COMPRESSION MEMBERS

INTRODUCTION
Compression members are structural elements that are subjected only to axial
compressive forces; that is, the loads are applied along a longitudinal axis through
the centroid of the member cross section, and the stress can be taken as f = P/A,
where f is considered to be uniform over the entire cross section. This ideal state is
never achieved in reality, however, because some eccentricity of the load is
inevitable. Bending will result, but it usually can be regarded as secondary. The most
common type of compression member occurring in buildings and bridges is the
column, a vertical member whose primary function is to support vertical loads.
Compression members are also used in trusses and as components of bracing systems.
Smaller compression members not classified as columns are sometimes referred to as
struts.
EULER’S CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD
If the member is so slender (we give a precise definition of slenderness shortly) that
the stress just before buckling is below the proportional limit—that is, the member is
still elastic—the critical buckling load is given by
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒓 =
𝑳𝟐
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, I is the moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area with respect to the minor principal axis, and L is the length of the
member between points of support. the member must be elastic, and its ends must be
free to rotate but not translate laterally.
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS
If the critical load is divided by the cross-sectional area, the critical buckling stress is
obtained:
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = 𝑳
(𝒓)𝟐

At this compressive stress, buckling will occur about the axis corresponding to r. Thus,
the minimum moment of inertia and radius of gyration of the cross section should
ordinarily be used.
1 ST EXAMPLE
A W12 × 50 is used as a column to support an axial compressive load of 145 kips.
The length is 20 feet, and the ends are pinned. Without regard to load or resistance
factors, investigate this member for stability.
SOLUTION
ENGESSER DISCOVERY
Early researchers soon found that Euler’s equation did not give reliable results for
stocky, or less slender, compression members. The reason is that the small slenderness
ratio for members of this type causes a large buckling stress. If the stress at which
buckling occurs is greater than the proportional limit of the material, the relation
between stress and strain is not linear, and the modulus of elasticity E can no longer
be used. This difficulty was initially resolved by Friedrich Engesser, who proposed in
1889 the use of a variable tangent modulus, Et. For a material with a stress–strain
curve like the one shown. E is not a constant for stresses greater than the proportional
limit Fpl. The tangent modulus Et is defined as the slope of the tangent to the stress–
strain curve for values of f between Fpl and Fy. If the compressive stress at buckling,
Pcr/A, is in this region, it can be shown that
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝒕 𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒓 =
𝑳𝟐
ENGESSER DISCOVERY

This curve is typical of a compression test of a short length of W-shape called a stub
column, rather than the result of a tensile test.
ENGESSER DISCOVERY
For any material, the critical buckling stress can be plotted as a function of
slenderness. The tangent modulus curve is tangent to the Euler curve at the point
corresponding to the proportional limit of the material. The composite curve, called a
column strength curve, completely describes the strength of any column of a given
material. Other than Fy, E, and Et, which are properties of the material, the strength is
a function only of the slenderness ratio.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
Both the Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following assumptions:
1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crookedness.
2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity.
3. The column is pinned at both ends.
The first two conditions mean that there is no bending moment in the member before
buckling. As mentioned previously, some accidental moment will be present, but in most
cases it can be ignored. The requirement for pinned ends, however, is a serious
limitation, and provisions must be made for other support conditions. The pinned-end
condition requires that the member be restrained from lateral translation, but not
rotation, at the ends. Constructing a frictionless pin connection is virtually impossible, so
even this support condition can only be closely approximated at best. Obviously, all
columns must be free to deform axially.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
Both the Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following assumptions:
1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crookedness.
2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity.
3. The column is pinned at both ends.
The first two conditions mean that there is no bending moment in the member before
buckling. As mentioned previously, some accidental moment will be present, but in most
cases it can be ignored. The requirement for pinned ends, however, is a serious
limitation, and provisions must be made for other support conditions. The pinned-end
condition requires that the member be restrained from lateral translation, but not
rotation, at the ends. Constructing a frictionless pin connection is virtually impossible, so
even this support condition can only be closely approximated at best. Obviously, all
columns must be free to deform axially.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
For convenience, the equations for critical buckling load will be written as
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐾𝐿
( )2
𝑟

𝜋 2 𝐸𝑡 𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐾𝐿
( )2
𝑟

Where KL is the effective length and K is the effective length factor.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH
AISC/NSCP 2015 SPECIFICATIONS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXURAL, TORSIONAL,
AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
2 ND EXAMPLE
A W14 × 74 of A992 steel has a length of 20 feet and pinned ends. Compute the
design compressive strength for LRFD and the allowable compressive strength for ASD
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
LOCAL STABILITY
The strength corresponding to any overall buckling mode, however, such as flexural
buckling, cannot be developed if the elements of the cross section are so thin that
local buckling occurs. This type of instability is a localized buckling or wrinkling at an
isolated location. If it occurs, the cross section is no longer fully effective, and the
member has failed. I-shaped cross sections with thin flanges or webs are susceptible
to this phenomenon, and their use should be avoided whenever possible. Otherwise,
the compressive strength given must be reduced. The measure of this susceptibility is
the width-to-thickness ratio of each cross-sectional element. Two types of elements
must be considered: unstiffened elements, which are unsupported along one edge
parallel to the direction of load, and stiffened elements, which are supported along
both edges.
LOCAL STABILITY
For compression members, shapes are classified as slender or nonslender. If a shape
is slender, its strength limit state is local buckling, and the corresponding reduced
strength must be computed. The width-to-thickness ratio is given the generic symbol λ.
Depending on the particular cross-sectional element, λ for I shapes is either the ratio
b/t or h/tw, both of which are defined presently. If λ is greater than the specified
limit (denoted λr), the shape is slender. If λ ≤ λr, the shape is nonslender.
Otherwise, the shape is slender. The table is divided into two parts: unstiffened
elements and stiffened elements.
LOCAL STABILITY
3 RD EXAMPLE
A W14 × 74 of A992 steel has a length of 20 feet and pinned ends. Investigate for
local stability.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
4 TH EXAMPLE
From the figure below, determine the following.
a. Design Strength
b. Allowable Strength
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
5 TH EXAMPLE
An HSS 16 x 16 ½ with Fy = 46 ksi is used for an 18 ft long column with simple end
supports. Determine the following.
a. Design Strength
b. Allowable Strength
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
LOCAL BUCKLING
SLENDER ELEMENTS
SLENDER UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS, QS
SLENDER UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS, QS
SLENDER UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS
SLENDER STIFFENED ELEMENTS, QA
SLENDER STIFFENED ELEMENTS
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the design strength and allowable strength of a 24ft HSS 14x10x1/4
column section. The base of the column is considered to be fixed, while the upper end
is assumed to be pinned. Fy = 46 ksi.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the design strength and allowable strength of an HSS 8x4x1/8 with an
effective length of 15 feet with respect to each principal axis. Use Fy = 46 ksi.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
INTRODUCTION
The selection of an economical rolled shape to resist a given compressive load is
simple with the aid of the column load tables. Enter the table with the effective length
and move horizontally until you find the desired available strength (or something
slightly larger). In some cases, you must continue the search to be certain that you
have found the lightest shape. Usually the category of shape (W, WT, etc.) will have
been decided upon in advance. Often the overall nominal dimensions will also be
known because of architectural or other requirements. As pointed out earlier, all
tabulated values correspond to a slenderness ratio of 200 or less.
EXAMPLE 1
A compression member is subjected to service loads of 165 kips dead load and 535
kips live load. The member is 26 feet long and pinned at each end. Use A992 steel
and select a W14 shape.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
Select the lightest W-shape that can resist a service dead load of 62.5 kips and a
service live load of 125 kips. The effective length is 24 feet. Use ASTM A992 steel.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
INTRODUCTION
If a compression member is supported differently with respect to each of its principal
axes, the effective length will be different for the two directions. In Figure shown, a
W-shape is used as a column and is braced by horizontal members in two
perpendicular directions at the top. These members prevent translation of the column
in all directions, but the connections, the details of which are not shown, permit small
rotations to take place. Under these conditions, the member can be treated as pin-
connected at the top. For the same reasons, the connection to the support at the
bottom may also be treated as a pin connection. Generally speaking, a rigid, or
fixed, condition is very difficult to achieve, and unless some special provisions are
made, ordinary connections will usually closely approximate a hinge or pin
connection. At midheight, the column is braced, but only in one direction.
INTRODUCTION
Again, the connection prevents translation, but no restraint against rotation is
furnished. This brace prevents translation perpendicular to the weak axis of the cross
section but provides no restraint perpendicular to the strong axis.
INTRODUCTION
EXAMPLE 1
A W12 × 58, 24 feet long, is pinned at both ends and braced in the weak direction
at the third points, as shown. A992 steel is used. Determine the available compressive
strength.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
The compression member shown in Figure 4.12 is pinned at both ends and supported
in the weak direction at midheight. A service load of 400 kips, with equal parts of
dead and live load, must be supported. Use Fy = 50 ksi and select the lightest W-
shape
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
BUILT UP MEMBERS
INTRODUCTION
If the cross-sectional properties of a built-up compression member are known, its
analysis is the same as for any other compression member, provided the component
parts of the cross section are properly connected. The design strength of a built-up
compression member is a function of the slenderness ratio KLr. Hence the principal
axes and the corresponding radii of gyration about these axes must be determined.
For homogeneous cross sections, the principal axes coincide with the centroidal axes.
The components of the cross section are assumed to be properly connected.
EXAMPLE 1
The column shown is fabricated by welding a 3 ⁄8-inch by 4-inch cover plate to the
flange of a W18 × 65. Steel with Fy = 50 ksi is used for both components. The
effective length is 15 feet with respect to both axes. Assume that the components are
connected in such a way that the member is fully effective and compute the strength
based on flexural buckling.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EFFECTIVE LENGTH ON FRAME
INTRODUCTION
Consider a rigid frame. The columns in this frame are not independent members but
part of a continuous structure. Except for those in the lower story, the columns are
restrained at both ends by their connection to beams and other columns. This frame is
also unbraced, meaning that horizontal displacements of the frame are possible and
all columns are subject to sidesway. The rotational restraint provided by the beams,
or girders, at the end of a column is a function of the rotational stiffnesses of the
members intersecting at the joint. The rotational stiffness of a member is proportional
to EIL, where I is the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to the axis of
bending. Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer (1992) show that the effective length
factor K depends on the ratio of column stiffness to girder stiffness at each end of the
member, which can be expressed as
INTRODUCTION
σ 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 /𝐿𝑐 σ 𝐼𝑐 /𝐿𝑐
𝐺= σ 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑔 /𝐿𝑔
= σ 𝐼𝑔 /𝐿𝑔
INTRODUCTION
The relationship between G and K has been quantified in the Jackson–Mooreland
Alignment Charts (Johnston, 1976). To obtain a value of K from one of these
nomograms, first calculate the value of G at each end of the column, letting one value
be GA and the other be GB. Connect GA and GB with a straight line, and read the
value of K on the middle scale. The effective length factor obtained in this manner is
with respect to the axis of bending, which is the axis perpendicular to the plane of
the frame. A separate analysis must be made for buckling about the other axis.
If the end of a column is fixed (G = 1.0) or pinned (G = 10.0)
INTRODUCTION
EXAMPLE 1
The rigid frame shown is unbraced. Each member is oriented so that its web is in the
plane of the frame. Determine the effective length factor Kx for columns AB and BC.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
For the framing system shown, it is braced against sidesway. The frame is connected to
another building.

Member Shape Moment of Length (L) (I/L)

Inertia (I) mm4
AB W 300x96 221.85 x 10^6 3800 mm 58381.6
BC W 300x96 221.85 x 10^6 3600 mm 61625
CD W 400x74 274.30 x 10^6 6000 mm 45716.7
BE W 450x74 332.99 x 10^6 6000 mm 55498.3
 EXAMPLE 2
a. Compute the value of Ga for column BC.
b. Compute the value of effective length factor of column AB.
c. Compute the effective length of column AB.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
BRACED FRAME
Unbraced frames are able to support lateral loads because of their momentresisting
joints. Often the frame is augmented by a bracing system of some sort; such frames
are called braced frames. The additional resistance to lateral loads can take the
form of diagonal bracing or rigid shear walls. In either case, the tendency for columns
to sway is blocked within a given panel, or bay, for the full height of the frame. This
support system forms a cantilever structure that is resistant to horizontal
displacements and also provides horizontal support for the other bays. Depending on
the size of the structure, more than one bay may require bracing.
A frame must resist not only the tendency to sway under the action of lateral loads
but also the tendency to buckle, or become unstable, under the action of vertical
loads. Bracing to stabilize a structure against vertical loading is called stability
bracing.
BRACED FRAME
STIFFNESS REDUCTION FACTOR
The alignment chart were developed according to a set of idealized conditions that
are seldom, if ever, completely met in a real structure. Included among those
conditions are the following: The column behavior is purely elastic, all columns buckle
simultaneously, all members have constant cross-sections, all joints are rigid, and so
on.
If the actual conditions are different from these assumptions, unrealistically high K
factors may be obtained from the charts, and overconservative designs may results.
Inelastic column situation if the G value is multiplied by the stiffness reduction factor,
𝜏𝑏 .
STIFFNESS REDUCTION FACTOR
- When 𝛼𝑃𝑟 /𝑃𝑦 is less than or equal to 0.5, 𝜏𝑏 = 1.0.
𝛼𝑃𝑟 𝛼𝑃𝑟
- When 𝛼𝑃𝑟 /𝑃𝑦 is greater than 0.5, 𝜏𝑏 = 4 ( )(1 − )
𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑦

Where:
𝛼 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑅𝐹𝐷, 1.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑆𝐷
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑃𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑅𝐹𝐷, 𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑆𝐷
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑦 𝐴𝑔
 EXAMPLE 3
A rigid unbraced frame is shown. All members are oriented so that bending is about the
strong axis. Lateral support is provided at each joint by simply connected bracing in the
direction perpendicular to the frame. Determine the effective length factors with respect
to each axis for member AB. The service dead load is 35.5 kips, and the service live load
is 142 kips. A992 steel is used.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION