Question 1: Diodes and their Applications

a. Explain how you can construct a diode.

Answer:
A diode can be constructed by joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor material. The p-n junction
forms the diode, where the p-side contains an excess of holes (positive charge carriers), and the n-side
contains an excess of electrons (negative charge carriers). When forward-biased, the diode allows
current flow, but when reverse-biased, it blocks the current, acting as a one-way switch.

b. What is the difference between a photodiode and an LED?

Answer:

• A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. It operates
in reverse bias and generates current when exposed to light.

• An LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a semiconductor device that emits light when current passes
through it in the forward direction.

c. Draw the pin configuration of a 741 Op-Amp.

Answer:
A typical 741 Op-Amp has 8 pins with the following configuration:

1. Offset Null

2. Inverting Input (−)

3. Non-Inverting Input (+)

4. V− (Negative Supply Voltage)

5. Offset Null

6. Output

7. V+ (Positive Supply Voltage)

8. NC (No Connection)

d. In a Zener diode circuit, if two Zener diodes rated at 15V and 200mA are connected with a 45V
unregulated supply, determine the regulated output voltage and the series resistance (R) required for
a load current of 100mA.

Answer:

• The regulated output voltage E0E_0E0 is equal to the Zener breakdown voltage, which is 15V.

• To find the series resistance RRR, use the formula:

R=Ei−E0IR = \frac{E_i - E_0}{I}R=IEi−E0

Where:
 o Ei=45VE_i = 45VEi=45V (unregulated input voltage)

o E0=15VE_0 = 15VE0=15V (regulated output voltage)

o I=100mA+200mA=300mAI = 100mA + 200mA = 300mAI=100mA+200mA=300mA (total

current through the resistor, which is the sum of the load current and the Zener current)

Substituting values:

R=45V−15V0.3A=30V0.3A=100 ΩR = \frac{45V - 15V}{0.3A} = \frac{30V}{0.3A} = 100 \,

\OmegaR=0.3A45V−15V=0.3A30V=100Ω

e. Write the voltage gain expression of a non-inverting amplifier.

Answer:
For a non-inverting amplifier, the voltage gain AVA_VAV is given by:

AV=1+RfRinA_V = 1 + \frac{R_f}{R_{in}}AV=1+RinRf

Where:

• RfR_fRf is the feedback resistor.

• RinR_{in}Rin is the input resistor.

f. Draw the following Boolean function using basic logic gates.

F=(A+B+C)⋅(A+B‾+C‾)⋅(A+B‾+C)F = (A + B + C) \cdot (\overline{A + \overline{B} + C}) \cdot (A +

\overline{B} + C)F=(A+B+C)⋅(A+B+C)⋅(A+B+C)

Answer:
The Boolean function can be implemented using AND, OR, and NOT gates:

• The first term (A+B+C)(A + B + C)(A+B+C) requires a 3-input OR gate.

• The second term A+B‾+C‾\overline{A + \overline{B} + C}A+B+C requires a combination of OR

and NOT gates.

• The third term (A+B‾+C)(A + \overline{B} + C)(A+B+C) also requires an OR gate with an input fed
through a NOT gate.

Then, the three terms are combined using a 3-input AND gate.

Question 2: Operational Amplifiers and Logic Circuits

a. What is an operational amplifier (Op-Amp), and what are its key characteristics?

Answer:
An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs
(inverting and non-inverting) and a single-ended output. Key characteristics include:

• High input impedance

 • Low output impedance

• High open-loop gain

• Wide bandwidth

b. Draw the circuit for an inverting amplifier using a 741 Op-Amp and provide the gain expression.

Answer:
In an inverting amplifier, the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal through a resistor
RinR_{in}Rin, while the non-inverting terminal is grounded. A feedback resistor RfR_fRf is connected
between the output and the inverting terminal.

The voltage gain is given by:

AV=−RfRinA_V = -\frac{R_f}{R_{in}}AV=−RinRf

c. Explain the difference between a NAND gate and a NOR gate.

Answer:

• A NAND gate outputs 0 only when all its inputs are 1; otherwise, it outputs 1.

• A NOR gate outputs 1 only when all its inputs are 0; otherwise, it outputs 0.

d. Construct a logic circuit to implement the Boolean function:

F=A‾⋅B+A⋅B‾F = \overline{A} \cdot B + A \cdot \overline{B}F=A⋅B+A⋅B

Answer:
This is the Boolean expression for the XOR gate. The circuit can be implemented using NOT, AND, and
OR gates as follows:

• Use NOT gates to invert AAA and BBB.

• Use AND gates to form the terms A‾⋅B\overline{A} \cdot BA⋅B and A⋅B‾A \cdot \overline{B}A⋅B.

• Use an OR gate to combine the two terms.

Question 3: Zener Diodes and Voltage Regulators

a. What is the purpose of a Zener diode in a circuit?

Answer:
A Zener diode is used for voltage regulation. It allows current to flow in the forward direction like a
regular diode but also in the reverse direction when the voltage exceeds a certain breakdown value
(Zener voltage). This helps maintain a constant output voltage across the load despite variations in input
voltage or load conditions.

b. Design a voltage regulator circuit using a Zener diode rated at 12V for a load requiring 100mA.
Assume the input supply is 24V.
Answer: The Zener voltage VZ=12VV_Z = 12VVZ=12V, the load current IL=100mAI_L = 100mAIL=100mA,
and the input voltage Vin=24VV_{in} = 24VVin=24V.

To find the series resistance RRR, use Ohm's law:

R=Vin−VZILR = \frac{V_{in} - V_Z}{I_L}R=ILVin−VZ

Substitute the values:

R=24V−12V0.1A=120 ΩR = \frac{24V - 12V}{0.1A} = 120 \, \OmegaR=0.1A24V−12V=120Ω

Question 1: Zener Diode and Circuit Analysis

a. In a Zener diode voltage regulator circuit, the input voltage varies between 20V and 50V, and the
load resistance is 100Ω. The Zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 15V and a maximum power
dissipation of 1W. Determine:

1. The value of the series resistance RsR_sRs required to protect the Zener diode.

2. The minimum and maximum current through the Zener diode.

3. Whether the diode will remain safe under all conditions.

Answer:

1. Series Resistance RsR_sRs: The Zener voltage is 15V, and the load resistance RLR_LRL is 100Ω.
First, find the current through the load:

IL=VZRL=15V100Ω=0.15AI_L = \frac{V_Z}{R_L} = \frac{15V}{100Ω} = 0.15AIL=RLVZ=100Ω15V=0.15A

The minimum current through the Zener diode occurs when the input voltage is 20V, and the maximum
occurs at 50V.

Using Ohm’s law:

Rs=Vin−VZIR_s = \frac{V_{in} - V_Z}{I}Rs=IVin−VZ

To prevent overcurrent, we assume the minimum Zener current is 0 (when the input voltage is 20V and
all current flows through the load), and the maximum current occurs at 50V.

2. Maximum Current through the Zener Diode: At Vin=50VV_{in} = 50VVin=50V:

IZ=Vin−VZRs−ILI_Z = \frac{V_{in} - V_Z}{R_s} - I_LIZ=RsVin−VZ−IL

Where IZI_ZIZ is the current through the Zener.

3. Power Check: The maximum Zener current should not exceed the Zener diode's power rating:

P=VZ⋅IZ≤1WP = V_Z \cdot I_Z \leq 1WP=VZ⋅IZ≤1W

If this condition is violated, the diode will not remain safe.

Question 2: Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Complex Applications

a. Design a precision rectifier using an operational amplifier. Explain how the circuit works and why it
provides an advantage over a standard diode rectifier.

Answer:
A precision rectifier (also known as a super diode) uses an Op-Amp to ensure that even small input
voltages can be rectified without the forward voltage drop typically associated with diodes (around 0.7V
for silicon diodes).

The circuit consists of an Op-Amp in an inverting configuration with a diode placed between the output
of the Op-Amp and the inverting input. The Op-Amp compensates for the diode’s forward voltage drop,
allowing the circuit to rectify very small AC signals, which a regular diode rectifier would not.

Advantages:

• No forward voltage drop, which allows the rectification of very low input signals.

• More precise signal reproduction in comparison to conventional diode rectifiers.

Question 3: Complex Logic Gate Implementation and Minimization

a. Given the Boolean expression:

F=(A+B‾)⋅(C+D‾)+(A⋅B⋅C‾)+(A‾⋅B⋅D)F = (\overline{A + B}) \cdot (C + \overline{D}) + (A \cdot B \cdot

\overline{C}) + (\overline{A} \cdot B \cdot D)F=(A+B)⋅(C+D)+(A⋅B⋅C)+(A⋅B⋅D)

1. Simplify the Boolean expression using Boolean algebra.

2. Draw the logic circuit for both the unsimplified and simplified expressions.

Answer:

1. Simplification (Step-by-step simplification using Boolean laws):

F=(A+B‾)⋅(C+D‾)+(A⋅B⋅C‾)+(A‾⋅B⋅D)F = (\overline{A + B}) \cdot (C + \overline{D}) + (A \cdot B \cdot

\overline{C}) + (\overline{A} \cdot B \cdot D)F=(A+B)⋅(C+D)+(A⋅B⋅C)+(A⋅B⋅D)

Using distribution and absorption laws, simplify step-by-step until you reach the minimized form.

2. Circuit Drawing: Draw the logic gates for the original unsimplified expression and compare it
with the minimized version. The minimized version should require fewer gates and connections.

Question 4: Stability and Feedback in Op-Amps

a. Consider an Op-Amp configured in a negative feedback loop as a non-inverting amplifier with a gain
of 100. The Op-Amp has an open-loop gain AOLA_{OL}AOL of 10,000 and a dominant pole frequency
of 10Hz. If the bandwidth of the closed-loop system needs to be at least 1kHz, will this amplifier
configuration work? If not, suggest a way to improve the bandwidth.
Answer:
The bandwidth of a closed-loop system can be determined using the gain-bandwidth product:

BWCL=BWOLGainBW_{CL} = \frac{BW_{OL}}{Gain}BWCL=GainBWOL

Where BWOLBW_{OL}BWOL is the open-loop bandwidth and GainGainGain is the closed-loop gain.

1. Open-loop Bandwidth: The open-loop bandwidth is 10Hz, and the closed-loop gain is 100.
The closed-loop bandwidth is:

BWCL=10,000Hz100=100HzBW_{CL} = \frac{10,000Hz}{100} = 100HzBWCL=10010,000Hz=100Hz

Since the required bandwidth is 1kHz, the current configuration will not work.

2. Improvement Suggestion: To increase the bandwidth, you can reduce the closed-loop gain or
use an Op-Amp with a higher gain-bandwidth product. Another option is to use a compensation
technique like adding a lead-lag network to extend the bandwidth.

Question 5: Multi-Stage Amplifiers and Cascading

a. Design a two-stage amplifier with the following specifications:

• First stage: Inverting amplifier with a gain of -10.

• Second stage: Non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 5.

The overall voltage gain should be 50. Include the resistor values if the input impedance of the first stage
is required to be at least 10kΩ.

Answer:

1. First Stage (Inverting Amplifier): The voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is given by:

A1=−RfRinA_1 = -\frac{R_f}{R_{in}}A1=−RinRf

Given A1=−10A_1 = -10A1=−10, and the input impedance Rin≥10kΩR_{in} \geq 10kΩRin≥10kΩ, choose
Rin=10kΩR_{in} = 10kΩRin=10kΩ. Then, calculate RfR_fRf using:

Rf=10kΩ×10=100kΩR_f = 10kΩ \times 10 = 100kΩRf=10kΩ×10=100kΩ

2. Second Stage (Non-inverting Amplifier): The voltage gain of the non-inverting amplifier is given
by:

A2=1+RfRinA_2 = 1 + \frac{R_f}{R_{in}}A2=1+RinRf

Given A2=5A_2 = 5A2=5, solve for the resistor values such that the ratio matches the gain.

3. Overall Gain: The overall gain is:

A=A1×A2=−10×5=50A = A_1 \times A_2 = -10 \times 5 = 50A=A1×A2=−10×5=50

The signs indicate inversion at the first stage but a positive overall gain.