Efficiency utilize very high-speed operation.
helping to increase battery life for
Brushless motors are used in place
model aircraft, remote control (RC)
of various types of AC motors. The Low Price, High Quality
cars and portable power tools.
most significant reason to switch to Small appliances are usually produced
a brushless motor is the dramatic in very large volumes, therefore one
Application Requirements
reduction in power required to operate of the most important requirements
Each application has very specific
them versus a typical AC motor. Some is cost effectiveness. Cost-effective
requirements. Though it’s not easy to
devices use brushless motors in order control topology with BLDC motors
cover all solutions through a single
to increase overall system efficiency allows for lower device prices while
example, Freescale offers many
and achieve a higher efficiency class maintaining the quality of the product.
according to the European Union Additional price reduction can be
Figure 1: BLDC Motor energy label. In small, battery-powered achieved by removing the position
Cross Section devices, improving drive efficiency also sensor. For more information on this
helps to lengthen battery life. option, see the related small appliance
articles in this edition of Beyond Bits.
Speed Variability and
Speed Control High Reliability
In addition to the brushless motor’s Reliability is an important aspect of
higher efficiency, certain home brushless motors, as they contain
appliance devices use brushless a minimal number of mechanical
motors because the built-in MCU parts: no commutator, no slip rings,
allows for programmability, variable- and no winding on rotary parts. The
speed and/or load modulation with most important parts of the drive are
enough precision. A robotic vacuum
27
the inverter and controller design.

Figure 3: MCU Selection for Specific Applications
Therefore, it is necessary to pay
attention to good hardware design Application Application
Example Requirements Devices Tools
with reliable software.
Robot vacuum Kinetis K series MCUs Hardware and
cleaner based on the ARM core, software tools,
Communication High
DSC family 56F82xx, motor control drivers
As the MCU is part of the whole 56F83xx, 56F84xx and algorithms,
design, it is possible to use it to FreeMASTER,
Coffee machines, S12X, DSC family
Mid Processor Expert
increase system intelligence and RC planes 56F80xx, 56F81xx
value. Adding a modern user Toys, mixers, fans
Low
RS08, HCS08, HC08,
Kinetis L
interface, special features or
connectivity will improve system value
The back EMF sensing technique fit most requirements, making it simple
with minimal expense. Hardware can
is based on the fact that only two to fine tune custom applications.
be dramatically reduced by using the
phases of a brushless DC motor are The combination of market-proven
right MCU.
energized at one time. The third phase Freescale MQX software solutions
Dimensions and Weight is a non-fed phase that can be used and the silicon portfolio provides a
High output power, low weight and to sense the back EMF voltage. streamlined and powerful platform as
small form factors are desirable for RC The whole system according to the a comprehensive source for hardware,
planes, helicopters and electric hand user interface input and feedback software, tools and service needs.
tools. This is one reason that BLDC signals, generates three-phase PWM
motors have displaced other types of output signals for the motor inverter.
motors and combustion engines. More information about Freescale
For the sensorless BLDC application
Kinetis MCUs based on the ARM
Application Concept example, it is necessary to sense
core, DSCs and S08 MCUs can
the following parameters during the
The system consists of hardware and be found at freescale.com/Kinetis,
application run:
software tools for controlling this type freescale.com/DSC and
of motor. • DC bus voltage freescale.com/S08.
Hardware consists of: • DC bus current More information about Freescale
• Three-phase inverter • Phase A, B, C back EMF voltages modular hardware development
• MCU board The commutation time and period platform and motor control solutions
are calculated from these measured can be found at freescale.com/Tower
• User interface
parameters. To manage these tasks, and freescale.com/motorcontrol.
Software consists of: the Freescale processor must have The FreeMASTER runtime debugging
• PWM generation control rich features of timers, ADC converters tool and CodeWarrior integrated
• Rotor position measurement and PWM to ADC synchronization development environment (IDE) studio
• User interface modules. The processor must also are integral parts of motor control
contain special control registers with application development. To learn more,
• Fault control
hardware and software triggers which visit freescale.com/FreeMASTER and
• Current limitation
can make six-step control very easy.
freescale.com/CodeWarrior.
• Speed controller
The controller must control the rotor Implementation of Several design reference manuals on
rotation, therefore, the controller Freescale MCUs the topic of sensorless BLDC control,
requires some information to determine Freescale offers several 8-, 16- and including DRM135, DRM078, DRM086,
the rotor’s orientation/position (relative 32-bit MCU families that are perfectly DRM128 and DRM117, as well as
to the stator). Some designs may use adapted to the requirements of application notes such as AN4142,
Hall effect sensors or an encoder to modern industrial and household AN4376, AN4254 and AN1914, are
directly measure the rotor’s position. applications, combining high available at freescale.com.
Others measure the back EMF in the performance and low cost.
unpowered coils to infer the rotor
Freescale MQX™ software solutions
position, eliminating the need for Hall
offer a straightforward API with a
effect sensors. This technique is known
modular architecture that is scalable to
as sensorless BEMF control.
28
Digital Control of Switched

Reluctance Motor Drives
High-speed sensorless solution for vacuum cleaners
Recent progressive variable speed
Figure 1: Ideal Phase Inductance and Current Profile
drives are designed to increase
product performance and system
Stator Phase A
efficiency. One such motor type which
Aligned Just in Touch Aligned
can benefit from digital control is
the switched reluctance (SR) motor.
The SR motor brings advantages in
Rotor
both cost and reliability over other
types of adjustable speed drives. iphA LA
These include its simple mechanical LB
construction, high efficiency and high
power density. On the other hand,
large torque ripple, due to double
saliency construction, limits usage of
the SR motor in many applications. OFF
ON Dwell
Position /Time
Another advantage of an SR motor
is its high-speed operation (> 50,000
RPM). This results in a smaller motor Application Concept Another method for sensorless
for a given output power and reduces As noted in the “Switched Reluctance position estimation presented in this
the size and weight of the target Motors” article on page 17, the SR article is based on phase current peak
application. A typical application motor requires position feedback for detection. This control method allows
that can benefit from this feature motor phase commutation. However, SR motor operation at a very high
is the vacuum cleaner. The high- implementing mechanical sensors speed, making this method useful for
speed SR motor makes the vacuum increases costs and decreases system the vacuum cleaner application.
cleaner smaller and lighter, and the reliability. Therefore, manufacturers The principle of this method can
noise generated by torque ripple is of vacuum cleaners have attempted be seen in figure 1. The phase
comparable to other types of motors. to eliminate position sensors for starts to be excited at the moment
control of the SR motor. A variety of corresponding to the desired current
Application Requirements algorithms for sensorless control have amplitude. The current begins to rise
• Very high speed (>50,000 RPM) been developed, most of which involve until the position where the stator
• Open loop speed control flux linkage estimation. These methods and rotor poles begin to overlap.
• Maximal speed limitation calculate the actual phase flux linkage At this moment, the phase current
and use its relation to the reference reaches its maximum. In other words,
• One direction of rotation
flux linkage for position estimation. The the current peak determines the
• Fast start up time (500–1000 ms)
main disadvantage for these methods exact position of the rotor. Knowing
• Full power in 2–3 seconds is that the estimation of the flux linkage the time of two consecutive current
• Small DC bus capacitor (<10 μF) is based on a precise knowledge peaks, the commutation period and
of the phase resistance. The phase corresponding on/off times can be
resistance varies significantly with calculated. The current peak can
temperature, which yields unwanted be detected by external circuitry or
integration errors, especially at low by using a powerful DSC for direct
speed. These integration errors create software evaluation.
a significant position estimation error.
29
and feedback signals, the system

Figure 2: System Concept
generates PWM signals for the two-
phase SR high voltage power stage.
Two-Phase SR Power Stage
Two-Phase Inverter High voltage waveforms generated by
the DC-to-AC inverter are applied to
DC Bus Voltage and Phase Two-Phase
Power Line Current Sensing SR Motor the motor.
VDCB IPh A IPh B The state of the user interface is
scanned periodically, while the DC
bus voltage and the excited phase
current are sampled. The SR motor
ADC Module PWM Module starts on command from the start/
Phase DC Bus
Duty cycle Comm.
stop switch. At first, the rotor is
Currents Voltage
Sequence
Current Peak DC Bus Voltage aligned to a known position. As soon
Detection Correction
as the rotor is stabilized, the startup
Commutation
Period Commutation algorithm begins to excite the phases
Angle Control
Phase
to get the SR motor running. During
Start Up
Current
Algorithm Onboard startup, the rotor position is evaluated
JTAG Programming/
Start/Stop
GPIO Ramp Required voltage FreeMASTER
by an algorithm. Once the SR motor
SpeedUp/Down
Module
Other Purposes Generation achieves a stable speed, the rotor
MC56F8013 Controller Board position is evaluated from the peak
current. After the startup sequence,
the SR motor speed is increased to
The advantage of this method is Implementation maximum by a speed ramp.
that it is independent of the motor The MC56F8013 DSC is a good The phase current is sampled every
parameters. All we need to know is choice for this application. This device 4.4 μs. The number of ADC samples
the rotor position at the current peak. is a member of the MC56F80xx taken during a PWM period is
Another advantage is that the current family, which is well suited for digital calculated at the beginning of every
peak detection algorithm is very motor control, combining the DSP’s PWM cycle, according to the actual
simple compared to the estimation calculation capability with the MCU’s duty cycle. The current samples are
of the flux linkage method. Thus, this controller features on a single chip. evaluated by the peak detection
method can be used at very high These hybrid controllers offer many algorithm. Once the peak has been
speeds, whereas the low number of dedicated peripherals, such as pulse detected, the actual commutation
current samples for flux calculation width modulation (PWM) modules, fast period and on/off times are calculated
limits the precision of the flux linkage analog-to-digital converters (ADC), from the latest and previous
estimation method. timers, communication peripherals peak times.
Though the control technique is (SCI, SPI, I2C) and on-chip flash
The application software is written
simple, it requires a powerful MCU and RAM. The example of digital
in C language except for the current
if fully implemented digitally without implementation of a current peak
sensing, current peak evaluation and
any external components. This MCU algorithm using the MC56F8013
commutation event interrupt routines,
has to be capable of very fast phase DSC can be seen in figure 2. The
since they are time critical. These
current sampling and current peak example meets all requirements for
routines are written in assembler.
evaluation. For example, in a two- vacuum cleaner application discussed
phase SR motor running at 60,000 above. Figure 2 illustrates the system
RPM, the commutation period is only concept, which incorporates a
A full description of this application,
250 μs. To gain sufficient precision two-phase SR high voltage power
including software and hardware
in current peak detection, the phase stage, a two-phase SR motor and
resources, can be found in reference
current has to be evaluated at least an MC56F8013 controller board,
design DRM100 at freescale.com.
every 5 μs. which executes the control algorithm.
In response to the user interface
30
Industrial/Appliance Consumer
Ceiling Fan
Sensorless field-oriented control for ceiling fan sinusoidal
BLDC motor with PFC
Introduction Figure 1: Sensorless Sinusoidal BLDC/PMSM FOC + PFC
Brushless direct current (BLDC)
DC Bus Voltage (VDC)
motors are readily gaining popularity
where energy savings are required.
BLDC fans offer several advantages Rectified AC
Voltage (Vac)
over traditional brushed DC motor
and induction motors, including more
Rectifier PFC Ceiling
torque per weight, more torque per FAN
AC
watt (increase efficiency), high dynamic Input
response, increased reliability, reduced
noise, longer lifetime, more power and
overall reduction in electromagnetic
interference (EMI). This article covers Vdc
PFC
a typical ceiling fan application with PWM
cost-effective smart electronics along

PWM FOC and Feedback
with the advantages of BLDC motors PFC Generation BEMF Processing
Feedback
as mentioned above. The reduced Control Observer
energy consumption in this application Speed

Command
makes it an excellent choice for the
energy efficiency initiative.
8 kHz current control loop frequency Application Concept
This article is dedicated to the is used to gain excellent performance,
FOC
sensorless sinusoidal BLDC/PMSM low noise and high efficiency.
In order to run the motor properly,
FOC for the ceiling fan application.
Features of Ceiling Fans five stages are taken to start the fan,
System Overview including sector detection, start, open
• Speed range 140–320 RPM
loop, merge and closed loop.
Front-end power factor circuit (PFC) • Input power factor > 0.95 from
followed by three-phase inverter with minimum speed of 90 RPM Sector detection stage: The motor
Freescale DSCs is used to drive a must start with a relatively large initial
•D
irection can be reversed when
three-phase sinusoidal back EMF torque rotor position, otherwise there
fan is running
BLDC/PMSM motor. The three shunt will be oscillation or failure when
•S
tart-up even if the vanes are still
resistors cascaded in the lower leg starting the fan. Consider dividing
rotating (due to inertia)
of the inverter are required to obtain the rotor position of 0–360 electrical
three-phase current. The power •4
5 seconds to deceleration/ degrees into six sectors, and the
configuration is shown in figure 1. A acceleration from 90 to 320 RPM sectors can be identified using stator
firmware observer is applied to obtain • 25 watt total power consumption magnet’s B-H characteristics.
the rotor’s magnetic axis position •S
peed control in five steps through Start stage: Because there are current
which is crucial for the vector field- IR remote pulses in the windings when detecting
oriented control (FOC) algorithm. The the rotor’s initial position, these current
sensorless vector control algorithm pulses may cause a bit of mechanical
with 16 kHz PWM frequency and vibration. This stage is designed
31
Figure 2: Sensorless Sinusoidal BLDC/PMSM FOC, Software Blocks

d-current
PI Control
Required Compensated
Inverse Park
d-current
Transformation Voltage SVM PWM
Three-Phase
uα uα
d, q
Inverter
DC Bus
uβ Ripple uβ
Elimination
α, β
Required
Speed
Sector
DC Bus
From Speed PI Control q-current
Remote Voltage
PI Control
Control
Extended BEMF
Estimation and
Tracking Observer
d-current id iα ia
Feedback
Processing
α, β
Sensors
d, q ib
Sensing
Current
iq iβ
q-current
α, β a, b, c ic
Park Clarke
Transformation Two
Transformation
Currents
to add some delay before actually smoothly in the merge stage, now the cascaded in the lower legs of the
starting the fan. output of the speed control loop is inverter. When calibration is complete,
used as IQ reference instead of using the stop task then positions the
Open loop stage: When the rotor’s
a given reference value. detection task to be executed. The
magnetic axis has been detected,
position detection task is intended to
the open loop control for speed is
PFC Control realize the function mentioned in the
used. During open loop operation,
Boost circuitry in a discontinuous sector detection stage. The start stage
the observer for position and speed
conduction mode is used to realizes the function mentioned in the
estimation is enabled and the speed
implement the PFC inner current mode start stage and the run state realizes
loop is also enabled to obtain
control. Outer voltage loop controls the functions mentioned in the open
reference IQ which will be used in the
the DC bus and provides constant loop stage, merge stage and close
close loop.
voltage with input and speed of fan loop stage.
Merge stage: Once a desired speed changes. Inner current loop controls
is achieved, the control transfer from the input current and corrects the
Sensorless Driving
speed open loop runs to speed close with PFC
input power factor > 0.95 and input
loop. In close loop, the estimated To read the speed and position in
current THD.
rotor position is used to perform park sensorless control, it is necessary
and inverse park transformation and Software Design to know the motor parameters well
use the speed loop’s output as the to calculate its model observer. The
The software is designed using a
quadrature current reference. There parameters are programmed into
state machine so that the software
could be a shift between the estimated the BEMF observer algorithm. This
is easy to understand and control.
position and simulated position during observer’s function is to calculate the
The fault task deals with overcurrent,
open loop running. position of the BEMF, which is needed
overvoltage and undervoltage. The
to drive the motor. The position is then
Closed loop stage: Since the rotor’s initial task initializes all variables used
passed through the tracking observer
position used in the algorithm has in the algorithm. The calibration task
to be filtered, and as a side product,
been transferred from simulated rotor gets the DC offset of currents passing
determines the actual speed. The PFC
position to estimated rotor position through the three shunt resistors
32
current loop algorithm is three times Performance PFC: Has two main control loops:
faster than FOC and the voltage loop The application uses two system current and voltage. The slow moving
is at much lower speed. control loops. voltage loop keeps the DC bus voltage
constant. The current loop is critical as
At this point, we see that this solution FOC: Has two main control loops:
it controls the input current waveform.
requires a powerful controller from the current and speed loops. The current
Freescale 56800E/Ex family of DSCs. loop is critical and is calculated on the Freescale Enablement
PWM frequency at 16 kHz. The loop
Implementation •A
pplication based on FSLESL
has several tasks: freescale.com/motorcontrol
Freescale offers a selection of DSCs
for this important task. The following is •R
eading of measured currents and •E
mbedded software and motor
a list of what is mandatory for such voltage, and reconstruction of the control libraries
an application: current from two values into three freescale.com/fslesl
• BEMF + tracking observer •FreeMASTER visualization tool
• PWM: Two PWM configurations
• Clarke and Park transformation freescale.com/FreeMASTER
One for FOC should offer
a center-aligned mode, •D
and Q current controllers and •A
pplication support from Freescale
complementary switching their limitation depending on the motor control experts
capability with the deadtime DC bus voltage
insertion, and three-phase • DC bus ripple compensation
orientation • Space vector modulation
One for PFC and PWM • PWM update of three-phase inverter
synchronization with the ADC
• ADC configuration for the next step
•A
DC: Simultaneously measures two
FOC currents and PFC current, with
two channels working in parallel
•S
CI: Necessary for the
communication with FreeMASTER
to allow application debugging
• Interrupt controller: Must be priority
controlled to avoid disintegrity of
the control technique. The interrupt
latency should be short.
•C
ore: Must have great computation
potential in terms of mathematical
operation
33
Household Washing Machines

Freescale MCUs provide smart solutions
for home appliances
Overview Figure 1: Pancake PM Synchronous Motor
One of the most useful home
appliances used in households
across the world is a washing
machine. Washing machine features
are still being improved thanks
to incorporating MCUs that allow
manufactures to implement many
useful features. Typical features
available in the most modern
consumer washers include:
•P
lenty of pre-defined programs for
different laundry types
• Variable temperature settings
• Variable spin speed
• Quick wash programs Motor Types Driving the Washer: focus on sensorless control techniques
1) Vintage motor construction eliminating the position sensor. The
• Variable load support
a. Single-phase ACI motors sensorless control techniques require
• Water level control powerful MCUs.
b. Single-phase universal motors
• Delayed execution
2) Modern motor construction Typical Horizontal Belt-
Washing Machine Varieties a. Three-phase ACI motors Driven Washing Machines
There are many types of washing b. Three-phase PMS motors
Motor type
machines varying in mechanical
construction, motor types driving
Control System for Motor Control • Three-phase ACIM (two poles)
Modern control systems focus on • Three-phase PMSM (eight poles)
a drum, a control system of the
more sophisticated control topology
motor control part, human interface, Load capacity of standard washer
supporting sinusoidal control. One of
level of energy efficiency, washing size 60 cm x 60 cm x 85 cm
the most popular control topologies
performance, drying performance • From 5 kg up to 12 kg
is field-oriented control (FOC),
and water consumption. • Typically—7 kg or 8 kg
allowing for maximum efficiency,
Mechanical Construction maximum motor power, minimum Drum spin speed
1) Drum position torque ripple, reduction of audible • From 1000 RPM to 1600 RPM
a. Horizontal washers noise and utilization of the maximum Transmission ratio—drum to motor
(dominate in EU markets) motor torque that is required at motor • From 1:6 to 1:16
b. Vertical washers acceleration during the motor/drum
• Typically around 1:10
(popular in US and AP markets) startup. The drive solution with ACI
motor requires information about rotor Motor power
2) Drum loading
speed. In the case of the PMS motor • About 750 W
a. Front load washers drive, information about the rotor Motor torque
b. Top load washers position and speed is required. The • About 2 nm
3) Drive construction control algorithm of the PMS motor
• In some cases 3.5 nm
a. Belt driven processes the rotor position and
calculates the speed based on the Key features of washer
b. Direct drive applications
difference of the rotor position in time.
Since the position sensor is relatively • Motor control part
expensive, the washer manufacturers FOC
34
Speed closed loop DSC family is an ideal solution for Up to 32 KB of FlexNVM—

Torque control loop such a complex application requiring additional program or data flash
Flux control loop a powerful core and smart and Up to 2 KB of FlexRAM—
flexible peripherals like eFlex PWM, additional RAM memory
Position and speed estimation in
ADCs, timers, crossbar and hardware • eFlex PWM module—Eight channels
case of sensorless control
interconnectivity. Typical DSC-based
• Fault control logic • 12-bit ADC with 300 ns conversion
MCUs include:
• Washer safety time—2 x 8 channels
• MC56F825X/4x family
• Safety class B • 16-bit SAR ADC with temperature
• MC56F844x/5x/7x family sensor—1 x 24 channels
• Application state machine
The MC56F825X/4X is a member of • DMA—Four channels
• Communication with main the Freescale family of DSCs based
control system • Two quad timer modules
on the 56800E core. Family key
• One quadrature decoder module
Belt-Driven vs. features include:
• Two periodic interval timers
Direct Drive Washers • Core operation frequency—60 MHz
• Analog comparator with integrated
The most common washing machines • High-speed peripheral clock—
6-bit DAC—four modules
contain belts. This mechanical 120 MHz
• 12-bit DAC—one module
construction consists of two pulleys with • Flash memory—from 48 KB to 64 KB
• Crossbar module
the belt transmitting the power, torque • RAM memory—from 6 KB to 8 KB
and the speed from the motor to the • Three queued SCIs, three queued
• eFlex PWM module—Six channels
drum. The smaller pulley is mounted on SPIs, two I2Cs, one FlexCAN
• 12-bit ADC with programmable
the motor shaft while the larger pulley is
gain—from 2 x 4 channels to 2 x 8 Conclusion
mounted on the drum shaft. Assuming
channels The washing machine is one of the
the typical motor to drum transmission
• Analog comparator with integrated most sophisticated white goods in
ratio is 1:10, the drum speed at
5-bit DAC—three modules terms of motor control due to a wide
spinning operation of 1600 RPM and
• 12-bit DAC—one module speed range, load variation and cost
startup motor torque 2 nm, we can
• Crossbar module optimization. Freescale provides
simply calculate the speed of the motor
dedicated MCUs that are capable to
corresponding to the spinning operation • Queued SCI, queued SPI, I2C,
effectively solve the needs of these
as 16000 RPM and torque on the drum MSCAN
complex applications.
during the startup as 20 nm. The MC56F844x/5x/7x is the initial
family of 32-bit 56800EX core-based Comprehensive information about
Direct drive washing machine
DSCs. The 56800EX includes all MCUs, programming and debugging
construction does not include pulleys
features of the 56800E core as well as tools and universal high voltage
and belts, therefore the motor shaft
the following enhancements: inverters for simplifying application
is directly mounted to the drum
development can be found at
shaft. The motor supporting this • 32-bit x 32-bit MULT/MAC
freescale.com. Here you can also find
mechanical construction is optimized operations
application notes and design reference
for high torque and relatively low- • Address generation unit (AGU) manuals describing details of the
speed operation. This type of motor, includes shadow registers specific washing machine application
called “Pancake Motor,” has specific
• Bit-reverse address mode and providing design hints utilizing the
construction as shown in figure 1.
supporting FFT great features of Freescale MCUs.
Typical construction of the pancake • New bit manipulation instruction— Reference Designs—DRM110,
motor includes: BFSC DRM075, DRM070, DRM099
• Rotor construction—permanent Family key features:
magnet Application Notes—AN3476, AN3234
• Core operation frequency—
• Stator winding—three-phase Videos—PMSM sensorless motor drive
up to 100 MHz
• 24 to 48 poles High voltage power stage—
• High-speed peripheral clock—
3PHACBLDCHVPSUG
Freescale Support 120 MHz
Additional information related to the
for Washing Machine • Program/data flash memory—up to
washer application, such as touch
Applications 256 KB
control, connectivity (ZigBee) and water
The Freescale MCU portfolio provides • Program/data RAM—up to 32 KB
level measurement (pressure sensors),
solutions for a wide variety of washing • FlexMemory can be found at freescale.com.
machine applications. The Freescale
35
Dual Motor Control for Air

Conditioning with 100 MHz/32-bit DSC
Single DSC controls two motors plus PFC
Introduction Figure 1: MC56F84xx Block Diagram
MC56F84xx
Motor drives are an integral part
of various home appliances. Their Core System Communication
development is dictated by safety and 4-ch. DMA 3x UART
56800EX
environment-friendly requirements, 100 MHz
Memory Resource 3x SPI
by performance requirements, and Protection Unit
CAN
Memory
of course by the manufacturing Quadrature Decoder
2x I2C/SMBus
256 KB Flash
cost. Often, the vector control (also CRC
FlexMemory EOnCE (Debug Module)
called field-oriented control (FOC)) is 32 KB Flash or
Voltage Regulator
JTAG
2 KB EEPROM
requested. Vector control provides Internal Watchdog
32 KB SRAM
excellent dynamic performance, External Watchdog Clocks and Timer
utilizes the full motor torque capability

Inter-Module Cross Bar
and controls the motor with high
efficiency and dynamics. Additionally, DAC
High-Res MC 4x Analog 2x HS ADC
PWM SAR ADC
PWM CMP 8-ch./12-bit Timers
the need for a unity input power factor 1-ch./12-bit 8-ch. + 12-ch. + 6-bit DAC with PGA
16-ch./16-bit
PWM 4-ch.
leads to the implementation of power
factor correction (PFC) circuitry.
control applications. Two pulse-width- conditioning unit, where it controls
Some appliances accommodate
modulation (eFlex PWM) modules both the fan and compressor.
more than one motor. One example
enable implementation of dual motor
is a washer with a water pump and The application requirements for such
control. Two 12-bit high-speed analog-
main drive, or an air conditioning unit a system are as follows:
accommodating both a compressor to-digital converters (ADCs), with up to
• Dual control of permanent magnet
and fan. Traditionally, these motors 300 ns/3.33 Ms/s sampling frequency
synchronous motors
were driven by separate electronic are used for analog value sensing. Four
analog comparators, with integrated • Sinusoidal vector control of
circuits. However, the push for minimal
6-bit digital-to-analog converters both motors
cost has resulted in drives that control
(DACs) enable emergency shutdown • Sensorless motor position
two motors in parallel using a single
of the PWM outputs. Programmable estimation
MCU, thus minimizing duplication of
expensive electronic components. delay block (PDB) synchronizes ADC • High startup torque, wide
triggering with the PWM pulses needed speed range
Freescale DSC Dedicated for motor current reconstruction. The • PWM frequency of 8–16 kHz
for Dual Motor Control direct memory access (DMA) controller • Three-phase current sensing using
Freescale offers a number of DSCs reduces core interruption and increases shunt resistors (in some cases, a
that satisfy the requirements of performance. The inter-module crossbar single shunt current sensing on the
advanced motor control applications. is a versatile peripheral that provides DC bus may be preferred), DC bus
The recently announced 100 MHz generalized connections between voltage sensing
MC56F84xx DSCs based on on-chip peripherals.
• Power factor correction at the
the 32-bit MC56800EX core are input (depending on the region and
dedicated to digital power conversion
total power)
and sensorless dual motor control. The dual sensorless sinusoidal vector
control with power factor correction • Hardware and software fault
The MC56F84xx includes advanced protection
is typical for washers where a single
high-speed and high-accuracy • Connectivity with a master/
MCU controls both the pump and
peripherals dedicated to motor slave system
main drive—or, for an outdoor air
36
algorithms in parallel. Typically, a single

Figure 2: Dual Motor Control Topology
DC bus circuitry of the inverter is
shared between the motors. In order
Three-Phase
DC Bus Inverter PMSM to decrease the current stress of a
Motor 2
Interleave
AC Line
PFC Fan
single DC bus capacitor and to achieve
Three-Phase a minimal DC bus voltage ripple, the
Control Feedback Inverter PMSM
Motor 1 PWM pulses of these two motors are
Control Feedback Compressor
Control Feedback shifted from each other by 50 percent of
the PWM period. This PWM shift allows
Sensorless FOC Sensorless FOC
Interleave PFC
Control Control
the alternation of ADC sampling so that
Control
Motor 1 Motor 2 two ADC converters are sufficient. Then,
Application
Control
the calculation of the fast loops of the
Application S/W sensorless vector control algorithm for
MC56F84xx each motor alternates as well.
As an option, the PFC might be
• Meeting the IEC60730 appliance flux. According to the results of these required. Several types of PFC
safety standards controllers, the output voltage vector is topologies may be implemented,
calculated and proper complementary depending on the performance
Application Concept PWM signals for the inverter are requirements, output power and load
This solution concept demonstrates generated. In the case of above nominal conditions. For the higher power, the
that a single DSC MC56F84xx controls high motor speeds, a special algorithm interleaved PFC running in continuous
the whole application—both motors, must be included that allows operation conduction mode is often used. The
PFC, provides the connectivity and in the field weakening region. Moreover, interleaved PFC accommodates two
the application controls. The power some motors have a strong reluctance MOSFET power switches and two
hardware includes two power inverters torque. In order to use this reluctance PFC inductors. The MCU senses the
sharing the DC bus circuitry, PFC torque and thus allow the construction input current and controls the power
power electronics, current and voltage of the smallest (and cost-effective) motor switches in order to maintain the input
sensing and an auxiliary power supply. possible, developers are implementing a current as sinusoidal and synchronized
The advanced motor control algorithm special algorithm called maximal torque with the grid. A typical PWM frequency
is based on the vector control per amp (MTPA) that allows full utilization for PFC is in the range of 50–100 kHz.
technique. In a special reference of the reluctance torque. The separation
The advanced motor control algorithm
frame, the stator currents can be and independent control of the torque-
requires the dedicated peripheral
separated into a torque-producing generated and flux-generated currents
features and CPU performance of
component and a magnetic field- allows a highly dynamic operation, from
the MCU in order to manage both
producing component. These very low speeds and excellent control
motors plus the PFC. The Freescale
components are represented by DC characteristics.
MC56F84xx satisfies the application
values and can be controlled both For proper functionality, the vector requirements, and is the ideal candidate
separately and independently. control algorithm requires position for such advanced applications.
The vector control algorithm requires and speed information. The most
measurement of the three-phase useful algorithm for a sensorless Freescale Enablement
currents using a fast ADC. The current position calculation of permanent Freescale offers a comprehensive
measurement must be synchronized magnet synchronous motors is based set of reference designs,
with the center of the PWM pulses in on the calculation of the back EMF application notes and tools targeting
order to avoid a switching noise and mathematical model of the motor. motor control available at
obtain a meaningful mean-time current In runtime, the DSC solves a set freescale.com/motorcontrol.
value. Typically, two-phase currents of equations, runs digital filters and
Reference designs describing dual motor
are measured simultaneously, and the estimators, and calculates the motor
control with PFC using MC56F84xxx will
third is calculated. The control system position and speed.
be available in Q1 2013.
includes two current control loops, one Dual motor control requires the
for torque and one for magnetic field calculation of two whole vector control
37
Industrial/Appliance PMSM Drive

Sensorless PMSM field-oriented control for compressors,
fans, pumps and similar drives
Introduction Figure 1: Sensorless PMSM Field-Oriented Control
Sensorless permanent magnet
synchronous motor (PMSM) field-
oriented control (FOC) for industrial or
appliance drives is gaining popularity
as a cost-effective, energy-efficient
controller solution. This article provides
PMSM
information on the sensorless PMSM
FOC for compressors, fans, pumps
and similar drives.
Current
Typical Requirements Feedback
Industrial or applicance drives such
as compressors, fans and pumps are
usually variable power with a mid-
speed operation range. PWM FOC and Feedback
Generation BEMF Processing
Control requirements include: Speed Observer
Command
•S
ensorless FOC of a PMS motor.
To achieve this, a powerful DSC
to create torque. The torque is the DC bus voltage has a reserve
must be chosen.
proportional to the supplied current. to be applied on the motor and the
•S
peed 200 to 10,000 RPM It is time consuming to control three current can then be increased in the
mechanical. The sensorless sinusoidal wave forms. Therefore it motor. A higher speed is then reached.
algorithm must estimate position and is essential to decompose the three Freescale has developed this method
speed within this speed range. components into two components of field weakening.
•S
tartup and alignment torque aligned to the rotor position. Then, the
depends on the drive. The two components are used to control
Sensorless Driving
This application requires position
compressors have high start-up the system: one that controls the field
and speed information. The use of a
torque while the fans have low. and the other, the torque.
position sensor is costly, so it cannot
•P
WM frequency of 5 to 10 kHz.This Finally, there are PI controllers to be used. Therefore, it is necessary
is a compromise among switching control these two currents. The to get the position and speed without
losses, audible noise and enough desired torque current value is the need of additional physical
samples for the sensorless control, provided by the output of the speed PI position sensors.
where the ADC is synchronized to controller. The magnetization current
the PWM. To reach the speed and position,
is kept at zero until the strength of
it is necessary to know the motor
the field is reduced. This moment
Application Concept occurs when the speed is high and
parameters well to calculate its
FOC model observer. The parameters are
the induced BEMF is at the level of
The PMS motor rotates when its three programmed into the algorithm called
the DC bus voltage; it is not possible
phases are supplied by sinusoidal the BEMF observer. This observer’s
to reach higher speeds. By reducing
current. The phase of each sine function is to calculate the position of
the strength of the field, the lower
must be aligned to the rotor position the BEMF, which is needed to drive
level of BEMF is induced. In this case,
the motor. The position is then passed
38
Figure 2: Sensorless PMSM FOC, Software Blocks
Field Control D Current Control
Inverse Park
FW Error ud Transformation SVM PWM
Calculator uα
d, q
Inverter
Three-
Phase
uβ
α, β
req uq
Ramp Speed Control Q Current Control

id iα ia
Sensors
α, β
Current
d, q ib
iq iβ
ic
α, β a, b, c
Park Clarke
Transformation Transformation
θ
Tracking BEMF
Observer Observer
through the tracking observer to be the control technique. The interrupt on a 100 MHz DSC). The speed loop
filtered, and as a side product the latency should be short. runs at the period of 1 to 5 ms.
actual speed is filtered. Its inputs for •C
ore: Must have great computation Tasks include:
current, applied voltages and speed potential in terms of mathematical
are then measured. • Speed ramp calculation
operation.
• Speed PI controller calculation
This solution requires a powerful
controller from the Freescale 56800E/
Performance • Field weakening algorithm
Ex family of DSCs. The application uses two main loops: The speed loop duration has been
current and speed. The current loop is measured as 1.8 μs. The code
Implementation critical and is calculated on the PWM occupies 3165 words of ROM and
Freescale offers a selection of DSCs frequency of 10 kHz. The loop has 279 words of RAM.
for this important task. The following several tasks:
is a list of what is mandatory for such •R
eading of measured currents and Freescale Enablement
an application: voltage, and reconstruction of the •A
pplication based on FSLESL
current from two values into three freescale.com/motorcontrol
•P
WM: Should offer center-aligned
mode, complementary switching • BEMF + tracking observer •E
mbedded software and motor
capability with the deadtime • Clarke and Park transformation control libraries
insertion, three-phase oriented and freescale.com/fslesl
•D
and Q current controllers and
synchronization with the ADC. •F
reeMASTER visualization tool
their limitation depending on the
•A
DC: Simultaneously measures two DC bus voltage freescale.com/freeMASTER
currents, with two channels working •A
pplication support from Freescale
• DC bus ripple compensation
in parallel. motor control experts
• Space vector modulation
•S
CI: Necessary for the
• PWM update
communication with FreeMASTER to
allow application debugging. • ADC configuration for the next step
• Interrupt controller: Must be priority The duration of the current loop has
controlled to avoid disintegrity of been measured as 14 μs (measured
39
Industrial Drives
Simple ACIM V/Hz Drives
Introduction Figure 1: Voltage/Frequency Relation

This article describes the basic
control method for an AC induction Phase
Voltage
motor (ACIM). The method principle,
hardware and software implementation Base Point
100%
will be explained, and solutions will be
recommended and described.
ACIM V/Hz Control

Open loop voltage/frequency (V/F)
control (scalar control) is one of the
most frequently used, simplest control Boost
Voltage
methods. This method doesn’t require
high computing power and there is no Boost Base Frequency
Freq. Freq.
feedback, which means that the rotor
speed accuracy remains low and an
expensive speed sensor is not required.
Scalar control is typically used for The stator supply voltage must also Below the base point, the motor
drives where changing of speeds vary according to frequency, as the operates at optimum excitation, called
is required and low accuracy result would be an overcurrent in the constant torque operation, due to the
speed regulation and low dynamic motor winding. The control algorithm constant V/F ratio. Above this point,
performance are acceptable. This maintains a constant magnetizing the motor operates under-excited,
makes ACIMs with V/Hz control current (flux) in the motor by varying called constant power operation, due
convenient for low-cost drives like the stator voltage with frequency. to the limit of the rated voltage.
fans, ventilators, pumps, compressors Figure 1 shows the relation between
and as a driver of other appliances. stator voltage and frequency. Block Control Scheme
These drives also enjoy the benefit of Figure 2 shows the V/Hz control
The most common high efficiency
requiring little maintenance. structure, which can be divided into
technique for maintaining an average
hardware and software. The hardware
voltage level is via pulse width
V/Hz Principle consists of a frequency converter,
modulation (PWM). In this method,
The volt per hertz (V/Hz) control sensors and driver, while the software
voltage pulses are not an issue, as
method is one of the most popular is comprised of a control algorithm.
motor winding includes inductance
scalar methods, and controls the
which ensures a smooth current in
magnitude and frequency of variables Hardware
the stator.
such as frequency, voltage or current. The motor is supplied by the
This method principle is based on For sine stator current generation, the adjustable frequency generated from
motor speed being proportional to duty cycle of the stator voltage pulses the frequency converter with voltage
supply voltage frequency, enabling fluctuate in relation to the sinusoidal DC bus. The frequency converter
motor speeds to be easily changed. reference signal. consists of an input diode rectifier,
The applied stator voltage is calculated DC bus capacitor and output voltage
directly from the applied frequency in three-phase inverter.
order to maintain a constant air gap
flux within the machine.
40
The inverter is built from three half-

Figure 2: Control Structure
bridge units (see figure 3) where the
Rectifier Three-Phase Inverter top and bottom switch are controlled
~ DC Bus complementarily. This means that once
Line
Voltage
Three- the first switch is turned on, the second
Phase
230 V/50 Hz ACM must be turned off, or vice versa.
=
During state change, both switches are
Temperature,
turned off, resulting in dead time.
Current and
Voltage Sensing The most popular devices for motor
Overcurrent control applications are power
Temperature and
and PWM
DC Bus Voltage
Overvoltage
MOSFETs and IGBTs.
Software
Modulation Techniques
Temperature
and Voltage ADC
Faults There are two pulse generation
Processing
Processing
methods for each complementary pair.
DC Bus Voltage An easier method uses a comparison
Speed of an isosceles triangle carrier wave
Speed V1 DC Bus V2
Setup PWM
Command V/Hz Ripple Generator with a sine-modulating wave, as
Processing Elim. with
Dead Time
shown in figure 4.
F
The more complicated, but more
effective method of space vector
modulation uses six active vectors
and two zero vectors. Each active
Figure 3: Three-Phase Inverter with DC Bus
vector corresponds to three transistors
+ DC Bus from the top and bottom area. The
zero vectors activate either all top or
T T T all bottom-switching elements. The
1 3 5
space between active vectors relates
C +
to a combination of the nearest active
vector and arbitrary zero vector.
T T T
2 4 6
Software
- DC Bus
The application measures the DC bus
voltage, current and temperature.
The overcurrent and overvoltage faults
are checked to avoid drive failure.
Ph. B
The DC bus voltage is also used for
the ripple elimination.
Ph. A Ph. C The speed command is processed
using the ramp. The corresponding
voltage is calculated using the
Three-Phase
AC Motor V/ Hz ramp and the DC bus ripple
elimination block then eliminates
the influence of the DC bus voltage
ripple according to the generated
phase voltage amplitude. The PWM
generation process calculates a
three-phase voltage system from the
required amplitude and frequency.
41
Finally, the three-phase PWM inverter

Figure 4: Pulse Width Modulation Technique
pulses are generated.
Generated PMW Carrier
Recommended Devices Sine Wave Wave
1
For the solution described, Freescale
S08MP16 or Kinetis series MCUs
are recommended depending on the
0
core required.
ωτ
The S08MP16 is an 8-bit device with
frequencies up to 50 MHz and an
-1
HCS08 core. The Kinetis K series
offers a more powerful 32-bit ARM
Cortex-M4 core with frequencies up to 1
PWM Output T1
150 MHz. The K series also integrates (Upper Switch) 0
up to 1 MB of flash and 128 KB ωτ
1
SRAM versus the 16 KB flash and PWM Output T2
(Lower Switch) 0
1 KB RAM memory of the S08MP16.
Kinetis K40 MCUs also offer a 144
LQFP or MAPBGA package in
comparison with the maximum 48-pin
LQFP package of the S08MP16.
Both devices include the FlexTimer
module for PWM generation and PDB
module for triggering. The S08MP16
has only one 12-bit ADC against two
ADCs with up to 16-bit resolution
offered with Kinetis K40 MCUs.
Selecting the right device depends
upon the requirements of your
application. If your application is
performing multiple processes on
a single device, the more powerful,
higher performance Kinetis MCUs offer
a simple solution. For a more cost-
effective solution, the S08MP16 is ideal.
For more information about ACIM
V/Hz control, visit freescale.com.
42
Digital AC Drive Control

Freescale solutions for industrial AC drives
Industrial AC drives are used to drive
Figure 1: Dual MCU Industrial AC Drive Topology
a wide variety of asynchronous or
synchronous AC motors. The AC I/O Signals Communication
induction motor is a popular choice

for industrial automation and OEM
machinery applications. Industrial
UI and Communication
automation covers a wide range MCU
of applications including pumps,
Isolation Barrier
fans, HVAC, centrifuges, elevators,
escalators, test stands, packaging,
smart material working and smart
Motor Control MCU
baggage handling.
AC drives use different control PWM Signals Analog Signals
techniques depending upon the final
application. The most common is AC
Three-Phase Power Stage
open loop V/Hz, which is used for MOTOR
low dynamic applications like fans or
pumps. High dynamic applications
use field oriented control (FOC), which
Industrial drives use many types of communication peripherals (SCI, SPI,
allows for precise motor control under
communication interfaces, including I2C), and on-board flash and RAM.
a variety of conditions. Many AC drives
PROFI bus, MODBUS, CANopen,
are equipped with auto detection of Selection of a secondary controller
DeviceNet and EtherNet IP.
the motor parameters, allowing for depends on the complexity of the
sensorless drive operation. user interface and the amount of
I/O signals. A general-purpose MCU
AC drives are available in a wide range MCU requirements for AC drives
is often suitable for simple user
of output power, from 250 W (DIN rail differ with complexity of the AC drive
interfaces, while an MCU with LCD or
mounted) up to several megawatts. and position of the isolation barrier.
VGA controller is often preferred for
Very high-power AC drives usually Low-power drives often use dual
more advanced applications. Kinetis L
connect multiple lower power AC MCU topology where the MCU on the
and K series MCUs are ideal for these
drives in parallel. non-isolated side is responsible for
advanced user interface applications.
Beyond AC motor control, industrial motor control and the isolated MCU
drives are equipped with many handles user interface and I/O signals. Kinetis K Series
additional features. Typical features This topology is shown in figure 1. When AC drives use a single MCU
of AC drives include implementation A DSC is often used as a primary topology, the MCU is located on the
of a programmable logic controller controller. The Freescale MC56F80xx, non-isolated side, while all I/Os and
(PLC) as well as on-board or MC56F82xxx, MCF56F84xxx family communication and user interfaces
expansion I/O ports. These I/O ports is well suited for digital motor control, employ galvanic isolation. The
can be used to apply switches, combining the DSP’s calculation Kinetis K series is ideal for AC drives
relays and other sensors to the capability with the MCU’s controller implementing a programmable logic
application. The PLC can speed features on a single chip. These hybrid controller, operating system and a wide
target application development and controllers offer many dedicated range of communication interfaces.
eliminate complicated wired schemas. peripherals such as pulse width
modulation (PWM) modules, analog- Kinetis MCUs are the most scalable
Another important feature of AC
to-digital converters (ADC), timers, low power, mixed-signal ARM
drives is communication support.
43
Cortex-M4 core-based solutions in

Figure 2: Kinetis MCU Portfolio
the industry. The portfolio consists
Family Program Flash Packages Features
of seven MCU families with over
Low power, mixed signal, USB, Ethernet,
200 pin-, peripheral- and software-
K70 Family 512 KB–1 MB 196–256-pin encryption and tamper detect, DDR,
compatible devices (see figure 2). graphic LCD
Each family offers excellent Low power, mixed signal, USB, Ethernet,
K6x Family 256 KB–1 MB 100–256-pin
performance, memory and feature encryption and tamper detect, DDR
scalability with common peripherals, Low power, mixed signal, USB, segment
K50 Family 128–512 KB 64–144-pin LCD, Ethernet, encryption and tamper detect,
memory maps and packages, operational transimpedance amplifiers
providing easy migration both within
K40 Family 64–512 KB 64–144-pin Low power, mixed signal, USB, segment LCD
and between families.
K30 Family 64–512 KB 64–144-pin Low power, mixed signal, segment LCD
The most suitable family for advanced
AC drives is the Kinetis K70 series, K20 Family 32 KB–1 MB 32–144-pin Low power, mixed signal, USB
with a powerful ARM Cortex-M4 core K10 Family 32 KB–1 MB 32–144-pin Low power, mixed signal
running at 120/150 MHz. Peripherals
include an integrated graphics LCD
controller, IEEE® 1588 Ethernet Vybrid Controller Series These devices allow an application
MAC, Full- and High-Speed USB 2.0 For more advanced AC drives, to be split into two parts. The ARM
On-The-Go with device charger detect which run operating systems such Cortex-M4 core is responsible for real-
capability, hardware encryption and as Linux, there are devices from time control of motor drives, including
tamper detection capabilities. The the Vybrid series suitable for such PLC, while the ARM Cortex-A5 core
K70 is available with 512 KB or 1 MB high demands, particularly those in can run operating systems responsible
of flash in 256-pin MBGA packages. the VF6xx family. The VF6xx family for rich multimedia.
Each MCU includes a rich suite of features a heterogeneous dual- For more information, visit
analog, communication, timing and core solution that combines ARM freescale.com/Kinetis or freescale.
control peripherals, as well as a single Cortex™-A5 and Cortex-M4 cores. com/dsc.
precision floating point unit and NAND The family also features dual USB 2.0
flash controller. 256-pin versions OTG controllers with integrated PHY,
include an on-chip DRAM controller dual 10/100 Ethernet controllers with
for system expansion. The K70 also L2 switch, 1.5 MB of on-chip SRAM
includes peripherals for motor control and a rich suite of communication,
such as up to four FlexTimers with two connectivity and human-machine
or eight PWM outputs, up to four ADC interfaces, multiple serial interfaces
and programmable delay blocks for including UARTs with support for
FTM to ADC synchronization. This set ISO7816 SIM/smart cards, SPI and
of peripherals allows for the design of I2C and dual CAN modules. VF6xx
powerful and complex AC drives. devices can interface to a variety of
external peripherals and memories for
system expansion and data storage.
44
Servo Robots for Industrial

Applications: PMSM with Encoder
Kinetis MCUs and DSCs
Introduction Figure 1: CNC Machine Block Diagram
Robots have begun to play a large
part in the factory automation System
HMI Axis Control
process, substituting for humans in Supervisor
operations such as welding, painting,
assembling, cutting, palletizing and
Safety Safety Safety
general operations where the machine MCU MCU MCU
can perform the work cheaper, faster
and more accurately. This article Motor Motor Motor
Control MCU Control MCU Control MCU
focuses on the system description and
requirements from a motor
control perspective.
Power Power Power
Requirements Module Module Module
400 V 400 V 400 V
Whether the configuration of the robot

architecture is linear or articulated,
most applications demand high
accuracy of the robotic arm motion.
Therefore, the motor control strategy
employs the position control loop positional instruction by interpolating
Concept
where actual position is captured it to various coordinate systems and
The high-level block diagram shown in
by the position sensor, usually the sending the information to particular
figure 1 illustrates the components of
incremental or absolute encoder with motor controllers.
a simple robotic system, in this case, a
very high resolution. The degrees of
milling CNC machine. The top layer of From the peripheral requirements point
freedom (DOF) (number of moving
the machine control architecture is the of view, the MCU should be capable
joints) of the robotic system are
main CNC controller, which typically of handling different kinds of industrial
equal to the number of motors used.
requires utilization of multiple MCU communication protocols and contain a
Consequently, the higher the value
cores. The tasks and services it must large internal on-chip memory. On the
of DOF, the higher the requirements
perform include: other hand, there is no need for specific
on precision of movement of each
motor control peripheral modules.
motor, as position errors introduced • Human-machine interface/display
by each motor are multiplied. It is not should enable entering, visualization The demands on the motor control
rare to find encoders with millions of and editing of the complete CNC layer are different from the upper
pulses in these sorts of applications. program. layer. Applying a single MCU may not
The demands on the position control satisfy the application needs in each
• System supervisor monitors and
of the tool holder of the punching or case. An additional monitoring safety
directs other MCUs, handles system
drilling CNC machine are lower when MCU might be required. Beyond
exceptions and interrupt signals. It
compared to the welding or miller communication, the main MCU
stores the CNC control program,
CNC machine, where the movement executes the motor control algorithm
tool calibration and tool offset
of the joints has to be precisely and handles the fault states of the
parameters, as well as different user
synchronized in order to maintain the particular drive. The motor control
compensations and other settings.
required trajectory. algorithm includes calculation of
• Axis control processor interprets
position, speed and current (torque)
the CNC program and calculates
control loops. The optimal size of
45
on-chip non-volatile memory is in the Robotic systems often include Dedicated motor control MCUs
range of tens of kilobytes. The MCU additional components that have are available in the following
must have dedicated motor control to be controlled by an MCU, such Freescale families:
peripheral modules, including a timer as an automatic tool changer and • MC56F84xx, 32-bit/100 MHz DSC
for 6-channel PWM generation, tool coolant control, or in the case based on 56800EX Core
a fast and accurate AD converter of the CNC lathe machine, a spindle
• Kinetis K40, K60 MCUs based on
and an interface for processing the drive control.
the ARM Cortex-M4 core
encoder signals.
Implementation of These solutions have dedicated motor
Communication between the main
CNC controller and the motor control
Freescale MCUs control peripheral modules, including
Each layer of the control chain can be PWM generation with synchronized
MCUs is sometimes realized with
equipped by a Freescale MCU. ADC. Floating point unit is not
optical bus in order to protect the
required, as the performance of the
position information in harsh, As mentioned, the top layer requires
core is sufficient for execution of the
noisy environments. significant computation power to
vector control algorithm.
The bottom layer represents power perform multiple tasks, though it does
modules, each driving a single not require specific motor control Freescale Enablement
motor. These do not contain specific peripherals. The Freescale portfolio of Additional information, including
MCU logic, but can be equipped 32-bit solutions offers several options reference designs, application notes
with an intelligent driver of IGBTs or to meet this need: and embedded software libraries for
power MOSFETs that can perform • Vybrid controller solutions built on motor control is available at
failsafe and diagnostic features. The single- or dual-core ARM Cortex-A5/ freescale.com/motorcontrol.
information is passed over the fast Cortex-M4 solutions
communication interface to the motor • Kinetis K70 MCU based on the
control MCU. The power module ARM Cortex-M4 core
measures the feedback signals
These MCUs contain safety features
(phase currents, voltage) used in the
that are equipped with floating
control algorithm.
point unit, possess high-performance
cores and are suitable for
trajectory calculation.
46
Continuous Positive Airway

Pressure (CPAP) Machine
Components, characteristics and device implementation
Introduction Figure 1: CPAP Implementation
According to the National Sleep
Foundation, more than 18 million
American adults have obstructive
sleep apnea (OSA). OSA occurs
when the back muscles of the throat
relax while sleeping, causing the
airway to narrow, resulting in snoring.
These muscles could also completely
block the flow of air to the lungs.
When the brain detects a lack of
oxygenation, it sends an impulse to
the muscles forcing them to restart
the breathing process. While this is a
normal process that often happens
to healthy people, patients with OSA
may repeat this process hundreds of
times during the night without being
aware of this problem.
Some symptoms of OSA are daytime
drowsiness, headaches and irritability.
People with sleep apnea also tend to Application Requirements in the mask. The most common
be overweight. This syndrome is more Constant airflow pressure can humidifier for this application is the
common among men than women. be obtained by the continuous heater-humidifier. The humidity level
monitoring of the system pressure in can be adjusted by the patient.
The most common treatment for sleep
apnea is a method of pushing air conjunction with the ventilator motor The user interface needs to be as
through the airway called continuous control speed regulation. The main simple as possible, yet provide the
positive airway pressure (CPAP), as goal is to control the output pressure physician with accurate feedback. The
shown in figure 1. The main goal of and not the airflow. device must be robust and able to be
this device is to provide constant Due to the nature of this syndrome, used for extended periods of time.
positive pressure to the respiratory the CPAP must be placed near the As shown in figure 1, the patient is
system in order to prevent muscles patient during sleep. Therefore, it required to wear a mask through the
from obstructing the airway. needs to be noise free and avoid night. As this method is not ideal, the
This article shows the main CPAP toggling that might disturb the CPAP includes features that allow a
components, its characteristics and patient’s sleep. patient to get used to this impediment.
what Freescale offers for a CPAP The CPAP counts with a humidifier For example, some CPAP devices
device implementation. chamber that increases the amount of include algorithms that decrease
vapor in the air to avoid drying out the the air pressure during exhale and
airways or skin in the case of leakage increase during inhale.
47
Algorithms can also be applied

Figure 2: CPAPC Block Diagram
to allow the device to adjust
functionality during different levels Power Supply
of sleep. Ramp pressure algorithms Air Pump Blower
can also be programmed to help the To the Mask

patient fall asleep. P Water
Container
The ventilator can also be switched
off if the mask slips off during sleep,
causing a loss in air pressure.
Application concept Segment LCD

FTM/6PWM ADC PGA
Figure 2 shows a block diagram for a
CPAP based on a Kinetis K40 MCU. SLCD 10:00
The K40 MCU includes Full-Speed Kinetis K40 MCU
Keyboard
USB 2.0 On-The-Go with device Touch
charge detect capability and a flexible USB- Sensing
OTG
low-power segment LCD controller GPIO
with support for up to 320 segments.

Devices start from 64 KB of flash
in 64-pin QFN packages extending The K40 offers a segment LCD monitor breathing behavior or to
up to 512 KB in a 144-pin MAPBGA controller and touch sensing detect mask displacement.
package with a rich suite of analog, interface peripherals.
The humidifier chamber heater can
communication, timing and The Kinetis K40 MCU is based on be controlled through a GPIO with
control peripherals. the ARM Cortex-M4 core with DSP a 16-bit ADC channel measuring
The K40 USB and segment LCD capabilities that facilitate pressure the temperature.
MCUs are Freescale Energy-Efficient control algorithms and a digital filter
Solutions. The K40 includes a flex for pressure sensing. Freescale Enablement
timer designed to generate PWM Freescale offers a variety of
The system uses the MPXV7002
signals for BLDC motor control in software and tools that help reduce
pressure sensor. This device is
addition to other peripherals such as development time. These include
inside the 2 kPA range, which is an
timers, ADC and PDC used for the modular platforms such as Tower
appropriate pressure for a respiratory
phase and voltage readings for System development boards,
system. In addition to the MPXV7002,
a sensorless motor. CodeWarrior IDE, a real-time debug
a differential pressure sensor can be
monitor and data visualization tools
added to the system to detect airflow,
such as FreeMASTER.
48
BLDC Motor Control for Respirators

Using high-speed sensorless BLDC motor control
in medical devices
Introduction Figure 1: Kinetis K60 MCU Block Diagram
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors are
widely used in medical devices due Air
Input High-
to their high reliability, high efficiency, High-Speed Voltage Three-Phase Speed
Pressure
Respiratory Power Stage BLDC Fan
low maintenance and many other Ventilation Control
advantages. One of the most popular DC Bus, UI BEMF
Voltage Kinetis
applications is a sleep apnea machine. Peripherals
For people who suffer from sleep Freescale MCU
PBD
apnea, the most common treatment ADC Block
RTOS PWM
(BEMF Sense, U Power
is the use of a continuous positive Generator
DCB, IDCB) Electronic
Communication
airway pressure (CPAP) device, which Temperature Commutation
Control
“splints” the patient’s airway open Data Storage
Humidity
during sleep by means of a flow Control User Interface Current Controller Software
Fault
of pressurized air into the throat. Pressure
Protection
Sensing Display
The patient usually wears a plastic Pressure Controller
Motor
facial mask, which is connected Parts
by a flexible tube to a small CPAP
machine. Advanced models may warm
or humidify the air and monitor the • Safety algorithms other hand, when the high-speed
patient’s breathing to ensure proper If we look more closely at this operation is used it is easier to
treatment. For pressuring the air, a application, we can see that the motor achieve the required air pressure.
small and usually very-high-speed control requirements are also very strict. The maximal speed typically ranges
BLDC or PMSM motor is used. from 30,000 to 60,000 RPM. In
• Reliability: As sleep apnea
minimal speed mode, the motor
Application Requirements machines are medical devices,
should operate from 1500 RPM.
reliability is first placed on the
The motor controls in the sleep That equals roughly 2.5 to 5
motor to start and operate with 100
apnea machine have very complex percent of maximum speed. This
percent reliability in any condition.
requirements. A first important is very complicated from the PI
That means the motor is already
requirement is MCU power. The controller setting point of view due
spinning in a forward or backward
dedicated MCU performs many other to the very wide range of speed. In
direction just before startup.
algorithms, so the motor control part the high-speed region, it is also very
should not consume more than • Pressure control: The difference difficult to determine commutation
20 percent of total controller power. with standard BLDC applications instance, as only a few samples
In addition to motor control, the is that a fan is typically controlled of BEMF are measured between
controller should perform: according to required pressure not commutations. For high-speed
by required speed. The machine operation, a very fast and precise
• Display control
must generate the pressure ADC converter is required.
• Communication
according to pre-defined ramps and
• Air humidity control • Low noise: A quiet motor makes
patient requirements.
• Air temperature control sleep more comfortable for patients
• High-speed operation and wide and their sleeping partners. Noise
• Recording data to allow doctors speed range: For small dimensions can be generated by the mechanical
to verify adequacy of treatment or to allow enough airflow, the part of the fan, but it can also be
adjust required pressure speed must be increased. On the caused by motor torque ripple.
49
• High accelerations and braking: This increases precision of the that ensure safe PWM signal
The motor usually has small measured back EMF voltage. For generation with minimal MCU
diameter lightweight impellers which this sensorless BLDC application, it intervention. There are three
provide lower inertia. This allows the is necessary to sense the following FlexTimers modules (FTM) on the
system to operate with very high parameters during the application run: K60 device. FTM0 is an eight-channel
dynamics, such as acceleration timer, while FTM1 and FTM2 are two-
• DC bus voltage
and braking near 200,000 RPM per channel timers. Each FTM module is
• DC bus current
second. This dynamic is required to a timer that supports input capture,
achieve the requested pressure in a • Phase A, B and C back EMF output compare and PWM signal
very short time. voltages generation that control electric motor
• Current control as an inner loop: The commutation time and period and power management applications.
To achieve such a high dynamic, are calculated from these measured
Performance Data
the application must be equipped parameters. Precise computation of
a commutation instance is one of • Supply voltage: 24 V
with a current controller. Otherwise,
the motor can be overloaded by the most important aspects of the • Supply current: 3.5 A
exceeding maximal motor current. application. In the very high speed • Max speed: 30,000 RPM
The current control also has region, only a few samples of BEMF • Dynamics: 200,000 RPM per
additional noise reduction. Small, voltages are measured, and one of the second
high-speed BLDC motors usually following methods should be used to
• ROM: 6, 2 KB
have very low inductance compared achieve sufficient accuracy.
• RAM: 390 bytes
to a conventional BLDC motor. • Multisampling of BEMF voltage
In this case, the bipolar PWM • Processor load 16% (96 MHz)
during one PWM period
cannot be used. A solution can be • Increase of PWM frequency to Freescale Enablement
achieved with higher frequency, achieve more samples For more information about Kinetis
unipolar PWM strategy, or a power
• Software zero cross approximation MCUs, visit freescale.com/Kinetis.
stage with input DC-DC converter
to change motor supply voltage • Usage of analog comparators For more information about the
according to the motor speed. Freescale Tower System, visit
Implementation of
• Memory footprint and MCU freescale.com/Tower.
Freescale MCUs
performance: All previous For more information about
The hardware abilities of the
requirements must be met the Freescale FreeMASTER
peripheral modules on the Kinetis K60
to achieve 20 percent power runtime debugging tool, visit
MCU significantly reduce the CPU
consumption. freescale.com/FreeMASTER.
load on the user software and enable
Application Concept precise high-speed sensorless BLDC See also design reference manuals:
motor control. The Kinetis K60 MCU DRM135, DRM078, DRM086,
The application concept is a pressure
is based on the ARM Cortex-M4 core DRM128, DRM117 and application
closed-loop BLDC drive using a
with pulse width modulation (PWM), notes: AN4142, AN4376, AN4254
sensorless back EMF integration
2 x 16-bit ADCs with ADC to PWM and AN1914, which are available at
technique with current control
synchronization, programmable delay freescale.com.
inert loop. FlexTimer, PDB and
block, analog comparators, up to four
ADC modules in sensorless BLDC
fault inputs for global fault control,
motor drives offer typical usage
Ethernet controller, PGA, DAC, USB,
examples. The FlexTimer simplifies
up to 1 MB of internal flash and up
calculation of PWM signals using
to 128 KB of SRAM. It also contains
the automatic complementary signal
the mask and invert control registers
generation and dead time insertion.
with hardware and software triggers
It significantly increases the safety of
for simplified 6-step control. These
PWM generation and the complete
modules reflect specific requirements
application. The PDB offers precise
of the motor control application
timing of the ADC sampling event.
50
Motor Control Using MQXTM RTOS

Runtime library application control
Motor Control and MQX Figure 1: Motor Control Process Under the MQX RTOS
Operating System
Application Software Under MQXTM
Embedded applications are becoming
MQX Initializations
more complex and putting more
pressure on the embedded system Motor Control Process with Dedicated Driver
software programmers. In a complex MQX Task 2 MQX Task 1

system, a number of tasks must run Motor Control Task:
Application Control Shell Task
• MC Driver Initialization
in parallel and in real time under the • Motor Control Upper Software Layer
operating system, including Ethernet, Internet CGI Interface

ADC Done Timer Timeout
USB and SDHC. One such task is (~50 micros) (~1 min) RTCS
Ethernet
the control of an electrical motor like Communication
Processes
DC, brushless DC, stepper or even Kernel/(MQX) Interrupt Kernel/(MQX) Interrupt
Short Period ISR 1 Long Period ISR 2
three-phase sinusoidal motors such as USB Interface
PMSM or AC induction motors. Vector Control Loop Driver Speed Control Driver USB
• ADC Current Sensing • Speed Regulator API
• Rotor Position Detection (Field Weakening)
MQX RTOS • Clark Park Transformations

• Current Regulators
Other MQX Processes
The MQX RTOS is a runtime library
of functions that programs use for
real-time multitasking applications. on constant sampling (for example, independent on MQX task processing.
The MQX RTOS supports MPU ACIM and PMSM sinusoidal motor The motor control process is provided
applications and can be used with control) or asynchronous events (for by one or more kernel interrupts or
flexible embedded I/O products for example, BLDC motor commutation MQX highest priority interrupt tasks.
networking, data communications, file control) with a fast system response The motor control process software
management and control. requirement. The required response of is then similar to a standard non-
the most critical events is usually one to operating system approach. The
The main MQX application area is for
tens of microseconds. The MQX RTOS MQX RTOS is used for initialization
large controller devices such as Kinetis
is a complex system with dynamic of motor control and also non-motor
MCUs based on the ARM Cortex-M4
allocations and POSIX scheduling and control related tasks such as Ethernet
processor with peripherals for
has a system default tick duration of 5 communication in such a way to ensure
Ethernet, USB, SDHC and additional
ms. It is evident that the motor control that the time-critical motor control
support. Some of these devices are
process needs to be serviced with task is always executed on time and
equipped with a PWM module and
interrupts of high priority. the MQX-based tasks are done in the
other peripherals designed or suitable
remaining time slots.
for motor control.
Motor Control Under
When to Use Motor Control the MQX RTOS Freescale Enablement
Under the MQX RTOS The actual implementation of motor For MQX control applications,
control under the MQX RTOS depends Freescale provides hardware
Typical MQX-based motor control
on the motor type, control algorithms platforms, MQX software installation,
applications control one or more
and application requirements. Each application notes and reference
motors with dedicated sensors plus
motor control technique consists of designs. Motor control under the
other application functionalities such as
periodic and asynchronous tasks. MQX operating system is described
Ethernet or USB connectivity, display
in AN4254. Three-phase BLDC
control and user interfaces. In terms of Writing motor control applications under
sensorless control with the MQX
the time scheduling, advanced motor the MQX RTOS is usually provided
RTOS using the K60N512 is
control applications are naturally based as a dedicated motor control driver,
described in DRM135.
51
Enablement
Enablement
Freescale Motor Control Boards

Hardware development kits provide rapid prototyping of
motor control applications
Overview Figure 1: Motor Control Boards
Freescale motor control development
boards are intended to support the
rapid evaluation and prototyping of a
variety of motor control applications
using Freescale MCUs.To cover both
low- and high-voltage applications
Freescale built two motor control
development boards:
• Low-voltage Tower System-
compatible platform
• High-voltage platform
Tower System Three-Phase

Low-Voltage Power Stage
The TWR-MC-LV3PH low-voltage
three-phase motor control module
was designed to provide a Tower
System-compatible module for motor
control applications. This peripheral
module is interchangeable across
the development platform and can
be used with a variety of existing
controller modules.
Three-Phase High-Voltage
Power Board
available MCU Tower System modules, • Three-phase MOSFET gate driver
High-voltage applications (supplied
accommodating a selected MCU, it with overcurrent and undervoltage
from mains) require a different
provides a ready-made, software- protection
approach of inverter board design
development platform for one-third • Three-phase and DC bus current
due to safety requirements and
horsepower offline motors. Feedback sensing shunts
isolation distances. The Freescale
signals are provided that allow a variety
high-voltage power board combines • DC bus-voltage sensing
of algorithms to control three-phase
a three-phase inverter and power • Three-phase back EMF voltage
PMSM and BLDC motors.
factor correction stage. The board sensing circuitry
allows development and prototyping The TWR-MC-LV3PH module features:
• Low-voltage on-board power
of applications for white goods, • Power supply voltage input 12 to 24 supplies
industrial and general-purpose drives. VDC, extended up to 50 V • Encoder/Hall sensor sensing
• Output current up to 8 A circuitry
Three-Phase Low-Voltage
• Power supply reverse polarity • Motor power and signal connectors
Tower System Board
protection circuitry
The three-phase low-voltage control • User LED, power-on LED, six PWM
board (TWR-MC-LV3PH) is a peripheral • Three-phase bridge inverter LED diodes
Tower System module. With one of the (six MOSFETs) • Braking resistor MOSFET
53
Enablement
Sets of jumpers located on the board Three-Phase High-Voltage • Hardware overcurrent fault
enable configuration setting of analog Power Board protection
signals. SPI communication channel • Active PFC
The three-phase high-voltage power
and MC33937 driver signal selectors are
board is a power stage and part of the • Overvoltage comparator with
available through zero-ohm resistors.
Freescale embedded motion control DC-brake resistor interface
The MC33937 provides overcurrent series of development platforms. The • SCI-to-USB optically isolated
and undervoltage functions, in kit consists of the main board and communication interface
addition to other functions. a selected MCU daughter card. The
The main component of three-phase
A filtered DC bus current signal is fed interface between the card and the
inverters is the smart power module
into the pre-driver current comparator main power board provides a 96-pin
(SPM). The high-speed built-in HVIC
input. If the current exceeds the PCI connector which accommodates
provides optocoupler-less single
adjustable reference value, all six all required signals for the three-phase
supply IGBT gate driving capability
transistors are switched off while a inverter and active power factor
that reduces the overall size of
fault bit setting in the status register. correction stage.
the inverter system design. Each
The TWR-MC-LV3PH kit contains The power board is capable to phase current of the inverter can
a three-phase BLDC motor with control sensored or sensorless PM be monitored separately due to the
Hall sensors LINIX 45ZWN24-40 synchronous motors, AC induction divided negative DC terminal.
with parameters: motors and BLDC motors with the
The platform currently supports key
power up to 1 kW. The DC bus
• Rated voltage of 24 VDC MCUs dedicated for motor control
voltage is regulated using PFC to
applications:
• Rated speed 4000 RPM the value of 400 VDC which enables
• Rated power 40 W generation of three-phase output • MC9S08MP16
• Continuous current 2.34 A signals with amplitude up to 230 VAC. • MC56F80xx
The board supports Tower System The algorithms for motor control • MC56F82xx
standards and interface pin-out. applications required apart from • MC56F84xx
However, not all Freescale MCUs powerful MCUs are also motor analog • MPC564xL
are dedicated for motor control signals (current, voltage) and a rotor
• K40X256
applications. The list of recommended position feedback. The motor position
Tower System MCU modules that are in case of sensorless applications Availability
fully compatible from TWR-MC-LV3PH is calculated using a motor model. The TWR-MC-LV3PH Tower System
regarding number of PWMs, ADCs However, the real position of the rotor modules are currently available at
and timer channels is as follows: is essential at least for initial application freescale.com for direct ordering
tuning. The power board contains or through distributors. The kit
• 8-bit
interfaces for quadrature decoder, Hall contains three-phase BLDC motor,
TWR-S08PT60 sensors, tacho generator and optional 24 VDC power supply and the Tower
• ColdFire resolver position and speed feedbacks. System module. The BLDC example
TWR-MCF5441X The HV power board features: applications are available for Kinetis
• DSC MCU and DSC platforms.
• Input voltage of 85–250 VAC
TWR-56F8257 The kit and application software are
• Output current up to 15 A
TWR-56F8400 available at freescale.com/Tower.
• Auxiliary power supplies 15 V and 5
• ARM core-based Kinetis MCUs V DC from rectified voltage The high-voltage power board will
TWR-K40X256 • Three-phase IGBT power module be available for ordering in 2013.
TWR-K60N512 Currently, the board redesign is in
• Analog sensing (DCB voltage, DCB
progress as well as mass production
TWR-K70F120M current, phase currents, back
preparations. The MCU daughter
EMF voltage)
cards will be available for both Kinetis
• Motor speed/position sensors MCU and DSC platforms.
interface (encoder, Hall, tacho
generator, resolver)
54
Freescale Embedded
Software Libraries
A rapid product development tool designed to ease
software development
Overview The libraries are broken into four main variable speed, AC motor drive
Freescale embedded software function groups: system that implements field
libraries are a complementary group oriented control techniques without
•G
eneral function library: Contains
of algorithms ranging from basic position or speed sensors to provide
the basic building blocks of a real-
mathematics operations to advanced the lowest cost solution.
time control application. Functions
transformations and observers, for basic mathematical calculations, Individual libraries are delivered as
which can be easily incorporated into trigonometric functions, simple look- standalone modules, the interfaces
complex real-time control applications. up tables and control functions such have been combined into a single
The complementary algorithms help to as PI and PID controllers. public interface to reduce the
speed development and ease of use number of files required for inclusion
•M
otor control library: The
in applications that require intensive by application programs and to
fundamental blocks of a motor
math computation and control such as ease development.
control application. The libraries
advanced high-efficiency motor control include vector modulation, Park and
and power conversion.
Clarke transformations and specific
The libraries are currently available
motor related functions to build
Features for Freescale DSCs running on the
digitally controlled motor drives.
The libraries are highly optimized, 56800E/56800EX cores, ColdFire V1
•G
eneral digital filter library: Includes and Kinetis platforms based on the
tested on Freescale hardware and are
filter functions for signal conditioning ARM Cortex-M4 core.
easy to use as they are implemented
(IIR of various order).
with a C-callable function interface. The The libraries are available for download
functions have been tested against the •A
dvanced control library: Functions
at freescale.com/fslesl.
reference model in MATLAB. that enable the construction of a
Figure 1: Field-Oriented Control Using Algorithm Blocks

GFLIB_ControllerPlp GFLIB_ControllerPlr
MCLIB_Decoupling MCLIB_SVMStd
MCLIB_ParkInv PWMa
*
d, q
PMSM PWMb
Decoupling PWMc
α, β
id*= 0
GFLIB_ControllerPlr MCLIB_Clark
ia
d, q α, β
ib
ic
α, β a, b, c
MCLIB_Park
MCLIB_AnglObsrv
resα
GDFLIB_FilterIIR1 θ
resβ
55
Enablement
Motor Control Development Toolbox

A model-based tool to support rapid application
development for Freescale MCUs
Model-based design (MBD) is is less costly. Additionally, since the these steps can be iterative and can
becoming the standard methodology model is an executable specification, be revisited from a later step. The four
for developing embedded systems there is no ambiguity about its steps are:
that implement the desired behavior behavior which aids requirements • MIL: Uses a model to develop
of a control system. MBD is a validation. With automatic code requirements for the overall
graphical method using mathematics generation, the same model is reused application control strategy and start
and states to define and design throughout the development process testing at the very earliest stage
control applications such as motor for rapid prototyping, production code using idealized simulation in the PC
control systems in the automotive, generation and various forms environment. Idealized simulation of
aerospace and industrial application of integration testing. the controller and the motor (plant)
space. Many companies model their With the additional support of an model is done on a host PC without
motor controller algorithms with embedded target, model-in-the-loop regard for the embedded controller
the target motor, or plant, using a (MIL), software-in-the-loop (SIL) and or target hardware characteristics.
graphical simulation environment to processor-in-the-loop (PIL) verification Since testing can start at the
accelerate development. is performed on the same model requirements phase, specification
MBD reduces development time by to evaluate the application design and modeling errors are found
enabling engineers to do more work more quickly and thoroughly than immediately, versus in the later
on their desktop vs. solely relying on with a traditional design and steps of the design effort, allowing
the target hardware. Using a model- verification approach. corrections to be made to the
based vs. a traditional approach, algorithm model with little impact on
quality is improved because testing MBD Development Steps cost and timing.
starts at earlier stages without MBD supports a design process that • SIL: Uses the model to generate
hardware. The financial cost is reduced is represented in four steps (see figure ANSI C code. This tests the C code
since errors are found and corrected 1) which correlates to the left side of using a compiler on the host PC
earlier in the development when it the development “V” diagram. All of with the same test vectors as in step
Figure 1: Model-Based Development Steps
56
1. Verification of the functionality using hand code or a mix of hand includes the TÜV SÜD certificates, a
of C code is done by comparing code and model generated code. certification report and other artifacts
the MIL outputs to the SIL outputs. With an available embedded target, needed for certification. In order to
Component or unit testing can also automatic generation of model follow the certified workflow, the
be performed on the generated C code with the software for MCU capability to run PIL or a similar
code. Since this step is done on initialization and peripheral interface on-target testing approach, must be
the host PC, the unit testing time is is also possible. At this stage, you available. The MCD Toolbox, with
reduced versus running the unit tests may perform verification, log data, its embedded target, provides PIL
on the target MCU. This step verifies calibrate and analyze execution capability to allow the full TÜV SÜD
the accuracy of the generated C on the target MCU in the target certified workflow so that it is possible
code’s numerical results. application environment. Most likely, to produce the artifacts of a complete
• PIL: Uses the model to generate the ECM with the target MCU will ISO 26262 tool qualification package
target MCU code, compiled and not work on the real system as well for embedded system certification.
tested on evaluation hardware. as it did in simulation, so an iterative Since MCD Toolbox supports the
PIL allows numerical equivalence process takes place by analyzing Freescale MPC564xL MCU, it is also
testing and verifies data coherency results on the ECM/MCU and possible to use this workflow on the
of the software running on the modifying the model or first MCU in the industry to achieve
target MCU by comparing its output its interfaces. a formal ISO 26262 certificate for
with the results in step 2. During ASIL D functional safety capability
Enabling MBD for by an independent third party. This
this step it is possible to verify that
the execution semantics of the
Motor Control combination of Mathworks IEC®, MCD
model are being preserved during The Motor Control Development (MCD) Toolbox for the required target support
code generation, compilation and Toolbox is a comprehensive collection for PIL, and an ASIL D certified MCU
linking with the target MCU and of tools that plug into the MATLAB®/ allows automotive and industrial
compiler. This enables the collection Simulink® tool rapid application control engineers to design motor
of execution metrics on the target development targeting Freescale control systems in an IEC 61508 (SIL3)
MCU allowing for the evaluation of MCUs. The MCD Toolbox includes and ISO 26262 (ASIL-D) compliant
the MCU’s performance. This type of support for motor control applications system using MBD.
testing is also useful for test vectors development and enables control
For step three of the MBD process,
that are too dangerous or expensive engineers and embedded developers
not only does the MCD Toolbox enable
to run the target hardware. This to meet the demands of shorter
PIL support but it also generates code
is also the only way to unit test project life cycles. The MCD Toolbox
required to start up the MCU and
target-specific optimized code. PIL includes an integrated embedded
run from either flash or RAM memory
can only be performed if there is an target with Simulink and its production
configurations. The CodeWarrior IDE,
embedded target available in the code generation, Embedded Coder®.
Green Hills Software MULTI and Wind
modeling environment. This enables Freescale MCUs to
River Diab compilers are supported.
support the MBD processes MIL, SIP,
• Target: Embedded control The MCD Toolbox includes profile
PIL and generation of software for the
module (ECM) hardware and utilities to enable measurement of
MCU’s initialization and peripherals.
MCU implementation with direct execution time on the MCU when
interfaces to the peripherals is MATLAB and Simulink family of performing PIL operations.
done using code generated from products provide a verification and
the model in the previous steps. validation workflow for use with
In this final step, the integration of Embedded Coder, which has been
the control algorithm software with certified by the TÜV SÜD. Mathworks
target MCU hardware is often done provides an IEC certification kit that
57
Enablement
To support step 4 of the MBD Summary References

process, the MCD Toolbox contains The MCD Toolbox with MBD using mathworks.com/model-based-design
peripheral device interface blocks MATLAB, Simulink and embedded
and drivers supporting motor control mathworks.com/products/iec-61508
coder provides the software tools
development including ADC and PWM needed for all four steps of the MBD en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-based_
with cross triggering, as well as SPI process. By using these tools with design
for gate pre-driver communication an MBD approach, companies can businesswire.com/portal/site/home/
and CAN communication. The MCD reduce development time and cost, permalink/?ndmViewId=multimedia_
Toolbox has built-in support for direct with an increase in quality for their detail&eid=50398223&newsLang=en
code download to the target MCU motor control applications. For motor
through the RAppID boot loader control applications, such as electric
utility, leveraging the Qorivva MCU- power steering where functional safety
based built-in boot assist module. is of concern, there is the added
The Freescale FreeMASTER real-time benefit of having a software tool set
debug monitor and data visualization that can provide the SIL 3/ASIL D
tool interface is also built in to enable artifacts needed for certification of
monitoring of signals in real time on the control application.
the MCU as well as to support data
The MCD Toolbox supports the
logging, profiling, signal capture and
Freescale MPC564xL and MPC567xK
parameter tuning. FreeMASTER
MCUs. The MPC564xL is the first
provides visibility into the target MCU
MCU in the industry to achieve a
for algorithm calibration and tuning
formal ISO-26262 certificate for ASIL
that is often required in advanced
D functional safety capability.
control systems and those required by
motor control development. With MCD Toolbox, the MATLAB
and Simulink MBD environment
The MCD Toolbox features an
and Freescale MCUs provide a
Automotive Math and Motor Control
comprehensive embedded software
Library developed by the Freescale
development environment from
Motor Control Center of Excellence.
initial system requirement to final
This library provides math functions
target implementation.
such as trigonometric functions, PI
controllers, FIR and IIR filters and
motor control operations including
Park and Clarke transforms. With
this library, engineers can develop
their algorithms during steps 1
and 2 of the MBD process using
blocks optimized for execution on
Freescale MCUs and run bit-accurate
simulations for those algorithms.
58
Motor Application Tuning Wizard

Customize motor control applications to your PMSM
Overview Figure 1: Tuning Wizard Control Structure Page

Current trends in motor control
application development are increasing
motor drive efficiency, decreasing
cost and speeding up time to market.
The way to accomplish demanding
requirements is an implementation
of state-of-the-art motor control
algorithms and use of motors capable
to be driven with high efficiency.
Freescale offers such solutions with
sensorless control of permanent
magnet synchronous motors
(PMSM). The sensorless algorithm
implementation decreases total cost
eliminating a rotor position sensor.
• Up to three PMSMs support 5. Position and speed: Sensor
Instead of the position sensor, the
• Fractional 16-, 32-bit and floating selector (quadrature encoder, Hall
sensorless algorithm estimates rotor
number format selector sensors, SinCos, resolver)
position by calculating a state observer
in real time. Such complex routines • Online update of selected 6. Sensorless: BEMF DQ observer,
require precise settings of motor application control variables tracking observer
model parameters. To run new PMSM using Freescale 7. Output file: List of constants
application code, the input parameters generated to output header file in
To simplify process of control algorithm
are required to be added into the required target format
parameter calculations, setting
and tuning, the Tuning Wizard tool Tuning Wizard. The parameters 8. Cascade: Application tuning based
was developed. are used for calculations of state on cascade control structure (scalar,
observer, control loop PI controller voltage FOC, current FOC, speed
Features and application dependent constants. FOC, field weakening)
The Tuning Wizard is an HMTL-based Required parameters can be taken 9. App control: FreeMASTER user-
user-friendly graphical plug-in tool for from the motor data sheet or using defined control page
FreeMASTER. The tool can be used for a Freescale procedure for PMSM
PMSM field-oriented control application parameter measurement. Freescale Enablement
development and real-time parameter The Tuning Wizard tool will be delivered
The Tuning Wizard plug-in tool
tuning and helps motor control users as part of the PMSM reference designs
consists of several dedicated control
to adapt Freescale motor control to enable users an adaptation of
tabs. The tab configuration depends
applications to their motors without Freescale motor control applications.
on an application type (sensor or
detailed knowledge of source code sensorless). Available control tabs are: Prepared application notes will explain
and control constant calculations. 1. Introduction: Basic application the Tuning Wizard concept from the
description structure and feature point of view and
Tuning Wizard Key Features also how to integrate the plug-in tool
• Static calculation of control 2. Parameters: Obligatory input motor
to existing motor control applications.
parameters and application parameters
3. Current loop: Inner control loop, PI Application notes and other
• Real-time tuning of selected
controller (parallel or recurrent form) information about the Tuning Wizard
control structures
of d,q currents tool are available at
• Storing output constants in
4. Speed loop: Outer loop, PI freescale.com/motorcontrol.
header file
controller (parallel or recurrent form),
• Configurable IDE
speed ramp and filter
59
Enablement
FreeMASTER
Real-time data visualization tool simplifies motor control
application development
The motor control drive represents a
Figure 1: FreeMASTER Visualization Screen
real-time embedded application with
a number of system variables and
control parameters. These parameters
and variables need to be observed
and evaluated in real time in order to
optimally develop, set up and tune
the control algorithm. Traditionally,
developers use code debuggers and
oscilloscopes for the development of
motor control applications.
Unfortunately, such traditional
development is quite arduous. The
limiting factor of oscilloscope usage is
that the current and voltage signals of
the drive often differ from the values
processed by the processor. The
measured signals are affected by the instrumentation components inserted A small routine, which resides in user
sensing circuitry, by measurement noise into the HTML code as embedded code, stores the selected variables
and also by the offset and gain error of ActiveX objects. This allows for creation in the on-board memory buffer that
the analog-to-digital converter. Since of a user-friendly display of complex is then loaded onto the PC and
the developer needs to evaluate the real-time data dashboards. displayed as a course. The recorder
measured signals on the processor side, is very useful for tracking variables
the oscilloscope does not allow effective Real-Time Data Visualization which change so fast that they cannot
development of the complex application. Variable window displays the selected be tracked by the scope. A typical
variables or the memory location of example is the motor current.
FreeMASTER the target processor. The important
The stimulator enables stimulation of
In order to help the users in the part of the setting is the real type
the selected variables in time. A typical
development of real-time embedded transformation of the variables. It
example is the speed profile of the
applications, Freescale offers enables transformation of the variable
washing machine application.
FreeMASTER, a real-time debug, available on the target processor into a
monitor and data visualization tool. It format that is more understandable for Availability
supports a completely non-intrusive users (volts, amps, RPM).
Freescale supports automotive,
monitoring, visualization and control of Real-Time Data Scope industrial and appliance MCUs and
embedded system variables that is key The tool enables visualization of the DSCs including 56F8xxx, S08, Kinetis,
for real-time application development variables of the target processor S12/S12X, Qorivva and ColdFire V1/
and tuning. in a way similar to that of classical V2/V4. A variety of communication
oscilloscopes. It enables the display of interfaces are supported. The selection
Key Features up to eight courses in a single scope includes BDM, SCI, CAN, USB, MQX
Real-Time Control window. The oscilloscope is useful for I/O,
Control page enables effective control tracking variables that change relatively and JTAG. FreeMASTER is available
of the application. HTML form is slowly. A typical example is the speed for use with Freescale products
supported so the user can easily design of the motor. and can be downloaded at
a custom project. The visualization freescale.com/FreeMASTER.
The recorder window enables the
area enables use of third-party visualization of fast changing variables.
60
Summary
We hope this edition of Beyond Bits has provided you a better
understanding of our motor control solutions and how they can
help you in future designs. We aim to provide solutions that
address the major challenges you face in developing motor control
applications as well as collateral to help you quickly and easily find
the right solution to address your specific needs. For additional
information on the solutions covered in Beyond Bits, visit
freescale.com/motorcontrol, freescale.com/solutionadvisor
and freescale.com/support.
For further support, contact any of our regional sales offices.

Our authorized distributors are available to offer local support
through all of your design stages.
For more information, visit freescale.com/motorcontrol
Freescale, the Freescale logo, CodeWarrior, ColdFire, Kinetis, Processor Expert and Qorivva are trademarks of Freescale
Semiconductor, Inc., Reg. U.S. Pat. & Tm. Off. Vybrid is a trademark of Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. All other product
or service names are the property of their respective owners. ARM is the registered trademark of ARM Limited. ARM
Cortex-A5, Cortex-M4 and Cortex-M0+ are trademarks of ARM Limited. The Power Architecture and Power.org word
marks and the Power and Power.org logos and related marks are trademarks and service marks licensed by Power.org.
© 2012, 2013 Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.
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BeyondBits

MOTOR CONTROL EDITION

Introducing Motor Control

• Decrease system costs via a best-in-class portfolio of high-performance, low-power MCUs

Motor Types and Their Control

Figure 1: Electric Motor Type Classification

Asynchronous Synchronous Variable Reluctance

Induction Sinusoidal Brushless Reluctance SR Stepper

ACIM is the most popular motor for

An Introduction to Freescale MCUs

16- and 32-bit DSCs It’s More Than Just Silicon

Control Wizard in the

BLDC Motor Control

Three-Phase BLDC Motor Figure 1: Six-Step Commutation

electronically commutated motor.

rotor movement) shape is trapezoidal.

Six-Step BLDC Motor PWM1

voltage ensures the simplicity of DC Voltage

control and drive. The BLDC motor

one electronic rotation as shown in

ranges. In that case, one PWM pulse

1. 3. 5. order to drive a BLDC motor. This is

Sensorless Technique Speed Controller Freescale Enablement

Permanent Magnet Synchronous

deceleration. To achieve such control, S

1. Three-phase quantities can

AC Induction Motor Control

Introduction was used for speed regulation and

AC induction machines are popular Operation Principle

control of motor torque and

the actual rotor position, which is

Switched Reluctance Motors

Switched Reluctance Figure 1: Two-Phase 4/2 Switched Reluctance (SR) Motor

switching of individual phases.

Encoder Signal Processing

Introduction Quadrature Incremental processed by the on-chip hardware

Figure 1: Quadrature Encoder Output Signals and Position Encoding Modes

Three-Phase Current Measurement

Overview Figure 1: Three-Phase Inverter Topology

Figure 2: Current Sensing

Isense_A Time to Current

PWM PWM PWM

synchronization via hardware without

convert two analog signals, in this

The typical configuration of internal

ADC1). ADC0 and ADC1 run eFlex PWM

Select Freescale Solutions

• Single ADC Single-phase motors Residential Commercial Dual motor control

Motor Applications for

torque with a good speed response Kinetis K60 PBD

MCU. They can also operate in a Buttons API

hard drives, CD/DVD players, pumps,

the inverter and controller design.

Digital Control of Switched

and feedback signals, the system

cost-effective smart electronics along

energy consumption in this application Speed

Figure 2: Sensorless Sinusoidal BLDC/PMSM FOC, Software Blocks

Household Washing Machines

Speed closed loop DSC family is an ideal solution for Up to 32 KB of FlexNVM—

• Decrease system costs via a best-in-class portfolio of high-performance, low-power MCUs