Development of

aluminium-silicon alloys
with improved properties
at elevated temperature

PAPER WITHIN Materials and Manufacturing

AUTHOR: Toni Bogdanoff
TUTOR: Arne K. Dahle
JÖNKÖPING May 2017
This thesis has been carried out in the School of Engineering at Jönköping University
in the subject area Materials and Manufacturing. The work is a part of the one-year
Master of Science program in Foundry Technology.
The author takes full responsibility for all opinions, conclusions and findings
presented.

Examiner: Dr. Ehsan Ghassemali

Supervisor: Professor Arne K. Dahle

Scope: 15 credits

Date: 2017-10-02
 Abstract
Aluminium-silicon alloys have gained increasing market share in the automotive and
aerospace industry because of increased environmental demands. These alloys have a
high strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion resistance, castability and recycling
potential. However, variations in properties and limited performance at elevated
temperature are restricting these alloys from use at elevated temperatures. During the
last decades, researchers have investigated ways to improve the properties at elevated
temperatures. However, the effect of some transition elements is not well understood.
The aim of this work is to investigate the aluminium-silicon alloys with addition of
cobalt and nickel for high temperature applications. Tensile testing and hardness testing
were conducted on samples produced by directional solidification in a Bridgman
furnace with condition generating a microstructure corresponding to that obtained in
high pressure die casting, i.e. SDAS ~ 10 µm. The results show that cobalt and nickel
improve the tensile properties up to 230 °C.

Keywords: Al-Si alloy – Nickel – Cobalt – Elevated temperature properties –

Microstructure
Acknowledgements
As the author of this thesis I would like to take the opportunity to acknowledge the
people who supported me and made this thesis work possible.

Arne K. Dahle For being a supportive supervisor during this Masters

Professor thesis, guiding me through this work with excitement.
Materials and Manufacturing

Jonas Bäckman For his assistance and support during this work.
Research engineer
Swerea Swecast

Salem Seifeddine For being a source of inspiration and motivation source for
Professor me to continue to develop.
Materials and Manufacturing

Ehsan Ghassemali For assistance and support during this thesis.

PhD
Materials and Manufacturing

All my colleagues and friends at the Department of Materials and Manufacturing for
interesting discussions and support when needed.
And finally, to my family, for always being there to support me.
Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................... 4
1 Introduction....................................................................................... 6
1.1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 PURPOSE AND GOAL ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 DELIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 7

2 Literature Survey .............................................................................. 8

2.1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 ALLOYING ELEMENTS........................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 SOLIDIFICATION ..................................................................................................................................11
2.4 STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS ...........................................................................................................12
2.5 EVALUATION OF THE TENSILE TESTING CURVE ....................................................................................13

3 Experimental ................................................................................... 14
3.1 CASTING..............................................................................................................................................14
3.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION ........................................................................................................................15
3.3 MECHANICAL TESTING ........................................................................................................................16
3.5 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES.......................................................................................................18
3.5.5 THERMO-CALC .................................................................................................................................18

4 Results and discussion...................................................................... 19

4.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION ...........................................................................................19
4.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ..................................................................................................................23

5 Conclusions...................................................................................... 32
6 Future work ..................................................................................... 33
7 References ....................................................................................... 34

5
1 Introduction
The growing demands in the automotive and aerospace industry for reduction in energy
consumption and producing more fuel-efficient vehicles continues to be a big challenge.
The aluminium-silicon alloys have gained increased market shares in the aerospace and
automotive industry and have replaced competing ferrous materials. Aluminium-silicon
alloys are widely used in the automotive industry due to the high strength-to-weight ratio,
good corrosion resistance and good castability. However, the performance of aluminium-
silicon alloys at elevated temperature are limited because of degradations in the
mechanical properties. The effect of the elevated temperatures in aluminium-silicon
alloys have been investigated by several researchers during the last decade [1-3].
However, the effect of silicon, cobalt and nickel on the mechanical properties of
aluminium-silicon alloys at elevated temperatures has received limited attention.

The goal of this Masters thesis (15 Hp) is to investigate the effects of silicon, cobalt,
nickel on the mechanical properties of aluminium-silicon alloys at room and elevated
temperature.

1.1 Background

The topic for this thesis was developed based on discussions with Swerea Swecast. The
project was focused on improving alloy performance at elevated temperature. In the
aluminium-silicon foundry alloys, there are limitations in performance because of
degradations in the mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. The High Performing
Aluminium Cast Components (HPACC) project at Swerea Swecast was focused on
investigating the effect of zirconium and nickel in aluminium-silicon alloys at elevated
temperatures. The outcome from the discussions with Swerea Swecast was to study the
effect of silicon on the mechanical properties of aluminium-silicon alloys at elevated
temperatures. However, the effect of silicon has been investigated in various aluminium-
silicon alloys by several researchers [3-5]. Cobalt and nickel are transition elements that
have been used in high temperature applications in superalloys since 1930s [6]. Addition
of nickel in aluminium-silicon alloys are a common way to improve the mechanical
properties at elevated temperatures by forming aluminides [1, 7]. While the addition of
cobalt in aluminium-silicon alloys is rarely applied, some research has been conducted on
hypereutectic aluminium-silicon alloys that shows improved properties at 300 °C [8].
However, the combined additions of cobalt and nickel in other aluminium alloy systems
have demonstrated a great potential to increase the mechanical properties at elevated
temperature [9, 10]. Although the effect of combined addition of cobalt and nickel in
hypoeutectic aluminium-silicon alloys has rarely been reported in the literature.

1.2 Purpose and goal

The aim of this thesis is to gain a deeper understanding of aluminium-silicon alloys for
elevated temperature applications. The work focuses on the effect of silicon, cobalt,
nickel and strontium on the mechanical properties, thermal properties and microstructure
in aluminium-silicon alloys at room and elevated temperatures.

6
1.3 Delimitations

This thesis is focussed on the effect of additions of Co, Ni and Sr as well on variations in
silicon content (7% and 15%) in aluminium-silicon alloys. The alloys were evaluated in
two conditions: as-cast and exposed at 240 °C for 1000 hours. The alloys investigated in
this study were produced by directional solidification with one solidification rate and
constant titanium and phosphorous contents. The mechanical properties were evaluated at
room temperature and at 230 °C, while the hardness measurements were evaluated at
room temperature. To understand the thermal behaviour of the alloys in this work,
measurements were conducted with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and
dilatometry up to 570 °C.

7
2 Literature Survey

2.1 Background

The growing demands to produce more fuel efficiency vehicles have been triggered by
global warming concerns and legislations as well as reduced use of fossil fuels and
increased oil price. To reduce the energy consumption, the choice of materials become an
important factor which can lead to more light-weighting in the automotive and aerospace
industries [11]. Aluminium alloys are widely used in the transportation industry due to a
relatively low density resulting in more than 50 % weight savings compared with the
competing ferrous materials, without affecting the safety in most applications [12]. The
reduction of weight in automotive components is of importance since the weight of the
vehicles increases when more luxury, safety systems and comfort are required from the
customers. Aluminium alloys are divided into two major groups; wrought and cast alloys
and the usage is growing in the automotive industry. An average car today contains 175
kg aluminum, which is 120 kg more than in 1990s [13]. Most common aluminium
foundry alloys for castings have silicon as the major element with a content between 5-17
wt.%. Aluminium-silicon alloys is the most widely used alloys for castings due to their
high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent castability, corrosion resistance and high thermal
conductivity [14, 15]. Moreover, another advantage is the possibility to recycle more than
90 % of the aluminium after the end of use. Recycling aluminium only uses 5 % of the
energy needed to produce the same amount of virgin aluminium. Aluminium can be
recycled several times. However, the mechanical properties of secondary aluminium are
generally lower than in primary alloys [15]. In aluminium-silicon alloys, other alloying
elements need to be added beside the silicon such as: Mg, Cu, Fe, Ni, Sr. to modify the
properties. The mechanical properties in aluminium-silicon alloys depends on the
microstructure, chemical composition, defects. [16-18]. The microstructure of
aluminium-silicon alloy is characterized by α-dendrites, primary silicon particles,
aluminium-silicon eutectic, intermetallics and other precipitate phases depending on the
chemical composition [19, 20]. Aluminium-silicon alloys have a wide range of
applications for example, in engine applications were the material is exposed to elevated
temperatures. However, using these alloys at temperatures above 200 °C will start
coarsening of silicon phases, that have a negative impact on the mechanical properties [3,
19]. Several studies during the last decades with addition of transition elements are
forming thermally stable phases that improves the mechanical properties at elevated
temperature in aluminium-silicon alloys [21-24].

8
2.2 Alloying elements

The most common aluminium foundry alloys are based on the aluminium-silicon system
because of their outstanding properties such as: superior castability, corrosion resistance,
good wear properties, good fluidity, low melting point and good machinability.
Increasing the silicon level will reduce the thermal expansion, increase the wear
properties and reduce the machinability [2, 25]. The silicon content and morphology
influence the mechanical properties both in room temperature and elevated temperature
[3]. The morphology of the silicon phase can be refined with chemical modification that
changes the silicon from plate-like to a fibrous structure. This modification is explained
by two well established growth models, impurity induces twinning and twin plane re-
entrant edge growth [26-28]. Moreover, the silicon can be refined by thermal
modification (quench modification) [29]. The hard silicon phases in a soft aluminum
matrix could be compared with a metal matrix composite. This network of silicon
contributes to an increasing strength of the material by enhanced load transfer [1, 30].
When the aluminium-silicon alloys are exposed to elevated temperature over long times,
coarsening occurs to the eutectic silicon phases, this reduces the mechanical properties
[21]. Copper and magnesium are two often important alloying elements for aluminium-
silicon alloys that are commonly used in the industry. Both these elements increase the
strength of the alloys at room temperature and elevated temperatures by solid solution
strengthening and dispersion strengthening mechanisms [31-33]. Copper maximum solid
solubility in aluminium is 5.65 wt.% at 548 °C and Magnesium is 14.9 wt.% at 451 °C.
[34] The addition of transition elements has been studied over several decades with the
goal to improve the mechanical properties at elevated temperature. In the last decades
researchers have focused on microalloying with rare elements such as: Sc, Yb. [35, 36]
However, the commercial use of rare earth elements is restricted by the high cost. The
transition elements nickel and cobalt are cheap comparing to the rare element, which has
led to more attention when developing new alloys for use at elevated temperature [37].
Knipling et al. [7] reported that the Ostwald ripening process must be slowed down on
the dispersed phases formed, in order to develop a castable thermally stable aluminium
alloy. The rate of coarsening can be reduced when the solutes displays the following
characteristics [7, 22];

• ability to form high volume fraction of strengthening intermetallic phases,

• low diffusivity in α-Al,
• low solid solubility in α-Al,
• ability to form precipitates that possess similar crystal structure and low lattice
parameter mismatch with α-Al.

The transition elements can form trialuminides with the above characteristics that will
contribute to the improvement of high temperature properties. The transition elements
forming thermodynamically stable trialuminides intermetallic are e.g. Sc, Y, Ti, Zr [22].
Nickel is commonly added to aluminium-silicon alloys to enhance the strength and
hardness at elevated temperatures by the formation of thermally resistant Ni-rich
compounds such as: Al3Ni, Al9FeNi, Al3CuNi, etc. [10, 22, 28]. The solid solubility of
nickel in aluminum is below 0.04 wt.% and it therefore forms intermetallic compounds in
the interdendritic regions during solidification that contributes to an improved strength at
elevated temperatures. Addition of nickel to the aluminium-silicon system is
characterized by a microstructure of joined Al3Ni and eutectic silicon that strengthening
the 3D-network. The silicon phases are subjected to a coarsening and spheroidize during

9
solution treatment which results in a loss in the interconnectivity of the eutectic silicon
phases in the 3D-network. However, with Ni-rich compounds present, the loss of
interconnectivity is reduced [1, 38]. Work by Kaya et al. [39] showed that a Al-12.6Si
alloy with addition of 2 wt.% nickel modifies the characteristics of the microstructure. A
finer silicon structure with a reduced interflake spacing is achieved, which results in an
improvement of the hardness [39].

The transition element cobalt is rarely used in hypoeutectic aluminium-silicon alloys,

most researchs with cobalt has been performed in hypereutectic alloys. Addition of cobalt
reduces the interflake spacing with a higher efficiency than nickel and with significant
improvements of the hardness [8, 39]. The combined effect of additions of cobalt and
nickel were investigated by Choi et al.[10] on an Al-1.1%Si-1.0%Mg alloy. Comparing
the results with a A319 alloy clearly showed that the alloy with combined addition of
cobalt and nickel is having a great potential for elevated temperature applications - see
Figure 1. The mechanical properties shows a minimal reduction of strength even at
temperatures above 250 °C [10].

Figure 1. Tensile properties at different temperatures in a

Al-1.1%Si-1.0%Mg and a A319 alloy [10].

Naeem et al. [37] reported an improvement in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength
with the combined addition of nickel and cobalt in an Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy. Naeem
reported that the addition of cobalt and nickel were acting as nucleation center in the
melt, resulting in a reduced grain size. The increase in strength were generated from
more than one strengthening mechanism - these mechanisms were Orowan strengthening,
Hall-Petch strengthening and precipitation hardening. Addition of cobalt in a
hypereutectic aluminium-silicon alloy were conducted by Sha et al. [8], which concluded
that addition of approximately 0.7 wt.% improved the tensile properties both at room and
elevated temperature (300 °C).

10
Most aluminium alloys are initially grain refined by addition of titanium in the form of
master alloys. The titanium exists as Al3Ti and TiB2 particles in the melt. However, the
Al3Ti dissolves in the melt over time and the TiB2 tends to settle and agglomerate. The
effect of grain refining is over time [40, 41].The TiB2 particles are stable phases in the
melt and act as heterogeneous nuclei during solidification [42]. When the level of
titanium is higher than the solubility limit in the α-aluminium, properitectic Al3Ti forms
in the melt. The formation of Al3Ti on the TiB2 particles promotes the nucleation
efficiency [43]. Grain refining in aluminium-silicon alloys by inoculation through a
master alloy such as: Al-5Ti-1B, Al-4B etc. improves feeding, castability and reduce and
distributes shrinkage porosity [44].

In hypereutectic aluminium-silicon alloys, phosphorous is always added to refine the

primary silicon particles. The amount of phosphorous addition required to achieve an
effective refinement varies from 0.005 % to 0.03 %. The result of phosphorous addition
reduces the size of primary silicon in the order 5-10 times. However, the number of
primary silicon particles increases [19]. Samuel et al. [45]reported that the primary
silicon particles nucleate on phosphorous-based compounds (AlP) or oxide films.

The morphology and size of the silicon crystals strongly affects the mechanical
properties of the aluminium-silicon alloys. Strontium is a eutectic modifier which
transforms the silicon morphology from flake-like to a fibrous shape[44]. Moreover,
there are several other modifiers such as: Na, Ca, Sb, etc. [26, 27, 46, 47]. The effects of
the modification in the molten aluminium-silicon alloys diminish over time by
vaporization and surface oxidation. The combined additions of boron and strontium may
form the SrB6 compounds which reduces the active amount of strontium available for
modification [35, 39]. The first modification techniques used sodium as a modification
element. However, there is challenges in using sodium because of the high vapor
pressure and rapid fading. This has made strontium the most common modifier in
aluminium alloys. Even with the challenges to add the sodium, some sand casting
foundries are using at a large scale [48]. The benefit of modification with strontium and
sodium have shown an increased ductility in the aluminium-silicon cast alloys because of
the shape difference in the morphology [44, 49].

2.3 Solidification

Depending on the amount of silicon in the aluminium-silicon alloys, the solidification

sequence will change: In the hypoeutectic alloys with a silicon level below 12.6 wt.%
cluster of atoms will form and dissolve in the melt when the temperatures is above the
liquidus temperature. This will continue until the melt reaches the nucleation temperature
of the α-dendrites. The nucleation of aluminium starts on heterogeneous nucleation sites
in the melt and is then followed by either columnar or equiaxed growth [50]. The
temperature will continue to decrease until the start of the aluminium-silicon eutectic
reaction where the aluminium and silicon needs to nucleate and then grow
simultaneously [51]. Even in a process such as high pressure die casting will there be
variation in the microstructure which is related to the local solidification time. These
variations are measured as the distance between the secondary dendrite arms (SDAS).
Generally, with increasing solidification rate, the SDAS, eutectic structure and
intermetallics are modified. In the binary aluminium-silicon phase diagram at ~12.6 wt.%
silicon is the eutectic point. At silicon levels above 12.6 wt.%, the solidification begins

11
with the formations of primary silicon crystals. The silicon crystals morphology, size and
distribution can change remarkedly during the solidification depending on cooling rates,
number of impurities and the ease of nucleation [8].

2.4 Strengthening mechanisms

The strength of the aluminium-silicon alloys is derived from the ability of precipitates
and atoms to hinder the movement of dislocations. When deformation occurs without any
obstacles present, a dislocation can move easily with only a small force needed. The most
important mechanism during plastic deformation is dislocation slip. The edge dislocation
(Taylor-Orowan) and screw dislocation is the two most common types. These
precipitates are either sheared by the moving dislocations or creating a loop around the
precipitates that increases the size of the precipitate. The grain boundaries act as an
obstacle for moving dislocation during plastic deformation, an increased misorientation
angle between the neighboring grains will make the movement of dislocations over the
grain boundaries more difficult.

The strength of an aluminium-silicon alloy is commonly decreased when the temperature

is increased because of the resistance to moving dislocation is reduced. When the
temperature increases, the dislocation climb and dislocation slip assisted by thermal
vibrations and diffusion of vacancies will increase. Dislocation climb is a process of an
edge dislocation which move out of the slip plane onto a parallel plane directly above or
below [31].

12
2.5 Evaluation of the tensile testing curve

The mechanical characteristics of a materials properties in a uniaxial tensile test are

displayed in a stress-strain curve. These results show the engineering stress and
engineering strain, that are calculated with a constant cross-section area during the whole
deformation. When the reduction of this cross-section area is taken into consideration,
the true stress and true strain can be calculated.

The results from the tensile testing curves is characterized using Hooke´s law (1) for the
elastic region.

𝜎 = 𝐸 ∗ 𝜀𝑒𝑙 (1)

Here is 𝜎 = Stress (Pa), E = Young´s modulus and 𝜀𝑒𝑙 = the elastic strain. To evaluate the
plastic region, the Hollomon (2) equation is used [31, 52].
𝑛
𝜎 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝜖𝑝𝑙 (2)

Here is 𝜎 = true stress (Pa), K = strength coefficient, n = strain hardening exponent and
𝜀𝑝𝑙 = true plastic strain - see Figure 2.

Most materials used in engineering applications have a linear elastic region. However, it
could be hard to determine the transition between the elastic part and the non-linear
plastic part [52].

Figure 2. Illustration of how the different parameters

are related to the tensile testing curve [31].

13
3 Experimental
3.1 Casting

Four hypoeutectic alloys and two hypereutectic alloys were prepared from pure aluminium,
pure silicon, and various master alloys to produce the alloys in this investigation. Around
250 ppm of titanium was added by a Al-5Ti-1B master alloy in rod shape. This amount of
titanium will produce alloys with refined grain sizes [40]. Phosphorous in the range of 50-
70 ppm were added to the alloys with an Al-3P master alloy. The alloys were melted in a
7 Kg Nabertherm K4/13 resistance furnace. When the melt reached a temperature of
730 °C it was homogenized for 1 hour before the addition of master alloys, modifier and
grain refiner were performed. All additions were wrapped in aluminum foil and preheated
to 200 °C before addition to the melt at 730 °C. The chemical composition of each alloy
were obtained using a SPECTROMAXx LMX06 optical emission spectrometer - see Table
1. The melt was poured into a pre-heated (200 °C) copper die to obtain cylindrical rods
(length 20 cm, diameter 1 cm) - see Figure 3 a and 3 b. The die cast cylindrical rods were
then re-melted in steel tubes coated with graphite under argon-atmosphere by directional
solidification in a Bridgman furnace - see Figure 4. The temperature was set to 730 °C and
the samples were held in the furnace for 30 minutes. Once the samples were re-melted, the
furnace was raised at the prescribed speed of 3 mm/s, while the samples stayed in a
stationary position. The solidification set-up generates samples with low levels of defects
due to directional solidification that push, to some extent, gas and oxides in front of the
solidification front and good provider of feed liquid from the top.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Permanent copper die, (b) Sample from the casting in the copper die.

Figure 4. The Bridgman furnace set-up.

14
 Table 1. The chemical composition of all alloys (wt.%)
Nr Alloys Si Co Ni Sr (ppm) Fe Al
1 6.81 0.079
Al-7Si ± 0.06 - - - ± 0.01 Bal.
2 6.63 0.48 0.082
Al-7Si-Co ± 0.05 ± 0.007 - - ± 0.02 Bal.
3 6.05 0.82 0.80 0.083
Al-7Si-Co-Ni ± 0.04 ± 0.01 ± 0.01 - ± 0.004 Bal.
4 6.61 0.47 0.55 0.089
Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr ± 0.03 ± 0.004 ± 0.008 290 ± 10 ± 0.01 Bal.
5 15.06 0.11
Al-15Si ± 0.11 - - - ± 0.002 Bal.
6 13.22 0.84 0.71 0.11
Al-15Si-Co-Ni ± 0.10 ± 0.004 ± 0.01 - ± 0.001 Bal.

3.2 Sample preparation

The directional solidified bars were machined into cylindrical tensile testing bars according
to the geometry shown - see Figure 5. The samples for tensile testing at elevated
temperatures were machined with a M9*1 tread.

Figure 5. Tensile bar geometry. Dimensions are in mm.

Ten tensile samples were used in the as-cast condition while ten bars were exposed at 240
C for 1000 hours. Most research is carried out on materials in the as-cast or heat treated
conditions. The material has been overaged to replicate the materials properties after long
time exposure at elevated temperatures.
To evaluate the hardness variations over time the samples have been exposed at 240 C for
different times; 0, 12, 330, 671 and 1000 hours.

The as-cast and overaged samples were mounted with polyfast material in a Struers
Citopress-1 followed by grinding and polishing with a Struers Tegramin-30. Additional
polishing with OP-S were required for the grain size measurements.
After the final polishing, the samples were investigated with optical microscopy, scanning
electron microscopy, Micro Vickers and nanoindentation.

15
3.3 Mechanical testing

3.4.1 Tensile testing

The tensile testing was carried out using a Zwick/Roell Z100 testing machine at room
temperature and at 230 °C with a deviation of ± 2 °C and a test speed of 0.5 mm/min.
The strain was measured by a clip-on extensometer at room temperature, while at the
elevated temperatures it was measured by a laser extensometer. The laserXtens is a non-
contact laser extensometer that satisfies the accuracy requirement of class 1 while the
clip-on extensometer is more accurate and used in room temperature having the
requirements of class 0.2. The tensile testing at elevated temperatures involved heating of
the samples to equilibration for 30 minutes in a resistance furnace. At least three samples
were tested of each condition. The results exported from the tensile testing equipment is
the engineering stress and engineering strain which are re-evaluated to true stress and
true strain.

3.4.2 Nano indentation

The indentation analysis in this work was performed using a Micromaterials Nanotest
Vantage instrument. The equipment can apply loads in the range of 0.5 mN to 20 N and
record load and displacement simultaneously during indentations. The results are presented
as a load-displacement curve with peak indentation depth - see Figure 6. Oliver and Pharr
developed a method with a standard procedure to calculate the hardness and reduced elastic
modulus [53]. A Berkovich diamond indenter was used in the experiment setup. First a
grid of 36 indents (6X6) using a load of 200 mN with a spacing of 100 μm was tested. The
second grid was 144 indents (12X12) using a load of 5 mN with a spacing of 7 μm.

Figure 6. Load-displacement curve from the Micro material Nanotest Vantage system.

16
3.4.3 Macro Vickers

The hardness of the alloys was measured using an Alpha Durometer hardness tester
following the standard ISO 6508, with a load of 20 kg and a loading time of 15 seconds.
Five indentation were performed on the surface of each sample. The hardness testing was
carried out on the as-cast samples and samples exposed at 240 C for times up to 1000
hours. The measurements of the indents were conducted with an Olympus GX 71
microscope.

3.4.4 Micro Vickers

Indentations were performed on the polished surface with a load of 500 mg using a Micro
Vickers equipment following the standard ISO 6508. The result was measured with an
Olympus GX 71 microscope.

17
3.5 Characterization techniques

3.5.1 Optical microscope

Representative areas within the gauge length of the cast samples were investigated using
an Olympus GX 71 microscope. Magnifications up to 100 X was used to investigate the
microstructures and fracture surfaces. Average SDAS from 10 measurements from the
directional solidification direction and 10 from the perpendicular direction have been
carried out in all alloys. The Olympus stream motion image analyzer was used to
quantify the microstructures.

3.5.2 Scanning electron microscope

A JEOL7001F scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive

spectrometer (EDS) was used for analysis of the alloys. Mapping of representative areas
of the microstructure were carried out to show the distribution of different phases. The
grain size was determined from the gauge length of the alloys using electron backscatter
diffraction (EBSD) on an area of minimum 1.5 mm2. The grain size was measured by the
intercept method according to ASTM E112-96. The grains were visualized using inverse
pole figure (IPF) maps in the EBSD analysis. The EBSD measurements were done using
an acceleration voltage of 15 KV and a step size of 3 µm.

3.5.3 Differential scanning calorimeter

The differential scanning calorimetry equipment was used to investigate phase

transformations which occurs during heating or at long term exposure at elevated
temperature. The Netzsch DSC 404C Pegasus instrument performed the testing in this
investigation. Cylindrical samples with a diameter of 5 mm and a weight of ~42 mg was
produced. The samples were heated from room temperature up to 600 °C under an argon
atmosphere with a heating rate of 5 K/min.

3.5.4 Dilatometer

An Netzsch DIL402 were used to measure the thermal expansion of the alloys. The
reference material Al2O3 was used as a standard reference. Cylindrical rods were
produced with a diameter of 6 mm with a length of 12 mm using a lathe. The testing was
carried out under a helium atmosphere with a heating rate of 5 K/min from room
temperature up to 570 °C.

3.5.5 Thermo-Calc

The Thermo-Calc software version 2016b with the data base TCAL was used to predict
which phases are expected to be present in the alloys; equilibrium calculations were
carried out on all alloys.

18
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Microstructural characterization

The as-cast hypoeutectic Al-7Si alloy is comprised of α-dendrites and aluminium-silicon

eutectic - see Figure 7 a. Adding 0.4 wt.% cobalt did not produce any significant changes
in the microstructure - see Figure 7 b. Moreover, cobalt rich phases are observed in the
microstructure. However, no significant differences in the SDAS is observed in the
microstructures compared with the Al-7Si alloy - see Table 2. The reduction of the
interflake spacing λ between the silicon eutectic phases with addition of cobalt reported
by Kaya et al. [39] is not observed in this work. This may depend on a lower addition of
cobalt or a higher solidification rate. The cobalt-rich phase Al9Co2 is located in the
vicinity of the α-dendrites and refine and distributed the silicon phases in the aluminium-
silicon eutectic - see Figure 7 b. According to Thermo-Calc, the Al9Co2 nucleates before
the α-dendrites - see Figure 8.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Microstructure of the Al-7Si alloy, (b) Microstructure of the Al-7Si-Co alloy.

Table 2. Results from the SDAS measurements of as-cast hypoeutectic alloys.

Alloy Al-7Si Al-7Si-Co Al-7Si-Co-Ni Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr

SDAS (μm) 11.3 ± 1.8 10.4 ± 0.5 8.5 ± 0.7 9.5 ± 0.9

19
 Figure 8. Results from equilibrium calculation on Al-7Si-Co using Thermo-Calc.

The microstructure of the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy have an aluminum-silicon eutectic

morphology with a higher degree of modification adjacent to the nickel and cobalt
phases. However, these intermetallic phases could increase the contiguity of the 3D-
network but it is difficult to observe based on the micrographs - see Figure 9 a. The effect
of the combined additions of cobalt and nickel in aluminium alloys with 1.1 % silicon is
reported by Choi et al.[10] to have a good potential for high temperature properties. The
addition of nickel have been reported to form a strong interconnected three-dimensional
structure with Al3Ni and eutectic silicon [3]. The additions of chemical modifier in the
form of strontium in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr showed a well-modified microstructure - see
Figure 9 b. Moreover, the intermetallics are decreased significantly in size in the
strontium modified alloy. However, all other alloys were showing a silicon morphology
that is cooling rate refined as reported [21, 46].

(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a) Microstructure of the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy, (b) Microstructure of the Al-7Si- Co-Ni-
Sr alloy.

20
Additions of Al-5Ti-1B were conducted to produce a grain refining effect in all alloys.
The performance of the grain refiners are negatively affected with increasing the silicon
content in aluminium-silicon alloys because of the silicon poisoning effect [54, 55].
Addition of grain refiners with approximately 250 ppm titanium was performed in all
hypoeutectic alloys in this work. However, the results from the EBSD clearly shows that
the addition of cobalt and nickel have a significant effect on the grain size. The Al-7Si
alloy have a grain size of around 131 μm while the other alloys show results with
increased grain size - see Figure 10 and Table 3. The TiB2 particles in the melt may act as
nucleation sites for intermetallics formed prior the α-dendrites, resulting in a reduced
grain refining efficiency because of fewer TiB2 particles are available for nucleation of α-
dendrites.

Al-7Si Al-7Si-Co

Al-7Si-Co-Ni Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr

Figure 10. Inverse Pole Figure (IPF) map obtained from the EBSD mapping, showing grain
structure of the hypoeutectic alloys.

Table 3. Results from the grain size measurements of the as-cast hypoeutectic alloys.

Alloys Al-7Si Al-7Si-Co Al-7Si-Co-Ni Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr

Grain size
(μm) 131 ± 21 174 ± 14 260 ± 44 286 ± 27

21
The Al-15Si alloy is composed of hard and stiff primary silicon particles, aluminium-
silicon eutectic and α-dendrites - see Figure 11 a. These hypereutectic alloys could vary
in properties and microstructure depending on the chemical compositions, manufacturing
process and the solidification rate. However, in these samples the solidification begins
with the formation of primary silicon followed by a competition of aluminium-silicon
eutectic and aluminium dendrites [50, 56, 57]. The primary silicon crystals were found in
both Al-15Si and the alloy with addition of cobalt and nickel. The hypereutectic alloys
with primary silicon crystals must be modified using phosphorous, the silicon crystals
will otherwise be detrimental to the mechanical properties. The modification of the
primary silicon crystals with phosphorous reduces the size in the order 5-10 times [19].
The size of the primary silicon crystals in the Al-15Si alloy are 35.9 μm ± 5.4 which
indicates that there is a refinement effect. The combined addition of cobalt and nickel to
the Al-15Si alloy were reducing the silicon content. The Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy have less
and smaller primary silicon crystals - see Figure 11 b. Moreover, the intermetallic phases
are well distributed in the Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy found both in the vicinity of the
aluminium dendrites and in the aluminium-silicon eutectic - see Figure 12. The size of
the primary silicon crystals was decreased by ~20 % in the Al-15Si-Co-Ni, this may be
caused by the reduced silicon content in the alloy - see Table 1.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a) Microstructure of the Al-15Si alloy, (b) Microstructure of the Al-15Si-Co-Ni
alloy.

22
 Nickel and
cobalt rich
phases.

Figure 12. Microstructure of the Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy showing the distribution of the intermetallic
phases.

4.2 Mechanical properties

A clear trend is observed in the tensile test results at room and elevated temperatures. By
increasing the temperature up to 230 °C, both the yield strength and ultimate tensile were
negatively influenced in all alloys. However, the elongation to failure for all the as-cast
alloys were improved with increased temperature to 230 °C. This is in agreement by
work of Rincon et. Al [58].

4.2.1 Tensile testing at room temperature.

There are several parameters that influences the mechanical properties in the aluminium-
silicon alloys such as, chemical composition, solidification rate and intermetallics and
defects etc. The effect of increasing the silicon content from 7 wt.% to 15 wt.% (Al-7Si
and Al-15Si) significantly improves the yield strength by 76 % and ultimate tensile
strength by 21 % - see Figure 13 a and Table 4. The results for the ultimate tensile
strength correspond well with previous works [1, 20]. However, the increase of the
silicon content is detrimental for the elongation to failure - see Figure 14 b. The fracture
behaviour is governed by plastic deformation of α-dendrites and elastically strained
particles. Once the alloys are exposed to plastic deformation the brittle particle start to
form micro-cracks concentrated at the primary silicon phases and in the aluminium-
silicon eutectic regions. These cracks propagate until a critical volume is reached that
leads to crack coalescence and final fracture.

23
 (a) (b)
Figure 13. Results from the tensile testing at room temperature (a) Ultimate tensile strength,
(b) Elongation to failure.

Only a limited improvement of the ultimate tensile strength was observed with addition
of cobalt to the Al-7Si alloy - see Figure 13 a. However, the result for the combined
addition of cobalt and nickel on the ultimate tensile strength show an improvement by ~8
%. This improvement could be because of a higher degree of contiguity of the eutectic
silicon and intermetallic network or as a result of dispersion strengthening. The effect of
strontium in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr alloy was clearly observed in the microstructure
although the result from the tensile testing is similar. The elongation to failure results
were above 10 % in all hypoeutectic alloys with addition of transition elements, while the
elongation to failure of the Al-7Si alloy is more than 17 %. The Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy
show results in the ultimate tensile strength that is having an improvement by ~17 %
without significant change in elongation to failure compared to the Al-15Si alloy.

Table 4. Summary of tensile testing results at room temperature for all alloys.

Alloys Al-7Si Al-7Si-Co Al-7Si-Co-Ni Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr Al-15Si Al-15Si-Co-Ni

UTS (MPa) 197.6 ± 3.4 201.7 ± 1.7 213.4 ± 2.5 216.4 ± 1.4 239.2 ± 3.5 261 ± 7.3
YS (MPa) 64.1 ± 3.1 70.2 ± 2.2 71.6 ± 1.2 72.9 ± 0.8 112.9 ± 3.6 113.8 ± 0.8
Elongation
to failure
(%) 17.4 ± 3 15.9 ± 0.6 11.5 ± 2.3 12.9 ± 1.2 4.9 ± 0.5 3.9 ± 0.8

24
4.2.2 Long-term exposure at elevated temperatures.

In order to understand the behaviour of the alloys after long-term exposure at elevated
temperature, the alloys were exposed at 240 °C for 1000 hours. When the alloys are
exposed to elevated temperatures, they strive to reach the equilibrium state - coarsening
or dissolution of phases may occur. The results from the tensile testing at room
temperature and at 230 °C is shown - see Figure 13 a and 13 b. The effect of the long-
term exposure of the aluminium-silicon alloys show a reduction in the ultimate tensile
strength and improvement in the elongation to failure for all alloys. Moreover, the level
of reduction in ultimate tensile strength is similar for all alloys. The improvement of the
ultimate tensile strength in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy remains after long term exposure at
elevated temperatures. These results are in accordance with the literature using nickel [3].
However, these improved results could be because of the stability in the aluminium-
silicon eutectic and intermetallics 3D network. The hypereutectic alloys are following the
same trend and the ultimate tensile strength is reduced by approximately 50 MPa.

4.2.3 Tensile testing at elevated temperatures.

The results from the tensile testing at 230 °C are shown - see in Figure 14 a and 14 b.
The Al-7Si-Co alloy showed the same trend as in room temperature, while the combined
addition of cobalt and nickel increased the ultimate tensile strength by ~32 % compared
to the Al-7Si alloy - see Figure 14 a. The effect of adding transition elements to a
hypoeutectic aluminium-silicon alloys was clearly reducing the elongation to failure.
However, this effect was not found in the hypereutectic alloys that even with addition of
transition element have similar elongation to failure results. This could be because of the
silicon phases, which is detrimental to the hypereutectic alloys are the major factor for
the elongation to failure - see Figure 14 b.

4.2.4 Long-time exposure at elevated temperatures.

From the tensile testing at elevated temperature of the alloys exposed at 240 °C for 1000
hours, it could be concluded that the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy show an ~23 % improvement in
the ultimate tensile strength compared with the Al-7Si alloy. This improvement may
depend on the contiguity of the silicon and intermetallic network is more rigid in Al-7Si-
Co-Ni alloy. The Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy shows an improvement of ultimate tensile strength
at elevated temperature by 13 %, compared with the Al-15Si alloy - see Figure 14 a.
Moreover, the elongation to failure is increased with addition of cobalt and nickel in the
hypereutectic alloys from 7.7 % to 11 % - see Figure 14 b.

25
 (a) (b)
Figure 14. Results from the tensile testing at 230 °C (a) Ultimate tensile strength,
(b) Elongation to failure.

4.2.5 Hardness

The nanoindentation method was developed to measure the hardness of materials using a
Berkovich indentor. The data from the indentation are obtained from a load-displacement
curve, recording both the loading and unloading cycle. The alloys in this work was
evaluated with two different set-ups:

1. 12 X 12 indents with a load of 5 mN, distance between the indents were 7 μm.
2. 6 X 6 indents with a load of 200 mN, distance between the indents were 100 μm.

The results from the first set-up can separate the hardness values between various areas
in the microstructure such as: α-dendrites, aluminium-silicon eutectic and intermetallics.
From the first set-up experiment on the Al-7Si alloy is the results shown - see Figure 15.
The software is using the Oliver and Pharr method to perform the analysis of the
indentations.

(a) (b)

Figure 15. (a) Microstructure after indentation on Al-7Si alloy, (b) Hardness map from the
analysis.

26
After that all indentation was performed and analysed, the software gives the results as a
hardness map - see Figure 15 b. The individual result from the indentations were then
sorted and categorized into α-dendrites or aluminium-silicon eutectic, those indentations
hitting hard intermetallics was excluded - see results in Table 5. At least 15 indentations
in each category were analyzed for the results. It is a clear difference between the α-
dendrites and the aluminium-silicon eutectic. However, no significant variation of
hardness was found in the α-dendrites or the aluminium-silicon eutectic with addition of
cobalt and nickel.

Table 5. Summary of results from nanoindentation of different phases set-up 1. Hardness in GPa.

Alloys α-dendrites aluminium-silicon eutectic

Al-7Si 0.86 ± 0.04 1.42 ± 0.13
Al-7Si-Co 0.87 ± 0.03 1.45 ± 0.11
Al-7Si-Co-Ni 0.91 ± 0.02 1.48 ± 0.10
Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr 0.91 ± 0.02 1.48 ± 0.10
Al-15Si - 1.45 ± 0.12
Al-15Si-Co-Ni - 1.55 ± 0.10

The purpose of the second set-up with a load of 200 mN, is to evaluate the hardness
properties in the alloys. The results from minimum 33 indentations are presented - see
Table 6. It is clear that the additions of cobalt and nickel to the alloys increases the
hardness both in the hypo- and hypereutectic alloys, in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy by 34.5 %
and by 43 % in the Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy. It seems probable that the increasing contiguity
of the 3D-network, caused by intermetallics and eutectic silicon are the reason for the
improvement of hardness in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy. Similar findings with addition of
nickel has been reported by Kaya et al. [39]. The strontium in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr alloy
is modifying the silicon morphology to a well modified aluminium-silicon eutectic
structure. The Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr alloy show an improved hardness by 13 % compared
with the Al-7Si alloy, this is in accordance with results from Zamani et al. [21]. Although
the hardness in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr alloy is lower than in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni and Al-7Si-
Co alloys. This may be due to the effect of strontium on the silicon morphology that
reduces the strength of the 3D-network or that the addition of the strontium is depressing
both the nucleation and growth temperature of the eutectic reaction [26]. The depression
is changing the volume of α-dendrites and the aluminium-silicon eutectic. By using the
lever rule in the aluminium-silicon phase diagram it is clear that the volume of α-
dendrites increases with a depression of the eutectic reaction temperature.

Table 6. Summary of results from nanoindentation set-up 2.

Alloys Hardness
Al-7Si 0.20 GPa ± 0.038
Al-Si-Co 0.259 GPa ± 0.040
Al-7Si-Co-Ni 0.269 GPa ± 0.034
Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr 0.226 GPa ± 0.034
Al-15Si 0.28 GPa ± 0.034
Al-15Si-Co-Ni 0.40 GPa ± 0.052

27
The effect of silicon on the hardness (Al-7Si and Al-15Si) is showing a significant
improvement by 40 %. This is in accordance with results in the literature [59]. Moreover,
the combined addition of cobalt and nickel to the hypereutectic alloy shows an improved
hardness by 43 %, which indicates an enormous potential.

Micro Vickers measurements were performed on all alloys to compare the results with
the hardness values from the nanoindentation - see Table 7. Five indentations were
conducted in each alloy.

Table 7. Summary of the results from Micro Vickers measurements.

Alloys Vickers 500 mg SD
Al-7Si HV 73.9 1.5
Al-Si-Co HV 76.6 1.1
Al-7Si-Co-Ni HV 78.0 1.5
Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr HV 75.9 1.1
Al-15Si HV 87.4 1.8
Al-15Si-Co-Ni HV 103.0 1.5

The results from the Micro Vickers is following the same trend as the nanoindentation
with an increasing hardness - see Figure 16.

Figure 16. Hardness results from nanoindentation and the Micro Vickers in all alloys.

28
The effect of the long-term exposure at elevated temperature were evaluated on four
alloys with various exposure times at 240 °C. The evolution of hardness is presented -
see Figure 17. The results are clearly showing a rapid decrease in hardness during the
first 10 hours in all alloys. The result agrees with work by Zamani et al. [21]. After
prolonged exposure at 240 °C, is the alloys with combined addition of cobalt and nickel
showing a significant higher hardness, in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy by 12 % and by 5 % in
the Al-15Si-Co-Ni alloy. This may be due to the thermally stable intermetallics phases in
the alloys. From the results, there is no clear trend if the hardness reach a steady state
after exposed at 240 °C for 1000 hours. Moreover, the alloys should be exposed to 240
°C for at least 1000 hours to be able to understand the alloys mechanical properties
during use at elevated temperatures.

Figure 17. The hardness evolution when the alloys is exposed to 240 °C for times up to 1000
hours.

29
4.2.6 Differential scanning calorimetry

The alloys were investigated with a NETZSCH 404C Pegasus® to trace phase
transformations occurring when the material is exposed to elevated temperatures. The
results from the DSC measurements up to 600 °C is showing that an exothermic reaction
occurs with a maximum around 230 °C in all alloys - see Figure 18. This reaction
corresponds to the silicon precipitation [21]. Moreover, no more reaction occurs below
400 °C which indicate that the intermetallics phases in these alloys are thermally stable
up to 400 °C. The silicon precipitation is the main reason for the hardness decrease
during long-term exposure at elevated temperatures. Moreover, from the DSC curves it is
also shown that the incipient melting of eutectic silicon start at 572 °C ± 3 in all alloys.

(a) (b)

Figure 18. DSC curves of the as-cast alloys with a heating rate of 5 K/min.(a) Hypoeutectic
alloys, (b) Hypereutectic alloys

30
4.2.7 Thermal expansion

The coefficient of the thermal expansion (CTE) in the alloys were investigated using a
dilatometer with a heating rate of 5 K/min up to 570 °C. The CTE result of the Al-7Si is
24.5 *10−6 𝐾 −1 , while the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy significant decreases the CTE by 11.5 % -
see Figure 19. This indicates that the combined addition of nickel and cobalt may
influence the interconnectivity of the 3D-network in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni alloy. However,
the addition of strontium in the Al-7Si-Co-Ni-Sr alloy increase the CTE with 3.6 %
compared with the Al-7Si alloy, this is because of the higher volume of α-dendrites due
to the depressed eutectic reaction temperature. The effect of silicon (Al-7Si and Al-15Si)
show a reduction of the CTE by 33.8 %. This result proposes that the silicon in the
hypereutectic alloy is well distributed and acts as a metal composite. However, results
from Stadler et al. [60] shows that increasing the silicon content from 7 wt.% to 12 wt.%
will reduce the CTE by 7 %. This indicates that the effect of silicon on the CTE is
significant larger between the silicon contents 12 - 15 wt.%. The precipitation of the
silicon is observed in all curves - see Figure 19.

(a) (b)

Figure 19. Thermal expansion curves of the as-cast alloys with a heating rate of 5 K/min. (a)
Hypoeutectic alloys, (b) Hypereutectic alloys.

31
5 Conclusions
This thesis has focused on the effect of Co, Ni and Sr in two aluminium-silicon alloys (7
wt.% and 15 wt.%) Samples were produced by directional solidification giving a
microstructure with SDAS ~10 μm. The results show:

1. The addition of cobalt and nickel in aluminium-silicon alloys show a good

potential to improve the mechanical properties at elevated temperature. With a
combined addition of nickel and cobalt the ultimate tensile strength increases by
~32 % at 230 °C in the hypoeutectic alloy, and it remains at 23 % higher after
prolonged exposure in 1000 hours at 240 °C.

2. The combined addition of nickel and cobalt show an improvement in hardness by

43 % in the hypereutectic alloy.

3. The strontium addition in the hypoeutectic alloy provides a fully modified

eutectic structure and reduces the sizes of the nickel and cobalt rich phases
significantly.

4. Intermetallic phases were formed by the addition of cobalt and nickel. These phases
are thermally stable up to 400 °C.

5. The thermal expansion is reduced with addition of cobalt and nickel by 11.5 % in
the hypoeutectic alloy and by 7.8 % in the hypereutectic alloy.

32
6 Future work
• Investigate the mechanism behind the silicon modification in the hypoeutectic alloy
with addition of cobalt and nickel.

• The 3D-network of the eutectic silicon and intermetallic phases in the alloys with
different additions needs to be investigated by FIB, deep etching or serial
sectioning of the material.

• The mechanism of poisoning the grain size with addition of cobalt and nickel
should be investigated.

• Investigate the combined addition of cobalt and nickel in a commercial aluminium-

silicon alloy.

33
7 References
1. Stadler, F., et al. The effect of Ni on the high-temperature strength of Al-Si cast
alloys. in Materials Science Forum. 2011. Trans Tech Publ.
2. Ceschini, L., et al., Effect of microstructure and overaging on the tensile behavior
at room and elevated temperature of C355-T6 cast aluminum alloy. Materials &
design, 2015. 83: p. 626-634.
3. Stadler, F., et al., Effect of main alloying elements on strength of Al–Si foundry
alloys at elevated temperatures. International Journal of Cast Metals Research,
2012. 25(4): p. 215-224.
4. Dwivedi, D., R. Sharma, and A. Kumar, Influence of silicon content and heat
treatment parameters on mechanical properties of cast Al–Si–Mg alloys.
International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 2006. 19(5): p. 275-282.
5. Kaufman, J.G., Parametric analyses of high-temperature data for aluminum
alloys. 2008: ASM International.
6. Donachie, M.J. and S.J. Donachie, Superalloys: a technical guide. 2002: ASM
international.
7. Knipling, K.E., D.C. Dunand, and D.N. Seidman, Criteria for developing
castable, creep-resistant aluminum-based alloys–A review. Zeitschrift für
Metallkunde, 2006. 97(3): p. 246-265.
8. Sha, M., et al., Effects of cobalt content on microstructure and mechanical
properties of hypereutectic Al–Si alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A,
2012. 535: p. 258-263.
9. Ryabov, D., et al., Influence of cobalt alloying on structure and long-term
strength of Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy system. Inorganic Materials: Applied Research,
2017. 8(1): p. 159-165.
10. Choi, S.-H., et al., High temperature tensile deformation behavior of new heat
resistant aluminum alloy. Procedia Engineering, 2011. 10: p. 159-164.
11. Miller, W., et al., Recent development in aluminium alloys for the automotive
industry. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2000. 280(1): p. 37-49.
12. Rakhmonov, J., G. Timelli, and F. Bonollo, The Effect of Transition Elements on
High‐Temperature Mechanical Properties of Al–Si Foundry Alloys–A Review.
Advanced Engineering Materials, 2016.
13. Drivealuminium. (www.drivealuminum.org).
14. Kaufman, J.G. and E.L. Rooy, Aluminum Alloy Castings. American Foundry
Society, Columbus, Ohio, 2004.
15. Askeland, D.R. and P.P. Phulé, The science and engineering of materials. 2003.
16. Zamani, M., S. Seifeddine, and A.E. Jarfors, High temperature tensile
deformation behavior and failure mechanisms of an Al–Si–Cu–Mg cast alloy—
The microstructural scale effect. Materials & design, 2015. 86: p. 361-370.
17. Campbell, J., Castings. 2003: Butterworth-Heinemann.
18. Jiang, W., et al., Effects of rare earth elements addition on microstructures,
tensile properties and fractography of A357 alloy. Materials Science and
Engineering: A, 2014. 597: p. 237-244.
19. Tenekedjiev, N. and J. Gruzleski, Hypereutectic aluminium-silicon casting
alloys—a review. Cast Metals, 1990. 3(2): p. 96-105.
20. Bogdanoff, T., S. Seifeddine, and A.K. Dahle, The effect of SI content on
microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Si alloy. La Metallurgia Italiana,
2016. 108(6).

34
21. Zamani, M., et al., The Role of Transition Metal Additions on the Ambient and
Elevated Temperature Properties of Al-Si Alloys. Materials Science and
Engineering: A, 2017.
22. Rakhmonov, J., G. Timelli, and F. Bonollo, The Effect of Transition Elements on
High-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Al–Si Foundry Alloys–A Review.
Advanced Engineering Materials, 2016. 18(7): p. 1096-1105.
23. Sepehrband, P., R. Mahmudi, and F. Khomamizadeh, Effect of Zr addition on the
aging behavior of A319 aluminum cast alloy. Scripta materialia, 2005. 52(4): p.
253-257.
24. Mahmudi, R., P. Sepehrband, and H. Ghasemi, Improved properties of A319
aluminum casting alloy modified with Zr. Materials Letters, 2006. 60(21): p.
2606-2610.
25. Di Sabatino, M., Fluidity of aluminium foundry alloys. 2005, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology.
26. Dahle, A., et al., Eutectic modification and microstructure development in Al–Si
Alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2005. 413: p. 243-248.
27. Liu, X., et al., Twin-controlled growth of eutectic Si in unmodified and Sr-
modified Al–12.7% Si alloys investigated by SEM/EBSD. Acta Materialia, 2015.
97: p. 338-347.
28. Timpel, M., et al., The role of strontium in modifying aluminium–silicon alloys.
Acta Materialia, 2012. 60(9): p. 3920-3928.
29. Makhlouf, M. and H. Guthy, The aluminum–silicon eutectic reaction:
mechanisms and crystallography. Journal of light metals, 2001. 1(4): p. 199-218.
30. Lasagni, F., et al., Three-dimensional characterization of ‘as-cast’and solution-
treated AlSi12 (Sr) alloys by high-resolution FIB tomography. Acta Materialia,
2007. 55(11): p. 3875-3882.
31. Dieter, G.E. and D.J. Bacon, Mechanical metallurgy. Vol. 3. 1986: McGraw-Hill
New York.
32. Seifeddine, S., E. Sjölander, and T. Bogdanoff, On the role of copper and cooling
rates on the microstructure, defect formations and mechanical properties of Al-
Si-Mg alloys. 2013.
33. Shabestari, S. and H. Moemeni, Effect of copper and solidification conditions on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–Si–Mg alloys. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 2004. 153: p. 193-198.
34. Sharma, C.P., Engineering materials: properties and applications of metals and
alloys. 2003: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
35. Jia, K., et al., Al–9.00% Si–0.25% Mg alloys modified by ytterbium. Rare Metals,
2017. 36(2): p. 95-100.
36. Xu, C., et al., Effect of Sc and Sr on the Eutectic Si Morphology and Tensile
Properties of Al-Si-Mg Alloy. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance,
2017. 26(4): p. 1605-1613.
37. Naeem, H.T., K.S. Mohammed, and K.R. Ahmad, The Role of cobalt and nickel
intermetallic phases on the mechanical properties and microstructure evolution
of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys. Materials Research, 2014. 17(6): p. 1663-1676.
38. Konečná, R., et al., The role of elevated temperature exposure on structural
evolution and fatigue strength of eutectic AlSi12 alloys. International Journal of
Fatigue, 2016. 83: p. 24-35.
39. Kaya, H. and A. Aker, Effect of alloying elements and growth rates on
microstructure and mechanical properties in the directionally solidified Al–Si–X
alloys. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2017. 694: p. 145-154.

35
40. Spittle, J., Grain refinement in shape casting of aluminium alloys. 2006, Taylor &
Francis.
41. Samuel, A., et al., A Metallographic Study of Grain Refining of Sr-Modified 356
Alloy. International Journal of Metalcasting, 2016: p. 1-16.
42. Kasprzak, W., B.S. Amirkhiz, and M. Niewczas, Structure and properties of cast
Al–Si based alloy with Zr–V–Ti additions and its evaluation of high temperature
performance. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014. 595: p. 67-79.
43. Greer, A., Overview: Application of heterogeneous nucleation in grain-refining of
metals. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 2016. 145(21): p. 211704.
44. Seifeddine, S., Characteristics of cast aluminium-silicon alloys: microstructures
and mechanical properties. 2006.
45. Samuel, A., et al., Effect of Sr-P Interaction on the Microstructure and Tensile
Properties of A413. 0 Type Alloys. Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, 2016. 2016.
46. Dinnis, C.M., A.K. Dahle, and J.A. Taylor, Three-dimensional analysis of
eutectic grains in hypoeutectic Al–Si alloys. Materials Science and Engineering:
A, 2005. 392(1): p. 440-448.
47. Lu, L., K. Nogita, and A. Dahle, Combining Sr and Na additions in hypoeutectic
Al–Si foundry alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2005. 399(1): p. 244-
253.
48. Sigworth, G., The modification of Al-Si casting alloys: important practical and
theoretical aspects. International Journal of Metalcasting, 2008. 2(2): p. 19-40.
49. Wang, Q. and C. Caceres, The fracture mode in Al–Si–Mg casting alloys.
Materials Science and Engineering: A, 1998. 241(1): p. 72-82.
50. Fisher, K. and W. Kurz, Fundamentals of solidification. Trans Tech Publications,
1986.
51. Arnberg, L., et al., Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum Alloys: Dendrite
Coherency. 1996: American Foundrymen's Society.
52. Olofsson, J., et al., Characterisation and investigation of local variations in
mechanical behaviour in cast aluminium using gradient solidification, Digital
Image Correlation and finite element simulation. Materials & Design, 2014. 56:
p. 755-762.
53. Oliver, W.C. and G.M. Pharr, Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by
instrumented indentation: Advances in understanding and refinements to
methodology. Journal of materials research, 2004. 19(01): p. 3-20.
54. Lee, Y., et al., The effect of grain refinement and silicon content on grain
formation in hypoeutectic Al–Si alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A,
1999. 259(1): p. 43-52.
55. Qiu, D., et al., A mechanism for the poisoning effect of silicon on the grain
refinement of Al–Si alloys. Acta Materialia, 2007. 55(4): p. 1447-1456.
56. McDonald, S.D., K. Nogita, and A.K. Dahle, Eutectic nucleation in Al–Si alloys.
Acta Materialia, 2004. 52(14): p. 4273-4280.
57. Talaat, E.-B. and F. Hasse, Solidification Mechanism of Unmodified and
Strontium Modified Al–Si Alloys. Materials Transactions, JIM, 2000. 41(4): p.
507-515.
58. Rincon, E., et al., Effect of temperature on the tensile properties of an as-cast
aluminum alloy A319. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2007. 452: p. 682-
687.

36
59. Sharma, R. and D. Dwivedi, Influence of silicon (wt.%) and heat treatment on
abrasive wear behaviour of cast Al–Si–Mg alloys. Materials Science and
Engineering: A, 2005. 408(1): p. 274-280.
60. Stadler, F., et al., The effect of main alloying elements on the physical properties
of Al–Si foundry alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2013. 560: p. 481-
491.

37