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A Review of Active Power Filters In

Power System Applications
Anju Jacob, Babitha T Abraham, Nisha Prakash, Riya Philip,
PG Student [PEPS], Dept. of EEE, Amal Jyothi Engineering College, Koovapally, Kerala, India.
PG Student [PEPS], Dept. of EEE, Amal Jyothi Engineering College, Koovapally, Kerala, India.
PG Student [PEPS], Dept. of EEE, Amal Jyothi Engineering College, Koovapally, Kerala, India.
PG Student [PEPS], Dept. of EEE, Amal Jyothi Engineering College, Koovapally, Kerala, India.

ABSTRACT- In recent years there has been considerable interest in the development and applications of active filters,
at both distribution and consumer levels, and the need to control reactive power and voltage stability at transmission
levels. Active power filters are the emerging devices, which can perform the job of harmonic elimination more
effectively. The active power filters are used to filter out higher as well as lower order harmonics in the power system.
The report deals with the basic working and classifications of active power filters, its reference signal generation
techniques and some of the controlling schemes of APF. One of the key points for a proper implementation of an active
filter is to use a good method for current/voltage reference generation. There exist many implementations supported by
different theories proposing ever better solutions. This paper introduces some of the commonly used theories. Also for
efficient working of active power filter better controlling techniques have to be implemented. The paper presents a brief
study of active power filter (APF) control strategies put forward recently. It is aimed at providing a broad perspective
on the status of APF control methods for better operation of the system.

KEYWORDS: Power system harmonic, Active power filter, Harmonics mitigation, Power quality, control strategy

I. INTRODUCTION

Power electronic appliances are used widely in industrial, commercial and consumer environment. These
appliances generate harmonics and reactive power in the utility system. The improvement of power quality by reducing
harmonics has become an important issue nowadays [1-4]. Conventionally, passive LC filters have been used to
eliminate line current harmonics and to improve the power factor. But the passive filters have many disadvantages,
such as fixed compensation, large size and resonance problems. To solve above mentioned problems, active power
filters were introduced.
Power quality can be defined as the interaction of electrical power with electrical equipment. If electrical
equipment operates correctly and reliably without being damaged or stressed, we would say that the electrical power is
of good quality. On the other hand, if the electrical equipment malfunctions, is unreliable, or is damaged during normal
usage, we would suspect that the power quality is poor. Power quality determines the fitness of electrical power to
consumer devices. The presence of harmonic waveforms in power system is the main cause of power quality problems.
Harmonics have a number of undesirable effects on the distribution system. It causes excessive voltage distortion,
increased resistive losses or voltage stresses, reductions in ac motor efficiency and product quality etc in the power
system. With the widespread use of harmonic generating devices, the control of harmonic currents to maintain a high
level of power quality is becoming increasingly important. An effective way for harmonic suppression is the harmonic
compensation by using active power filter. Active power filters are considered as a feasible solution for reducing
current harmonics and reactive power due to their small size, no requirement for tuning and stable operation.
The basic compensation principles of active filters were proposed around 1970. They act as harmonic current
source to provide an effective result to eliminate the harmonic currents and also to compensate the reactive power.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Power system harmonics

Power system harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental power system frequency. Power system
harmonics are created by non-linear devices connected to the power system. Harmonics are voltage and current
frequencies riding on top of the normal sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms. The presence of harmonics (both
current and voltage) is viewed as `pollution' affecting the operation of power systems.
The most common source of harmonic distortion is electronic equipment using switch-mode power supplies,
such as computers, adjustable-speed drives, and high-efficiency electronic light ballasts. Harmonic waveforms are
characterized by their amplitude and harmonic number. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a certain type of load,
in which the load cause the current to vary disproportionately with the voltage during each cyclic period. These are
classified as nonlinear loads, and the current taken by them will be a non sinusoidal waveform. When there is
significant impedance in the path from the power source to a nonlinear load, these current distortions will also produce
distortions in the voltage waveform at the load. Waveform distortion can be mathematically analyzed to show that it is
equivalent to superimposing additional frequency components onto a pure sine wave (figure 2.1). These frequencies are
harmonics (integer multiples) of the fundamental frequency, and can sometimes propagate outwards from nonlinear
loads, causing problems elsewhere on the power system.
The harmonics generated by the most common non-linear loads have the following properties:
• Lower order harmonics tend to dominate in amplitude
• If the waveform has half-wave symmetry there are no even harmonics
• Harmonic emissions from a large number of non-linear loads of the same type will be added.

Fig.2.1 Effect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform

The figure 2.1 shows the effect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform [5]. Odd harmonics
waveforms contribute more to power system instability. In the figure the combined waveform shows the result of
adding the harmonics on to the fundamental.
Harmonics in power systems can become the source of a variety of unwelcome effects. For example,
harmonics can cause signal interference, over voltages, data loss, and circuit breaker failure, as well as equipment
heating, malfunction, and damage. Any distribution circuit serving modern electronic devices will contain some degree
of harmonic frequencies. The greater the power drawn by nonlinear loads, cause greater the level of voltage distortion.
Potential problems (or symptoms of problems) attributed to harmonics include:
 Malfunction of sensitive equipment
 Random tripping of circuit breakers
 Flickering lights
 Very high neutral currents
 Overheated phase conductors, panels, and transformers
 Premature failure of transformers and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs)
 Reduced power factor
 Reduced system capacity (because harmonics create additional heat, transformers and other distribution
equipment cannot carry full rated load)
In addition, the harmonic currents produced by nonlinear loads can interact adversely with a wide range of power
system equipment, most notably capacitors, transformers, and motors, causing additional losses, overheating, and
overloading. These harmonic currents can also cause interferences with telecommunication lines and errors in metering
devices. Because of the adverse effects that harmonics have on power quality, Standard has been developed to define a

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reasonable framework for harmonic control. Harmonic distortion in power distribution systems can be suppressed using
different approaches. One among them is the use of active power filters.

B. Active power filters (APF)

Harmonic distortion in power distribution systems can be suppressed mainly by, passive and active filtering.
The passive filtering is the simplest conventional solution to mitigate the harmonic distortion. The uses of passive
elements do not always respond correctly to the dynamics of the power distribution systems. Passive filters are known
to cause resonance, thus affecting the stability of the power distribution systems. Frequency variation of the power
distribution system and tolerances in components values affect the passive filtering characteristics. As the regulatory
requirements become more stringent, the passive filters might not be able to meet future revisions of a particular
Standard. This may required a retrofit of new filters.
Remarkable progress in power electronics had spurred interest in Active Power Filters (APF) for harmonic
distortion mitigation. Active filtering is a relatively new technology, practically less than four decades old. The basic
principle of APF is to utilize power electronics technologies to produce specific current components that cancel the
harmonic current components caused by the nonlinear load.
APFs have a number of advantages over the passive filters. First of all, they can suppress not only the supply
current harmonics, but also the reactive currents. Moreover, unlike passive filters, they do not cause harmful resonances
with the power distribution systems. Consequently, the APFs performances are independent on the power distribution
system properties. Active filtering is a relatively new technology, practically less than four decades old. There is still a
need for further research and development to make this technology well established.

C. The working of APF

The Figure 2.2 shows the components of a typical APF system and their connections. The compensation
reference signal from the estimator drives the overall system controller. This in turn provides the control for the gating
signal generator. The output of the gating signal generator controls the power circuit via a suitable interface [6].

Fig.2.2 Basic block diagram of APF

Finally, the power circuit in the generalized block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or parallel/series
configurations depending on the interfacing inductor/transformer used. An unfavorable but inseparable feature of APF
is the necessity of fast switching of high currents in the power circuit of the APF.
An active power filter can be considered as a compensator for power system harmonics. The working of active
power filter consists of mainly three stages [7]. They are:
1. Signal conditioning
2. Derivation of compensating signal.
3. Generation of gating signal.
Signal conditioning refers to the detection or sensing of harmonics in the power distribution line. As shown in Figure
2.2, the reference signal to be processed by the controller is the key component that ensures the correct operation of
APF.
The reference signal estimation is initiated through the detection of essential voltage/current signals to gather
accurate system variables information. The voltage and current variables in power system is sensed by using potential
transformers, current transformers, isolation amplifiers etc. The voltage variables to be sensed are AC source voltage,
DC-bus voltage of the APF, and voltage across interfacing transformer. Typical current variables are load current, AC
source current, compensation current and DC-link current of the APF. Based on these system variables feedbacks,
reference signals estimation in terms of voltage/current levels are estimated in frequency-domain or time-domain.

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The next stage is the derivation of compensating signal from the disrupted wave consists of both fundamental
wave and the harmonic content. It can be done by two different methods-frequency domain approach and time domain
approach. Frequency domain approach use Fourier transformation method for this purpose. While Time domain
approach uses different methods like Instantaneous Reactive-Power Theorem, Synchronous-Reference-Frame
Theorem, Synchronous Detection Theorem, Sine-Multiplication Theorem, notch filter method etc.
The third stage is the generation of gating signal for harmonic suppression. So many control techniques like
space Vector PWM, repetitive control, hysteresis current control, one-cycle control, dead-beat control, sliding mode
control, fuzzy control and the artificial neural network method have been introduced and applied to various
configurations of active power filters. Gating signal generator in the general block diagram of APF is used for this
purpose.

D. Classifications of APF
APF can be connected in several power circuit configurations as illustrated in the block diagram shown in
Figure 2.3. In general, they are divided into three main categories, namely shunt APF, series APF and hybrid APF
[6][8].

Fig 2.3 Classifications of APF

1) Shunt Active Power Filter

This class of filter configurations is the most important and most widely used type in active filtering
applications. It is connected to the main power circuit, as shown in the single-line diagram of Fig.2.4.

Fig.2.4 Shunt APF

The purpose is to cancel the load current harmonics fed to the supply. It can also contribute to reactive-power
compensation and balancing of three-phase currents, as mentioned above. Parallel filters have the advantage of carrying
only the compensation current plus a small amount of active fundamental current supplied to compensate for system
losses. It is also possible to connect several filters in parallel for higher currents, which makes this type of circuit
suitable for a wide range of power ratings.

2) Series Active Power Filter

The active filter in this configuration produces a PWM voltage waveform which is added or subtracted, on an
instantaneous basis, to/from the supply voltage to maintain a pure sinusoidal voltage waveform across the load. The
main power-circuit configuration is shown in Fig.2.5.
The inverter configuration accompanying such a system is a voltage-fed inverter without any current-control
loops. Series active filters are less common industrially, than parallel active filters. This is because of the main
drawback of series circuits, namely that they have to handle high load currents, which increases their current rating
considerably compared with parallel filters, especially in the secondary side of the coupling transformer.

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Fig.2.5 Series APF

The main advantage of series filters over parallel ones is that they are ideal for eliminating voltage-waveform
harmonics, and for balancing three-phase voltages. This, in fact, means that this category of filter is used to improve the
quality of the system voltage for the benefit of the load. It provides the load with a pure sinusoidal waveform, which is
important for voltage-sensitive devices.

3) Hybrid Active Power Filters

Technical limitations of conventional APFs can be overcome with hybrid APF configurations. They are
typically the combination of basic APFs and passive filters. Hybrid APFs, inheriting the advantages of both passive
filters and APFs provide improved performance and cost-effective solutions. The idea behind this scheme is to
simultaneously reduce the switching noise and electromagnetic interference.
The idea of hybrid APF has been proposed by several researchers. In this scheme, a low cost passive high-pass
filter (HPF) is used in addition to the conventional APF. The harmonics filtering task is divided between the two filters.
The APF cancels the lower order harmonics, while the HPF filters the higher order harmonics. The main objective of
hybrid APF, therefore is to improve the filtering performance of high-order harmonics while providing a cost-effective
low order harmonics mitigation.

Fig.2.6 Hybrid APFs

Nowadays various hybrid APFs using in electronic industry, but the two most prominent ones are shown in
Figure2.6. Figure2.6 (a) is the system configuration of the hybrid shunt APF. Both the shunt APF and passive filter are
connected in parallel with the nonlinear load.The function of the hybrid APF can thus be divided into two parts: the
low-order harmonics are cancelled by the shunt APF, while the higher frequency harmonics are filtered by passive
HPF. This topology lends itself to retrofit applications with the existing shunt APF.
Figure 2.6(b) shows the system configuration of hybrid series APF, in which the series APF is coupled to the
distribution line by an interfacing transformer [4]. The shunt passive filter consists of one or more single-tuned LC
filters and/or a HPF.

III. REFERENCE SIGNAL ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

One of the most discussed software part (in the case of a DSP implementation) of an active filter is the
harmonic detection method. In brief, it represents the part that has the capability of determining specific signal
attributes from an input signal (that can be voltage, current or both) by using a special mathematical algorithm.
Different algorithms emerged for the harmonic detection, which led to a large scientific debate on which part
the focus should be put on, the detection accuracy, the speed, the filter stability, easy and inexpensive implementation,
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etc. The classification of these methods can be done relative to the domain where the mathematical model is developed.
Thus, two major directions are described here, the time domain and the frequency-domain methods.

Table 3.1
Classification of the most used harmonic detection s in APFs
Domain Harmonic Detection Method
Frequency  Discrete fourier transform
domain  Fast fourier transform
Time domain  Instantaneous power theory(p-q
theory)
 Synchronous fundamental d-q
frame method

Table 3.1 illustrates the considered reference signal estimation techniques [9]. They cannot be considered to
belong to the control loop since they perform an independent task by providing the controller with the required
reference for further processing. This section presents the considered reference signal estimation techniques, providing
for each of them a short description of their basic features.

A. Frequency Domain Approach

Reference signal estimation in frequency-domain is suitable for both single- and three- phase systems. They
mainly derived from the principle of Fourier analysis as follows.
In principle, Fourier Transform (conventional or Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)) is applied to the captured
voltage/current signal. The harmonic components of the captured voltage/current signal are first separated by
eliminating the fundamental component. Inverse Fourier Transform is then applied to estimate the compensation
reference signal in time domain.
The main drawback of this technique is the accompanying time delay in system variables sampling and
computation of Fourier coefficients. This makes it impractical for real-time application with dynamically varying loads.
Therefore, this technique is only suitable for slowly varying load conditions. In order to make computation much faster,
some modifications was proposed and practiced later. In this modified Fourier-series scheme, only the fundamental
component of current is calculated and this is used to separate the total harmonic signal from the sampled load-current
waveform.

B. Time Domain Approaches

Time-domain approaches are based on instantaneous estimation of reference signal in the form of either
voltage or current signal from distorted and harmonic-polluted voltage and current signals. These approaches are
applicable for both single-phase and three-phase systems except for the synchronous-detection theorem and
synchronous-reference-frame theorem which can only be adopted for three-phase systems [9].

1) Instantaneous power theory

Instantaneous power theory (and variants) determines the harmonic distortion from the instantaneous power
calculation in a three-phase system, which is the multiplication of the instantaneous values of the currents and voltages.
The calculations may be done in αβ-coordinates as in the below equation.

(3.1)

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The values of the instantaneous power p and q, which are the real respective imaginary powers, contain dc-
and ac components depending on the existing active, reactive and distorted powers in the system. The dc components
of p and q represent the active and reactive powers and must be removed with high-pass filters (with a cutting
frequency between 5 Hz - 35 Hz) to retain only the ac-signals. According the instantaneous reactive power theory, p
and q, are decomposed into instantaneous real and imaginary powers, respectively.
The ac-components calculated back to the abc-frame represent the harmonic distortion, which is given as the
reference for the current controller. Again the presence of the numerical filters has influence in the dynamic and the
accuracy for the entire APF[9][11].

Fig 3.1 Principle diagram of instantaneous power theory

The calculation in this block diagram may affected, if the system has zero sequence component due to an
existing unbalance. Therefore, also a p0 component must be added to provide a complete analysis. Other techniques
based on the same principle improve different other feature, as like the cancellation of the neutral currents, the
minimization of the energy storage element, the pre-processing of the input voltages to keep only the positive sequence.

2) Synchronous dq Frame
Synchronous fundamental dq-frame is derived from the space vector transformation of the input signals, which
initially are achieved in the abc-coordinates (stationary reference frame) from the sensors and then transformed into the
dq-coordinates (rotating reference frame with fundamental frequency) by means of the Park transformation (below
equation). Here the dq frame rotates with the fundamental angular frequency. And in this frame the fundamental
currents are appeared as dc components and the harmonics as ac-signals [9][12].
Let id, iq and ia, ib, ic are the currents in the dq-frame and abc-frame respectively; θ is the reference angle.
Then, id and iq can be represented as shown below,

(3.2)
The active and reactive components of the three-phase system are represented by the direct and quadrature
components respectively. In this theorem, the fundamental components are transformed into DC quantities which can
be separated easily through filtering. Thus, the detection of the harmonics becomes a matter of removing the dc-signal
with a High-Pass Filter (with a cutting frequency between 25 Hz - 120 Hz).

Fig.3.2 Principle algorithm of synchronous dq-fundamental frame

This theorem is applicable only to three-phase system. The system is very stable since the controller deals
mainly with DC quantities. The computation is instantaneous but incurs time delays in filtering the DC quantities.

IV.CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR ACTIVE POWER FILTER

The aim of APF control is to generate appropriate gating signals for the switching transistors based on the
estimated compensation reference signals. The performance of an APF is affected significantly by the selection of
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control techniques. Therefore, the choice and implementation of the control technique is very important for the
achievement of a satisfactory APF performance [10]. A variety of control techniques, such as linear control, digital
deadbeat control, hysteresis control, etc. are implemented for the APF applications. This section briefly describes the
considered control techniques and their basic feature.

A. Linear control technique

The linear control of APF is accomplished by using a negative-feedback system as shown in figure 4.1(a) [4].
In this control scheme, the compensation current (if) or voltage (vf) signal is compared with its estimated reference
signal (ifref or vfref) through the compensated error amplifier to produce the control signal.

Fig.4.1 Block diagram & waveform of linear control technique

The resulting control signal is then compared with a saw tooth signal through a pulse width modulation
(PWM) controller to generate the appropriate gating signals for the switching transistor. The frequency of the repetitive
saw tooth signal establishes the switching frequency. This frequency is kept constant in linear control technique. As
shown in fig.4.1 (b) the gating signal is set high when the control signal has a higher numerical value than the saw tooth
signal and via versa.
Generally, the Nyquist stability criterion and the Bode plots are used to determine the appropriate compensation in the
feedback loop for the desired steady state and transient responses. With analogue PWM circuit, the response is fast and
its implementation is simple. Nevertheless, due to inherent problem of analogue circuitry, the linear control technique
has an unsatisfactory harmonic compensation performance. This is mainly due to the limitation of the achievable
bandwidth of the compensated error amplifier.

B. Hysteresis Control Technique

The control of APF can be realized by the hysteresis control technique. It imposes a bang-bang type
instantaneous control that forces and APF compensation current ( if ) or voltage (vf ) signal to follow its estimated
reference signal (ifref or vfref ) within a certain tolerance band. This control scheme is shown in a block diagram form in
Figure4.2 .In this control scheme, a signal deviation (H) is designed and imposed on ifref or vfref to form the upper and
lower limits of a hysteresis band. The if or vf is then measured and compared with ifref or vfref; the resulting error is
subjected to a hysteresis controller to determine the gating signals when exceeds the upper or lower limits set by
(estimated reference signal + H/2) or (estimated reference signal – H/2). As long as the error is within the hysteresis
band, no switching action is taken. Switching occurs whenever the error hits the hysteresis band.

Fig 4.2 Block diagram & waveform of hysteresis control technique

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The APF is therefore switched in such a way that the peak-to-peak compensation current/voltage signal is
limited to a specified band determined by H as illustrated in fig4.2 (a). Hysteresis current controller with a fixed H is
implemented is known to be more popular [4]. To obtain compensation current (if) with switching ripples as small as
possible, the value of H can be reduced. But it results in higher switching frequency and increase losses on the
switching transistors. The advantages of using the hysteresis current controller are its excellent dynamic performance
and controllability of the peak-to-peak current ripple within a specified hysteresis band. The main drawback is that it
produces uneven switching frequency. Consequently, difficulties arise in designing the passive HPF. Furthermore,
there is possibly generation of unwanted resonances on the power distribution system besides; the irregular switching
also affects the APF efficiency and reliability.

V. CONCLUSION

In modern electric power supply distribution systems, there is a sharp rise in the use of single phase and three
phase non-linear loads which causes harmonic disturbances. Active power filters are the emerging devices, which can
perform the job of harmonic elimination properly. First the harmonic disturbances are detected from the power line
using transducers, and then harmonic waveform is separated from the fundamental sine wave using reference signal
estimation techniques. The PWM signals for controlling purpose are then generated using any one of control signal
generation schemes. Thus an APF provide harmonic elimination with better controlling methods.
The paper begins with a brief discussion on harmonic distortion problems and its impact on power system. Then an
evaluation of the commonly used methods for harmonic detection and generation of control signals in active power
filter applications are mentioned. The review and classification of this work shows that there has been a significant
increase in interest of active filters and associated control methods. Control circuits constitute a minor portion of the
total cost of active filters. This is due to increasing concern about power quality and the availability of suitable power-
switching devices.

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