IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the scientific application of water artificially to the soil to make up the deficiency of
moisture for the profitable growth of crops. Irrigation water is supplied to supplement the water
available from rainfall and the contribution to soil moisture.

In short,

Irrigation may be defined as the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying
the moisture essential for plant growth.

Major function of irrigation:

1. Irrigation supplies moisture to the soil essential for, germination of seeds and various
growth processes of crop.
2. Cools the soil and the surroundings thus making the environment more favorable for crop
growth.
3. Washes out or dilutes salts present in the soil.
4. Softens the colds and thus helps in tillage operations.
5. Enables application of fertilizers.
6. Ensures crop success against short duration drought

Necessity of irrigation:

Water is the most vital in the plant life. Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature
through the rain. However, rainfall is frequently deficient or comes irregularly or at the
unreasonable time. For the optimum yield of a crop, it is essential to supply the required quantity
of water at some fixed intervals. This is feasible only through a systematic irrigation practice.
Therefore, there is a necessary for the artificial application of water by means of irrigation.

Direct/indirect benefits of Irrigation

 Irrigation maximizes crop productivity and thereby ensures food security.

 It makes agricultural industry profitable and competitive.
 Irrigation improves land productivity and value of land.
 Promotes employment generation and livelihood of society
 Main conveyance/irrigation canals can be used for flood protection, recreation and
navigation.
 It promotes fish and wildlife preservation.
 Rapid development of irrigation facilities through construction of multipurpose dams
enhances hydroelectric power generation.
 Irrigation promotes a whole array of agro-based industries which are drive engines of
economy.

1
Effects of irrigation

 Irrigation equipment’s are expensive to purchase and maintain.

 Water logging and salinity.
 Health hazards e.g. breeding of mosquitoes.
 Environmental effects.
 Problem of water pollution e.g. Nitrates seepage into ground water.

METHOODS OF IRRIGATION

Types of Irrigation

1. Surface Irrigation
2. Sub-surface irrigation

Surface irrigation

In the surface methods of irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel at
the upper reach of the field. Water may be distributed to the crops in border strips, check basins
or furrows.

Subsurface irrigation

In sub-irrigation, water is applied below the ground surface by maintaining an artificial water
table at some depth, depending upon the soil texture and the depth of the plant roots. Water
reaches the plant roots through capillarity action.

Irrigation water can be applied to the land in several different ways, and the choice among
alternative irrigation methods, depends upon many factors, including:

 Economics
 Crop type
 Soil type
 Water availability and quality
 Farming practices
 Legal considerations and others

Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the surface. By applying it beneath the
soil surface, by spraying it number pressure or by applying it in drops. The common methods of
irrigation re.

 Surface irrigation
 Sub-surface irrigation

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  Sprinkler irrigation
 Trickle (Drip) irrigation

Uncontrolled surface flooding

 It consists of applying water to the field without any bunds to guide the flow of water
wetting the soil surface completely.
 This method is most commonly used for irrigation of crops sown by broadcasting method
e.g. rice low value pastures, lawns and millets etc.

Advantages

 No land leveling & land shaping

 Low labor and land preparation costs
 Less skill required by irrigation

Disadvantages

 Applied water is lost by deep

 Percolation & surface runoff
 Low irrigation application efficiency

Controlled surface flooding

Check basin method

In this method the field is divided into square or rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m 2 guided by
bunds on all the sides.

 Water can be applied uniformly.

 Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops efficiently
 Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing bunds.

Disadvantages

3
  Unless the land is leveled, distribution of water in plot is uneven.
 Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e. nearly 30% of area.
 Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment
 More labor is required for field layout and irrigation.

Ring basin method

This method is a modification of check basin method and is suitable for sparsely grown orchard
crops and cucurbits.

Advantages:

 Effective leaching
 Maximum use of seasonal rainfall
 High application efficiencies

Limitation:

 Soil crusting
 Unsuitable for crops that cannot accommodate inundation.

Furrow irrigation method

 Furrow are narrow field ditches, excavated between rows of plants and carry water
through them.
 Spacing of furrows is determined by proper spacing of the plants
 Furrows vary from 8 to 30 cm deep and may be as much as 4000 meters long
 Deep furrows are widely used for row crops.
 Small shallow furrow (called corrugations) suitable for irregular topography and close
growing crops such as meadows and small grains.
 Water diverted into the furrows by using rubber hose tubing.
 Hose prevents the necessary of breaking of the ditch bank and provides a uniform flow
into the furrow it is suitable for row crops (like potatoes groundnut, sugarcane etc) and
for medium to moderately fine textured soil.

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Advantage:

Only about one-fifth to one-half of the land surface is wetted by water. So, it results in less
evaporation, less pudding of soil.

Disadvantages:

 Excessively long furrows may result in too much percolation near upper end and too little
water near the down-slope end.
 It involves high initial cost and salt accumulation in the ridges.

Sprinkler irrigation method

 Water is applied to the soil in the form of a spray through an network of pipes and
pumps.
 It is kind of an article rain and gives good results. It is a costly process and not widely
used in our country.
 It can be used for all types of soil and for widely different topographies and slopes.
 It fulfills the normal requirement of uniform distribution of water.
 This method can be used for almost all crops (except rice and jute) and on most soils
 It is best suited to sandy soils that have a high infiltration rate.
 It can be applied to any topographic conditions without extensive land preparation.

Advantages of sprinkler irrigation:

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  Seepage losses, which occur in earthen channels of surface irrigation methods are
completely eliminated. Moreover, only optimum quantity of water is used in this method.
 Land leveling is not required and thus avoiding removal of top fertile soil, as happens in
other surface irrigation methods.
 No cultivation area is lost for making ditches results in increasing about 16 % of the
cropped area.
 The water is to be applied at a rate lesser than the infiltration capacity of the soil, and
thus avoiding surface run off.
 This method leashes down salts and prevents water-logging or salinity.
 It is less labor oriented and hence useful where labor is costly and scarce.
 Up to 80% of applied water can be stored in the root zone of plants.
 Fertilizers can be uniformly applied, because they can mixed with irrigation water

Limitation of sprinkler irrigation:

 High winds may distort sprinkler pattern, causing non-uniform spreading of water on the
crops.
 In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation losses of
water may take place.
 They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depths of irrigation, such
paddy.
 Initial cost of the system is very high, and the system requires a high technical skill
 Only sand and silt free water can be used. As otherwise pump impellers lifting such
waters will get damaged.

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 Classification of Sprinkler Irrigation

Portable system

Semi portable
system

Rotating head Semi permanent

system system
Sprinkler
irrigation system
Perforated pipe
system Solid-set system

Permanent
system

Sprinkler performance test

1. Uniformity Coefficient

(
C u=100 1.0−
∑X
mn )
Where

m=Average value of all observations, mm

n=Total number of observation point

X=Numerical deviation of individual observations from the average application rate,mm

2. The required discharge of an individual sprinkler

Sl × Sm × I
q=
360

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q=required discharge of individual sprinkler li/sec

Sl =spacing of sprinkler along the laterals, meters

Sm=spacing of lateral along the main, meters

I =optimum application rate

3. Capacity of sprinkler systems

A ×d
Q=2780
F×H ×E

A=area to be irrigated, ha

d=net depth of water application, cm

F=number of days allowed for completion of one irrigation

H= number of actual operating hours per day

E= water application efficiency, percent

4. Hydraulic Design of Sprinkler Systems

q=Ca √ 2 gh

q=nozzle discharge,m3/sec

a =cross-sectional area of nozzle, m2

h =pressure head at the nozzle, meter

g=acceleration due to gravity , m/ sec 2

C=Coefficient of discharge which is a function of friction and contraction losses(C=0.95 to0.96

for good nozzle)

5. Water Spread of Sprinkler

R=1.35 √dh

R=radius of wetted area covered by the sprinkler, meters

d=diameter of the nozzle, meter

h =pressure head at the nozzle, meter

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 6. Break up of jet
h
Pd = 0.4
(10 q)

Pd =Index for jet break-up

h =pressure head at the nozzle, meter

q =Sprinkler discharge,liters /sec

7. Rate of Application
q
Ra =
360 × A

Ra =Water application rate cm/hr

q =Sprinkler discharge,liters /sec

A=wetted area of sprinkler,

Drip irrigation method

 It is latest field irrigation technique (also called trickle irrigation0
 Irrigation water is applied by using small diameter (12 t0 32 mm) plastic lateral lines.
 The lateral lines contains some devices called ̎ emitters̎ at selected spacing to deliver
water to the soil surface near the bade of the plants.
 It is best suited for widely spaced plants, salt problems and for areas with water scarcity.
 In this method, water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone of the plants for
minimizing the losses by evaporation and percolation
 This method is being used for small nourishes, orchards, or gardens.

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Advantages

 Conventional losses such as deep percolation, runoff and soil water can be minimized by
applying a volume of water approaching the consumptive use of plants.
 Small area is wetter thereby reducing weed growth, insects and diseases etc.
 Soil crusting and interference with harvesting is minimized.
 Greater crop yield and better quality can be obtained.
 For widely spaced like fruit trees, the system may be even more economical than
sprinkler method of irrigation.
 Like the sprinkler method, drip irrigation permits the simultaneous application of
fertilizers through the system.

Limitations

 High initial cost of the deep irrigation equipment sometimes limits its use to orchard and
vegetables in water scarcity areas.
 Clogging of emitter may disrupt the irrigation system.
 Plastic pipes may damage by rodents.
 Wind erosion can harm the pipes.

Irrigation Efficiencies

Irrigation efficiency indicates how efficiently the available water supply is being used. Based on
different methods of evaluation. The term irrigation efficiency expresses the performance of a
complete irrigation system or components of the system.

Irrigation efficiency (Ei) is defined as the ratio between the amount of water used to meet the
consumptive use requirement of crops plus that necessary to maintain a favorable salt balance in
the crop root zone to the total volume of water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.

Thus, water applied by the irrigation system and not being made available to be taken up by plant
roots is wasted and reduces irrigation efficiency. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

Principal factors influencing irrigation efficiency are

 The design of the irrigation system,

 The degree of land preparation, and
 The skill and care of the irrigator.

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 A. Water Conveyance Efficiency (Ec)

The conveyance efficiency is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance systems
associated with the canal network, water courses and field channels. It is defined as the ratio
between the water that reaches a farm or field and that diverted from the irrigation water source.

Mathematically it is represented as follows:

Where, Ec = water conveyance efficiency

Wf = water delivered to the farm

Wd = water diverted from the river or reservoir

Typically, conveyance losses are much lower for closed conduits or pipelines compared with
unlined or lined canals. Eeven the conveyance efficiency of lined canals may decline over time
due to material deterioration or poor maintenance.

B. Water Application Efficiency (Ea)

Application efficiency relates to the actual storage of water in the root zone to meet the crop
water needs in relation to the water applied to the field. It might be defined for individual
irrigation or parts of irrigations or irrigation sets. Application efficiency includes any application
losses to evaporation or seepage from surface water channels or furrows, any leaks from
sprinkler or drip pipelines, percolation beneath the root zone, drift from sprinklers, evaporation
of droplets in the air. Or runoff from the field. In case of surface irrigation evaporation losses are
generally small but runoff and deep percolation are substantial. However, air losses (droplet
evaporation and drift) can be large if the sprinkler design or excessive pressure produces a high
percentage of very fine droplets. Application efficiency is defined as:

Where, Ea = water application efficiency

Ws = water stored in the root zone during irrigation

Wf = water delivered to the farm

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Typical values of application efficiency for different irrigation systems

System Type Application Efficiency Range (%)

Surface Irrigation
Basin 60-95
Border 60-90
Furrow 50-90
Sugar 60-90
Sprinkler Irrigation
Hand move 65-80
Traveling Gun 60-70
Center Pivot & Linear 70-95
Solid Set 70-85
Micro irrigation
Point source emitters 75-95
Line source emitters 70-95

C. Water Storage Efficiency (Es)

The water storage efficiency evaluates the storage of water in the root zone after the
irrigation in relation to the need of water prior to irrigation.
Mathematically it is represented as follows:

Where, Es = water storage efficiency

Ws = water stored in the root zone during irrigation

Wn = water needed in the root zone prior to the irrigation

the root zone depth and the water-holding capacity of the root zone determine the Wn.

D. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

It is the ratio between the mean of numerical deviations from the average depth of water
stored during irrigation (y) and the average depth stored during irrigation (d)
It is mathematically expressed as:

Where, Ed = water distribution efficiency

Y = average numerical deviation from d

D = average depth of water stored during the irrigation

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It is a measure of water distribution within the field. A low distribution efficiency means non-
uniformity in the distribution of irrigation water. This may be due to uneven land leveling. There
may be existing low patches where water will penetrate more and high patches where water
cannot reach. this leaves some spots unirrigated unless excess irrigation water is applied. Excess
water application lowers the irrigation efficiency.

E. Water Use Efficiency

The term water use efficiency denotes the production of crop per unit water applied. It is
expressed as the weight of crop produce per unit depth of water over a unit i.e,
kg/cm/ha.
i) Crop Water Use Efficiency
It is the ratio of crop yield per amount of water depleted by the crop in the
process of evapotranspiration (ET).
Crop water use efficiency = Y/ET
ii) Field Water Use Efficiency
It is the ratio of crop yield (Y) to the total amount of water used in the field
(WR). Field water use efficiency = Y/WR

PROBLEMS ON IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY

A stream of 1401ps was diverted from a canal and 110 1ps were delivered to the field. An area of
1.65 ha was irrigated in eight hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.85 m. The runoff loss
in the field was 435 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.85 m at the head
end o9f the field to 1.25 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20
cm/m depth of soil.

Determine the water conveyance, water application efficiency, water storage efficiency and
water distribution efficiency, irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50 percent of
the available moisture.

1. Water application efficiency, Ec = 100 × ( Wf/Wd) = 100 × (110/140) = 78.5%

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 2. Water application efficiency,

Ea = 100 (Ws/Wf) Wf = 110 × 60 × 60 × 8) / 1000 = 3168m3

= (2733 × 100)/ 3168 = 86.26% Ws = 3168 – 435 = 2733 m3

3. Water storage efficiency Es = 100 (Ws Wn)

Now, Water holding capacity of the root zone = 20 × 1.85 = 37 cm

37 × 50
Moisture required in the root zone = 37 - …………. = 18.5 cm
100
18.5
= ………. × 1.65 × 10,000 = 3052.5 m3
100
3052.5
Water storage efficiency = ……….. × 100
3168
4. Water distribution efficiency 1.85+ 1.25
D = ………………….. = 1.55 m
2
Numerical deviation from depth of penetration

At upper end = 1.85 – 1.55 = 0.3

At lower end = 1.55 – 1.25 = 0.3

0.3 0.3-0.3
= ( 1- ………) × 100 = 80.6% Average numerical deviation = …….. = 0.3
1.55 2

Drainage

Drainage is the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the land to enhance crop
growth, including the removal of dissolved salts from the soil.

14
All agriculture depends on the availability of water. In humid regions, the main source of water
is rainfall, in arid or semi-arid regions often supplemented by irrigation. When rain or irrigation
continues beyond what the soil can quickly absorb, it collects on the soil surface forming
puddles. This excess standing water on the soil surface is called ponding water, and it needs to be
removed by overland flow to an open drain.

Ponding is the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.

Waterlogging is the accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the soil.

In irrigated agriculture drainage has an additional benefit – managing salinization. Even in very
good quality irrigation water there are salts. Thus, bringing irrigation water to a field means also
bringing salts to the same field. The irrigation water is used by the crop or evaporates directly
from the soil. The salts, however, are left behind. This process of salt builds up on and in soil is
called salinization.

15
Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts at the surface, or at some point below the
surface of the soil profile, to levels which have negative effects on plant growth and/or soils.

If these salts accumulate to too high a level in the soil, they will hamper crop production. Some
crops are more tolerant to salts than others, but most crops have a limit. Highly tolerant crops can
withstand a salt concentration in the root zone up to 10 dS/m, moderately tolerant crops up to 5
dS/m and sensitive crops can begin to be affected at just 2.5 dS/m. To grow the more sensitive
crops, drainage is needed to remove the salts.

Field Drainage Systems

Now let’s have a closer look at the various types of field drainage systems. There are three types
of field drainage systems:

(i) surface drainage systems to control water ponding,

(ii) subsurface drainage systems to control waterlogging and salinity, and

(iii) tubewell drainage systems as a special type of subsurface drainage.

Surface and subsurface drainage systems are also called “horizontal” drainage systems as the
water flows by gravity to the collector drain. Tubewell drainage systems are also called
“vertical” drainage systems as the water is always pumped up from an aquifer. In addition to the
basic differences between these three types of field drainage systems, there are several other
aspects by which they can be characterized as will be discussed in Section 1.4.4.

Surface Drainage Systems

From the definition of drainage, you have learned that drainage is in principle the removal of
excess water from the field. Thus a surface drainage system is a system of drainage measures,
such as open drains and land grading, meant to divert excess surface water away from a field to

16
prevent ponding. This is a really important part of providing good growing conditions for crops –
and avoiding problem conditions in the fields, for example compaction, runoff and erosion, lack
of oxygen for plants, increased disease, and restricted plant growth.

A surface drainage system always has two components:

 A shaped land surface to enhance flow of water towards the field drains, and
 Open field drains to divert this water to the collector drains.

Land shaping techniques for surface drainage

Land shaping is changing the micro-topography of the field to meet the requirements for surface
drainage or irrigation. There are three ways to do this: bedding, land grading, and land planning.

Bedding
Bedding is the oldest land-shaping practice. The land surface is formed into beds by manual
labour, animal traction, or farm tractors. The beds are separated by parallel shallow, open field
drains oriented in the direction of the greatest land slope. The water drains from the beds into the
field drains, which discharges into a collector drain constructed at the lower end of the field and
perpendicular to the field drains.

Traditionally, bedding systems are used for grassland. In modern farming, bedding is not
considered an acceptable drainage practice for row crops because rows adjacent to the field
drains will not drain properly. To overcome the disadvantages of the bedding system, two other
methods of land shaping have been developed: land grading and land planning.

A submerged bedding system after a heavy rainstorm in the Netherlands

Land grading

Land grading is the process of shaping the land surface to predetermined grades, so that each
surface or row slopes to a field drain. Land grading is done by a process of cutting and filling to

17
create a continuous surface. It is a one-time operation, involving the transport of earth according
to specified cuts and fills based on the predetermined final grades.

Land grading for surface drainage differs from land levelling for irrigation in that, for drainage, a
non-uniform grade is required. The grades can be varied as much as is necessary to provide
drainage with the least amount of earthmoving. After land grading it is sometimes necessary to
break up the soil which has become compacted by the construction machinery. Compared to
bedding, land grading reduces the number of field drains, thus reducing the need for weed
control and maintenance, and enabling better land utilization.

Land grading of a rice field in Nickerie, Surinam

Land planning

Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface with a land plane to eliminate minor
depressions and irregularities without changing the general topography. It is frequently applied
in conjunction with land grading, because irregular micro-topography in a flat landscape in
combination with heavy soils can interfere with good drainage and cause substantial crop losses.

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 Crop Water Requirement

 The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the amount (or depth) of water needed to
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration
 The crop water need mainly depends on
o The climate
o The crop types
o The growth stage of crop

Calculation for crop water requirements

E T C =K c × E T o
 E T c : crop evaporation or crop water need (mm/day)
 Kc : Crop factor
 E T o : Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Kc: mainly depends on

 The type of crop

 The growth stage of the crop
 The climate

E T o : measure/predict by

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  Using evaporation pan
 Using Penman-Monteith Equation
 The Blaney-Criddle Equation

Crop factor , K c

Determination of crop factor Kc, it is necessary to

 Determine of the total growing period of each crop

 Determine of the various growth stages of each crop
 Determine of the Kc values for each crop for each of the growth stages
The total growing period of some crops

FAO, 1995
Approximate duration of growth stages for various field crops
FAO, 1995

20
Values of the crop factor (Kc) for various crops and growth stages

FAO, 1995

Reference evapotranspiration, ETo

Using evaporation pan

ETo = Kp x ETpan

Kp : pan cofficient

ETpan : Evaporation of the pan

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Consumptive Use

Consumptive use or evapo-transpiration is the amount of water used by the growing plant in
transpiration and building of plant tissue and that evaporated from adjacent soil or from
intercepted precipitation on the plant foliage in any specified time. It is expressed as mm or cm
or inches.

Consumptive Water requirement

The amount of water potentially required to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of the plant so
that the plant does not suffer in its growth through short supply of water
Consumptive irrigation requirement
The depth of irrigation water, exclusive of precipitation, stored moisture, or groundwater, that is
required to meet evapo-transpiration during the crop period.

Crop growth stage

 Once the total growing period is known, the duration (in days) of the various growth
stages has to be determined.
 The total growing period is divided into 4 growth stages (see Fig. 14):
1. The initial stage: this is the period from sowing or transplanting until the crop covers about
10% of the ground.
2. The crop development stage: this period starts at the end of the initial stage and lasts until
the full ground cover has been reached (ground cover 70-80%); it does not necessarily mean that
the crop is at its maximum height.
3. The mid - season stage: this period starts at the end of the crop development stage and lasts
until maturity; it includes flowering and grain-setting.
4. The late season stage: this period starts at the end of the mid season stage and lasts until the
last day of the harvest; it includes ripening.

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Crop Water Requirement

 Net Irrigation Requirement

The net irrigation requirement is the depth of irrigation water exclusive of precipitation carry
over soil moisture or ground water contribution or other gains in soil moisture, that is required
consumptively for crop production.

 Gross Irrigation Requirement

The total amount of water applied through irrigation is termed as gross irrigation requirement. In
other words, it is the net irrigation requirement plus losses in water application and other losses.

Gross Irrigation Requirement = Net Irrigation Requirement / Field Efficiency

Irrigation Frequency

 Irrigation frequency refers to the number of days between irrigations during periods
without rainfall. It depends on the consumptive use rate of a crop and on the amount of
available soil moisture in the crop root zone.

Evaporation

 Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into water vapor and
removed from the evaporating surface. The process of evaporation of water in the nature
is one of the fundamental components of the hydrologic cycle by which water changes to
vapor through the absorption of heat energy.

Transpiration

 Transpiration is the process by which water vapor leaves the living plant body and enters
the atmosphere.

Evapo-transpiration

 Evapo-transpiration denotes the quantity of water transpired by plants during there

growth or retained in the plant tissue plus the moisture evaporated from the surface of the
soil and the vegetation.

 Crop water requirement varies with

1. Varity
2. Growth phase
3. Climate
4. Length of growing period

23
Crop water requirement influence with various factors
1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Season
4. Sun light
5. Humidity
6. Stage of plant growth

The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the amount (or depth) of water needed to meet the
water loss through evapo-transpiration

 Calculation for crop water requirements

ETc = Kc x ETo
ETc : crop evaporation or crop water
need (mm/day)
Kc : Crop factor
ETo : Reference evapotranspiration
(mm/day)
ETo : measure/predict by
 ◦Using evaporation pan
 ◦Using Penman-Monteith Equation
 ◦The Blaney-Criddle Equation
Example for calculating the water requirement of crops
 —Crop: potato
 ◦Growth stage: Initial growth
 ◦Kc for initial stage: 0.45
 ◦ETo : 9 mm/day
 ◦=> ETc = Kc*ET0 = 0.45 X 9 = 4.05 mm/day

24
  Sorgum crop to be grown .Total growing season 120 days.Average evapotranspiration is
0.6 mm/day.Avarage value of crop factor is 0.78.what will be the crop water requirment
for total season.

Water Measurement
Objectives
• Explain some of the mathematics of water measurement
• Discuss other opportunities for measurement
Why is water measurement important?
• Difficult to effectively manage irrigation without measurement
• Positive aspects
– Maximize use of available water supply
– Reduced cost due to leached nutrients
– Reduced environmental impact from over-irrigation
• Some measurement may have a negative connotation
– Regulatory (mandated by state, etc.)
– Billing
Methods of water measurement
1.Volume method
2.Velocity area method
3.Current meter method

Canal flow measuring 5 methods involved

 Float method
 Current meter
 Pitot tube
 Portable weirs or notches

25
  Flumes

Water Measurement Mathematics

Continuity Equation
Q=vA
Irrigator’s Equation
Qt=Ad

Qin Qout
v1 v
A A 2
1 2

Continuity Equation
Given: d=12 inches
v=2.5 ft/s
Find: Q in cfs

12 in.
v=2.5 Q
ft/s

Water Measurement Devices

Devices use for measuring velocity
• Current meters
• Propeller meters
• Vane deflection meters
• Float and stopwatch
Flow through pipeline and open channel

26
 Water meter Venturi meter Open channel
Low pressure line Detridge meter flow
meter Coordinate method Weirs
Open flow meter Flumes
Vertical flow meter Orifices

Devices that measure head or pressure

– Open channel devices commonly use h
– Pipeline devices may use p
• Flumes
• Orifices
• Venturi meters
• Weirs
– Velocity is computed from h, so weirs are classifed as head measuring devices
Weirs
A weir is an overflow structure installed perpendicular to open channel flow
• Has a unique depth of water at an upstream measuring point for each discharge
• A long, raised channel control crest is a broad-crested weir
• Usually named for the shape of the overflow opening
• Types of weirs
• Rectangular
• Triangular
• Cipollett

27
Advantages
• Simple to construct.
• Fairly good at passing trash.
• head measurement easy.
Disadvantages
• High head loss
• Susceptible to sedimentation problems
• Sensitive to approach and exit conditions
Parshall Flumes
Advantages
• Relatively low head loss (1/4 of sharp crested weir)
• Handle some trash and sediment
• Many sizes are commercially available
Disadvantages
• Complicated geometry for construction
• Tight construction tolerances
• Aren’t amenable to fluid flow analysis
Several other types of flumes are used
• H-flumes
• Cutthroat flumes
• Palmer-Bowles
Cutthroat flumes
Cutthroat flumes is similar to parshall flume,but has no throat section, only converging and
diverging section.It is easier to construct and install. Cutthroat flumes is often preferred to
parshall flume.

28
 •

Submerged Orifices
Advantages
• Less head required than for weirs
• Used where space limitations prevent weir or flume
Disadvantages
• Sediment and debris accumulation will prevent accurate measuring
• Typically not used if conditions permit flumes which handle trash bette

29
 Current meter
Types of current meters
• Anemometer
• Propeller
• Electromagnetic
• Doppler
• Optical strobe
Anemometer and propeller are most common for irrigation work
Open channel devices
– Flumes
– Weirs
– Submerged orifices
Pressurized conduit devices
– Propeller meters
Canal design

30
 a=top width of canal
a1=top width of water level
h=height of canal
h1= height of canal water
b=bottom width
f=h-h1(free board)
h:v=side slope
PUMPS
A pump is a mechanical appliance used to increase the pressure energy of a liquid in order to lift it from a
lower to higher level.

Pumps have two main purposes:

 Transfer of liquid from one place to another.

 Circulate a liquid from one place to another.

What is centrifugal pump?

A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device used to transport fluids by converting rotational energy from
an electric motor or an engine into kinetic energy. It is one of the most common types of pumps used in
various industries, including water supply, irrigation, wastewater treatment, oil and gas, chemical
processing, and many others.

31
Centrifugal pumps offer several advantages:

1. They are relatively simple in design, compact in size, and capable of handling a wide range of
fluids, from water to corrosive chemicals.
2. They can provide high flow rates and operate at various pressures, making them versatile for
different applications.
3. Centrifugal pumps are also known for their efficiency, especially when properly sized and operated
within their recommended performance range.

However, centrifugal pumps also have limitations:

1. They are not suitable for handling highly viscous fluids or fluids containing large solid particles.
2. Additionally, centrifugal pumps are sensitive to changes in system resistance and can experience
performance issues if operated outside their design parameters.
3. To ensure optimal performance and longevity, centrifugal pumps require regular maintenance,
including inspections, lubrication, seal replacements, and impeller cleaning.

Four principles involved in pumping water plant:

• Atmospheric pressure

• Positive displacement

• Centrifugal force

• Movement of column of water caused by difference in specific gravity.

Different parts of centrifugal pump:

32
• Shaft

• Impeller

• Eye of impeller

• Stuffing box

• Casing

• Discharge nozzle

• Vane

• Packing

1. Operating Principle of Centrifugal pump:

The operating principle of a centrifugal pump is based on the transfer of mechanical energy from a
rotating impeller to the fluid being pumped. Here's a step-by-step explanation of how a centrifugal pump
works:

1. Impeller: The pump consists of an impeller, which is a rotating component with curved blades.
The impeller is typically driven by an electric motor or an engine.

33
 2. Suction: When the pump is started, the impeller starts rotating, creating a centrifugal force. The
rotation of the impeller causes fluid to enter the pump through the suction inlet located at the
center of the impeller.
3. Centrifugal force: As the fluid enters the impeller, it is rapidly accelerated and thrown towards the
outer edges of the impeller due to the centrifugal force generated by the rotating blades. This
acceleration increases the kinetic energy of the fluid.
4. Conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy: As the fluid moves from the impeller's center
towards the outer edges, it enters a volute casing surrounding the impeller. The volute casing is
designed in a way that gradually increases the area available for the fluid to flow, which leads to a
decrease in fluid velocity and an increase in pressure energy.
5. Discharge: The high-pressure fluid exits the pump through a discharge outlet located at the outer
edge of the volute casing. It is then directed to the desired destination, such as a pipe system or
another part of a larger system.

2.Priming:
Pump Priming is the process of removing air from the pump and suction line.

• In this process the pump is been filled with the liquid being pumped and this liquid

force all the air, gas, or vapor contained in the passage ways of pump to escape out. Priming may be done
manually or automatically.

3.Water hammer:

34
Water hammer in a centrifugal pump refers to a sudden increase in pressure within the piping system
caused by the rapid deceleration or abrupt stoppage of fluid flow. It is a hydraulic phenomenon that
occurs when there are sudden changes in fluid velocity or flow direction, leading to pressure surges.

When a centrifugal pump is operating, it imparts energy to the fluid, creating a continuous flow.
However, if there is a sudden disruption in the flow, such as a sudden valve closure, pump shutdown, or
rapid change in pump speed, the kinetic energy of the moving fluid is converted into pressure energy.
This rapid conversion generates a shockwave or pressure wave that propagates through the piping system.

Water hammer can have damaging effects on the centrifugal pump and the entire system. The sudden
increase in pressure can cause stress on the pump's components, leading to mechanical failure, leaks, or
even pipe bursts. It can also result in water hammer-induced vibrations, noise, and other operational
issues.

To prevent or mitigate water hammer in a centrifugal pump system, various measures can be taken,
including:

1. Install Surge Suppression Devices: Surge tanks, pressure relief valves, and air chambers can be
installed strategically within the piping system to absorb or release excess pressure and dampen
water hammer effects.
2. Check Valve Selection: Proper selection and installation of check valves can help prevent
backflow and minimize pressure surges during pump shutdowns or sudden flow reversals.
3. Slow Down Pump Shutdowns: Implement controlled ramp-down procedures during pump
shutdowns to gradually reduce flow and velocity, reducing the chances of water hammer.
4. Use Pressure Relief Valves: Pressure relief valves are designed to open at predetermined
pressure thresholds, relieving excess pressure and preventing water hammer.
5. System Design Considerations: Proper pipe sizing, gradual changes in pipe diameter, and
minimizing sharp bends or elbows in the piping system can help reduce the potential for water
hammer.
6. Surge Analysis: Conducting a surge analysis of the system using specialized software or
consulting with hydraulic engineers can help identify potential water hammer risks and develop
appropriate mitigation strategies.

Overall, understanding and addressing the risks associated with water hammer in a centrifugal pump
system is crucial for preventing equipment damage, ensuring system reliability, and maintaining safe
operation.

35
4.Cavitation:
Cavitation in a centrifugal pump refers to the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor or gas bubbles
within the pump's fluid flow. It occurs when the local fluid pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, causing the formation of vapor cavities or bubbles. When these bubbles travel to regions of higher
pressure, they rapidly collapse or implode, resulting in intense localized forces and causing damage to the
pump.

Cavitation typically occurs in the low-pressure regions of the pump, such as the impeller's suction side or
the vane passages. It can be caused by various factors, including:

1. Insufficient NPSHA (Net Positive Suction Head Available): NPSHA represents the pressure
energy available at the pump suction to prevent the formation of vapor bubbles. If the NPSHA is
too low, close to or below the pump's NPSHR (Net Positive Suction Head Required), cavitation
is likely to occur.
2. High Pump Speed: Higher rotational speeds can lead to lower pressure zones in the pump,
increasing the likelihood of cavitation.

36
 3. Improperly Designed or Scaled Pump: Poor pump design, undersized suction piping, or
mismatched impeller diameters can disrupt smooth flow and create conditions prone to
cavitation.
4. High Fluid Temperature: Elevated fluid temperatures can reduce the liquid's vapor pressure,
making cavitation more likely to occur.

The effects of cavitation on a centrifugal pump can be detrimental and

include:

1. Damage to Impeller and Pump Components: The implosion of cavitation bubbles creates
intense shock waves that can erode, pit, or chip the impeller blades and other pump components
over time. This can lead to reduced efficiency, decreased performance, and increased
maintenance and repair costs.
2. Noise and Vibration: Cavitation often produces distinct noise, such as a rattling or grinding
sound, and can cause vibration throughout the pump and piping system. Excessive vibration can
further damage pump components and associated equipment.
3. Reduced Pump Efficiency: Cavitation disrupts the smooth flow of fluid within the pump,
causing hydraulic inefficiencies and reduced overall pump performance. This can result in
decreased flow rates and reduced head delivery.

To mitigate cavitation in a centrifugal pump, several measures can be taken:

1. Ensure Adequate NPSHA: Maintain an adequate NPSHA value by ensuring proper suction
line design, avoiding excessive suction lift, and avoiding restrictions in the suction piping.
2. Pump Selection and Design: Select a pump that is properly sized and matched to the system
requirements. Ensure the impeller design and vane geometry are suitable for the operating
conditions.
3. Increase NPSHA: If feasible, increasing the pressure at the pump suction by raising the fluid
level or using a booster pump can help prevent cavitation.
4. Use Cavitation-Resistant Materials: Select materials for pump components that are resistant to
cavitation erosion, such as hardened alloys or coatings.
5. Regular Maintenance and Inspection: Regularly monitor the pump for signs of cavitation,
including vibration, noise, and performance deviations. Conduct inspections and maintenance to
address any issues promptly.

Preventing cavitation is essential for maintaining the efficiency, reliability, and longevity of a centrifugal
pump. Consulting with pump manufacturers, hydraulic engineers, or industry professionals can provide
further guidance on preventing and mitigating cavitation in specific pump applications.

37
Centrifugal Pumps:

A centrifugal pump may be defined as one in which an impeller rotating inside a close fitting case draws
in the liquid at the centre by the virtue of centrifugal force throws out the liquid through an opening or
openings at the side of the casing.

Component of centrifugal pump:

1. Rotating components
2. Stationary components

Centrifugal pump classification:

Type of energy conversion

1. Volute

2. Diffuser

Number of stages

1. Single stage

2. Multi stage

Impeller Type

1. Single or double suction

2. Open, semi-open or closed

Axis or rotation

1. Horizontal

2. Vertical

38
Method of drive

1. Direct-connected

2. Geared

3. Belt or chain driven

Difference between volute and diffuser type centrifugal pump:

Why centrifugal pump used?

 They are simple in construction.

 Easy to operate.

 Low in initial cost.

 Produce a constant steady discharge.

39
Different types of impellers:

• Open impeller. Open impellers have the vanes free on both sides. Open impellers are
structurally weak. They are typically used in small-diameter, inexpensive pumps and pumps handling
suspended solids.

• Semi-open impeller. The vanes are free on one side and enclosed on the other. The shroud
adds mechanical strength. They also offer higher efficiencies than open impellers. They can be used in
medium-diameter pumps and with liquids containing small amounts

of suspended solids. Because of minimization of recirculation and other losses, it is very

important that a small clearance exists between the impeller vanes and the casing.

• Closed impeller. The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a single casting. They are
used in large pumps with high efficiencies and low required Net Positive Suction Head. The centrifugal
pumps with closed impeller are the most widely used pumps handling clear liquids. They rely on close-
clearance wear rings on the impeller and on the pump casing. The closed impeller is a more complicated
and expensive design

not only because of the impeller, but the additional wear rings are needed.

The impeller blades can be:

• Backward-curved blade design (preferred design due to negative slope of performance curve)

• Radial blade design

• Forward-curved blade design (due to positive slope conditions this design can cause

pump surge)

Pump terminology
1. Suction lift

40
 2. Delivery head
3. Total head

Friction head

Friction head is the equivalent head expressed in meters of water required to overcome the friction.
Caused by the flow through the pipe or pipe fittings. Expressed as

P
Hp=
W

Where

41
Hp=Pressure Head (m)

P=Pressure inside the Vessel (kg/m2)

W=Specific Weight of Water (kg/m3)

Water Horse Power:

It is theoretical horse power required for pumping. It is the head and capacity of the pump expressed as
terms of horsepower(hp)

QH
WHP=
76

Where,

Q = Discharge (l/sec)

H = Total head (m)

QH
WHP=
273

Where,

Q = Discharge (m 3 /hour )

H = Total head (m)

QH
WHP=
3960

Where,

Q = Discharge ( galon /minute)

H = Total head (ft)

Shaft Horse Power:

Shaft horse power is the power required at the pump shaft.

42
 WHP
SHP=
ƞp

Where,

ƞ p = Pump Efficiency (0.6-0.7)

Velocity Head:
Velocity head is the pressure expressed in meters of water required to create the velocity of flow.
Expressed as
2
v
Hv=
2g

In which

H v = Velocity head (m )

v = Velocity of water through the pipe (m/s )

g= Acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2)

Mathematical Solution

1. A centrifugal pump is installed 5 m above the pumping water level. It is required to pump water to a
height of 2o m above the pump center line at the rate of 400 li/min. loss due to friction and turbulence in
the pipe is 0.20m per 12.5 m length of pipe. Losses due to fittings is 2m.If the pump efficiency is
70%.Calculate

 1.BHP

 2. WHP of the pump.

1. A centrifugal pump is discharge 2 cfs of water against head of 40 ft. If the pump efficiency is 70%.
The cost of energy is 2 tk/unit Calculate the charge per month if the motor runs continuously.

43
Break Horse Power is the actual horse power required to be supplied by the engine or electric motor for
driving the pump.

WHP
BHP=
ƞ p∗ƞm∗ƞ d

Calculating brake horsepower (BHP) involves several steps and requires specific measurements. Here's an
overview of the process:

1. Measure Torque: To calculate BHP, you first need to measure the torque produced by the engine.
This can be done using a dynamometer or a torque measurement device. Torque is typically
measured in foot-pounds (lb-ft).

2. Measure Engine Speed: Determine the engine speed in revolutions per minute (RPM). This can be
obtained using a tachometer or by connecting to the engine's electronic control unit (ECU) if
available.

3. Convert Units: Ensure that the torque and engine speed are in the appropriate units. If necessary,
convert the measurements to foot-pounds (lb-ft) for torque and revolutions per minute (RPM) for
engine speed.

4. Apply the BHP Formula: Use the following equation to calculate BHP:

BHP = (TQ × RPM) / 5252

Substitute the measured torque (TQ) and engine speed (RPM) into the equation.

Perform the Calculation: Multiply the torque (TQ) by the engine speed (RPM), and then divide the result
by 5252. The final value obtained is the brake horsepower (BHP) of the engine.

44
It's important to note that this calculation provides the theoretical maximum power output of the engine
under full load conditions. In practice, factors such as mechanical losses, friction, and other inefficiencies
may reduce the actual power output delivered to the wheels or output device.

Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting:

45
TROUBLE PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDY

1. Pump fails to a. Air leaks in suction f. Clean and tighten all suction connections
prime lines g. Remove dirt, leaves or other material
b. Suction strainer is from strainer
clogged h. Re-evaluate pump requirements and
c. Suction lift is too correct suction condition accordingly
high i. Replace valve
d. Defective priming j. Replace packing or seal
valve
e. Defective packing
or seal
2. No discharge a. Pump in not d. Reprime the pump
from pump properly primed e. Re-evaluate head condition
b. Total head is too f. Check voltage of electric motor
high
c. Driver is not
operating at rated
speed
3. Pump does not a. Pump is not d. Reprime the pump
deliver rated properly primed e. Re-evaluate pump requirements and
capacity b. Suction lift is too correct suction condition accordingly
high f. Clean and tighten all suction connections
c. Excessive air in
liquid

4. Insufficient a. Excessive air in liquid a. Clean and tighten all suction connections
pressure

5. Pump Starts then a. Air leaks in suction c. Clean and tighten all suction connections
stop pumping line d. Reprime the pump
b. Air pocket in
suction line

6. Excessive power a. Speed is too high c. Internal electric motor wiring is incorrect
consumption b. Wrong direction of d. Check voltage of electric motor
rotation

7. Pump is noisy or a. Magnetic hum c. Consult motor manufacturer

has excessive b. Motor bearings are d. Replace bearings
vibration worn

46
Proper maintenance of a centrifugal pump is crucial for its efficient operation and longevity. Here
are some general steps for centrifugal pump maintenance:

1. Review the pump documentation: Familiarize yourself with the pump's specifications, operating
conditions, and maintenance requirements. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for specific
instructions.
2. Establish a maintenance schedule: Develop a regular maintenance plan that includes routine
inspections, lubrication, and component replacements. Adhere to the manufacturer's
recommendations and industry best practices.
3. Shut down the pump: Before performing any maintenance tasks, turn off the pump and isolate it
from the power source to ensure safety.
4. Inspect the pump and surrounding area: Visually examine the pump for any signs of leakage,
corrosion, or damage. Inspect the motor, coupling, impeller, volute, and seals. Check the
foundation and support structure for any issues.
5. Lubricate bearings: Lubricate the pump bearings according to the manufacturer's guidelines. Use
the appropriate lubricant and ensure proper lubrication levels.
6. Check alignment: Verify the alignment of the pump and motor using precision alignment tools.
Misalignment can cause premature wear and reduce efficiency. Adjust the alignment if necessary.
7. Inspect and clean impeller and volute: Remove the pump casing and inspect the impeller and volute
for any debris or clogging. Clean them thoroughly to prevent flow restrictions and improve pump
performance.
8. Check and replace seals: Examine the pump seals for wear, leaks, or damage. Replace any faulty
seals promptly to prevent fluid leakage and contamination. Follow the recommended replacement
procedure.
9. Inspect and clean suction strainer or filter: If your centrifugal pump is equipped with a suction
strainer or filter, inspect it for debris accumulation. Clean or replace it as needed to maintain
proper flow and prevent damage.
10. Verify pump performance: After completing the maintenance tasks, reassemble the pump and
conduct performance tests. Measure flow rate, pressure, and power consumption to ensure the
pump operates within the desired parameters.
11. Document maintenance activities: Maintain a detailed record of all maintenance tasks performed,
including dates, observations, and any corrective actions taken. This information will help track
the pump's history and aid future troubleshooting.
12. Train personnel: Ensure that personnel responsible for pump maintenance are adequately trained
and aware of safety procedures. Provide ongoing training to keep them updated on new
maintenance techniques and technologies.

Remember that these steps serve as general guidelines. Always refer to the manufacturer's instructions
and consult with qualified professionals for specific maintenance requirements related to your centrifugal
pump.

47
Different Types of valves:

Bypass Valve – Internal to many pump heads that allow fluid to be recirculated if a given

pressure limit is exceeded.

Check Valve – Allows liquid to flow in one direction only. Generally used in discharge line to prevent
reverse flow.

Foot Valve – A type of check valve with a built-in strainer. Used at point of liquid intake to retain liquid
in system, preventing loss of prime when liquid source is lower than pump.

Relief Valve – Used at the discharge of a positive displacement pump. An adjustable, spring-loaded valve
opens when a pre-set pressure is reached. Used to prevent excessive pressure build-up that could damage
the pump or motor.

Definition of Tube-well

} A well is hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil.

} A tube well is a type of water well in which a long100-200mm(4-8 inch)wide stainless steel tube
or pipe is bored into an underground aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, and a pump
at the top lifts water for irrigation. The required depth of the water table.

Type of tube-wells

48
 Based on Based on Based on
Based on
Entry of Method of Type of
Depth
Water Construction Aquifer

Screen Wells Drilled Wells Shallow Wells Water Table Wells

Cavity Wells Driven Wells Deep Wells Artesian Wells

Flowing Artesian
Jetted Wells
Wells

Types of Tube wells:

Based on Entry of Water

1.Screen Wells

2.Drilled Wells

3.Jetted Wells

Based on Method of Construction

1.Shallow Wells

2.Based on Depth

3.Water Table Wells

Based on Type of Aquifer

1.Cavity Wells

2.Driven Wells

3.Deep Wells

49
 4.Artesian Wells

Flowing Artesian Wells

What is aquifer?

An aquifer is an underground layer of permeable rock, sediment, or soil that is capable of storing and
transmitting water. It is a crucial component of the Earth's water cycle and serves as a natural
underground reservoir for groundwater.

Aquifers are typically composed of porous materials such as sand, gravel, or fractured rock formations
that have the ability to hold water. The water within an aquifer can be accessed through wells and springs.
Aquifers can vary in size, depth, and productivity, ranging from small localized pockets to large regional
systems that span across multiple states or countries.

When precipitation occurs, water infiltrates through the surface and gradually percolates downward,
filling the spaces within the porous materials of the aquifer. This process recharges the aquifer, allowing
it to store water for future use. The water in an aquifer can be relatively stationary or flow through it,
forming underground streams and contributing to the discharge of springs or seepage into lakes, rivers, or
oceans.

Aquifers play a vital role in sustaining both human and ecological water needs. They are often used as a
source of drinking water, irrigation for agriculture, and supply water to wells and pumping systems.
Proper management and sustainable use of aquifers are essential to ensure the long-term availability and
quality of groundwater resources.

50
What is the function of foot valve in centrifugal pump?

The function of a foot valve in a centrifugal pump is to prevent the backflow of fluid when the pump is
not in operation or when there is a loss of prime in the suction line. It is typically installed at the bottom
of the suction pipe or at the end of the suction hose, submerged in the fluid source (such as a well, tank, or
sump).

Here are the primary functions and benefits of a foot valve:

1. Retaining Prime: The foot valve helps maintain the pump's prime by preventing the fluid from
draining back into the source when the pump is turned off. It contains a check valve that allows
fluid flow in only one direction, from the source towards the pump. This ensures that the pump
remains primed, eliminating the need for manual re-priming before starting the pump.

51
 2. Eliminating Air Ingress: The foot valve also prevents air from entering the suction line when
the pump is not in operation. This is important because air in the pump and suction line can
disrupt the pump's performance, reduce efficiency, and cause cavitation.
3. Minimizing Pump Strain: By preventing the backflow of fluid, the foot valve helps maintain a
continuous flow of fluid to the pump, reducing the strain on the pump and ensuring consistent
operation. It prevents the pump from having to work harder to reestablish prime or overcome
airlocks.
4. Protection Against Contamination: The foot valve acts as a barrier, preventing debris,
sediment, and foreign particles from entering the pump and causing damage. It helps keep the
impeller and other internal components clean and free from blockages, ensuring optimal pump
performance and longevity.
5. Improving Efficiency: With a foot valve in place, the pump can start and resume operation
more quickly and efficiently. It reduces the time required to re-prime the pump and eliminates
the need for manual intervention, improving overall system efficiency and reducing downtime.

It is important to properly size and select the foot valve based on the pump's flow rate, fluid
characteristics, and system requirements. Regular inspection and maintenance of the foot valve are
essential to ensure its proper functioning, including checking for any signs of wear, corrosion, or
blockages that could impair its performance.

52