By: Jelisha N.

Cruzado
1
 1:
-Made of CELLS Basic
-Require ENERGY (food) biological unit
Building
-REPRODUCE (species)
block of life
-Maintain HOMEOSTASIS
-ORGANIZED
-RESPOND to environment
-GROW and DEVELOP {Level of Organization}
-EXCHANGE materials with surroundings
(Water, wastes, and gases)
-ATOM (element) -CELL (makes up ALL organisms)
{Cell Theory}
-MOLECULE (compounds like -TISSUE (cells working together)
-All living things are made of cells carbohydrates & proteins)
-ORGAN (heart, brain, stomach…)
-Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an -ORGANELLES (nucleus, ER, Golgi…)
-ORGAN SYSTEMS (respiratory, circulatory…)
organism (basic unit of life)
-ORGANISM
-Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells (cell
division) -POPULATION (one species in an area)

{Number of Cells} -COMMUNITY (several populations in an area)

{Cell Specialization} -ECOSYSTEM (forest, prairie…)

-Cells in a multicellular organism become -BIOME (Tundra, Tropical Rain forest…)
specialized by turning different genes on and
off -BIOSPHERE (all living and nonliving things on Earth)
-This is known as DIFFERENTIATION

– Muscle Cells, Red Blood Cells,

Cheek Cells

– Guard Cells, Xylem Cells, Pollen

{2 Types of Eukaryotic Cells}

{Kinds of Cells}
–

-Cells that lack a nucleus or Contain 3 basic cell structures:

membrane-bound organelles -Nucleus
-Include bacteria -Cell Membrane
-Simplest type of cell -Cytoplasm with organelles
-Single, circular chromosome

pg. 1
 1.1:
{ORGANELLES OF Plant CELL}

-Microscopic (Very small) - A rigid layer which is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin, & hemicellulose, that is located
outside the cell membrane.
-Performs various functions for a cell -comprises of proteins, polysaccharides, and cellulose.
-primary function is to protect and provide structural support of the cell. This is also filters the molecules
-Found in the cytoplasm
passing in and out of the cell
-The formation is guided by microtubules. Consists of three layers, namely, primary, secondary, and the middle
-May or may not be membrane-bound
lamella. The primary cell is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes

- Semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and
fat.

{ORGANELLES OF ANIMAL CELL}

-Plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within the cell
-This keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across.

- Membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells.

– Thin semipermeable membrane layer of -Vital function is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism, and growth.
protein and fats surrounding the cell  NUCLEOLUS: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes
- Protects the cell from its surrounding  NUCLEOPORE: This perforates the nuclear membrane and allows proteins and nucleic acids to pass
through.
-Controls the entry and exit of nutrients
and other microscopic entities into the cell
– Double-membrane structure that - Membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA.
-Necessary to store starch and to carry out the process of photosynthesis.
surrounds the nucleus -Also used in the synthesis of many molecules which form the building block of the cell.
-Referred as the “nuclear envelope”  LEUCOPLASTS: Found in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They are used for the storage of
– contains several other sub-organelles such as protein, lipid, and starch.
 CHLOROPLAST: An elongated organelle encloses by phospholid membrane. It is shaped like a disc &
nucleolus, nucleosomes, and chromatins stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains
-Contains DNA and other genetic materials. a green colored pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis.
– spherical / rod-shaped organelles with
double membrane. - They are heterogeneous, colored plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis & for storage in
- Powerhouse of cell that releases energy photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. They have red, yellow, & orange colored pigments which provide color
to all ripe fruits & flowers.
– round organelle surrounded
by a membrane comprising of
digestive enzymes that help in -Vital function of this apart from storage is to sustain turgid pressure against the cell wall.
digestion, excretion, and in cell -Consists of cell sap, a mixture of salts, enzymes, and other substances.
- Occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds
renewal process.
central vacuole.
– jelly-like material that contains all the cell
organelles
-They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized macromolecules to
-enclosed within a cell membrane
various parts of the cell.
-Substance found within the cell nucleus,
contained by the nuclear membrane is called
nucleoplasm. -Smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein.
– small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic -Sites of protein synthesis / known as the protein factories of the cell.

granules.
-Sites of protein synthesis - Double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
-Provides energy by breaking down carbohydrates & sugar molecules / known as “powerhouse of the cell”
– Small organelle found near to the nucleus
which has a thick center with radiating tubules.
-This is where microtubules are produced. -known as “suicidal bags” as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane.
-Perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles, & foreign
– composed of thin, winding bodies in the cell.
network of membranous sacs
originating from the nucleus
-composed of double layer of phospholids (phospholipids bilayers) and proteins
– membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell -Surrounds outside of all cells and controls what enters or leaves the cell
involved in maintain shape and storing, water, foods,
wastes, etc.
– flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which
is located near the nucleus and involved in
manufacturing, storing, packing, and
transporting the particles throughout the
cell. pg. 2
 2:
 Contain many different types of cells.
{Red Blood Cells} {Nerve Cell}
 Each type of cell is designed to carry
out particular job or function. – To carry oxygen – To carry nervous impulses to
 This is known as CELL SPECIALIZATION / – Large surface area for oxygen different parts of the body
DIFFERENTATION
-Contains hemoglobin which binds – Long
 Not all cells look the same. Some cells with the oxygen - Connections at each end
have a special shape and feature to help -Can carry electrical signals
them do a certain job.
{Sperm cell}
{Egg Cell}
– To reach the egg cell in order to fuse {Root Hair Cell}
– To fuse with sperm cell during with it during fertilization
– To absorb water from the soil
fertilization, & then to provide food for the – Long tail
new cell that has formed - Head which is able to penetrate – Hair gives the cell a
– Large the egg cell large surface
- Contains a food store area to absorb water
{Stem cell}

{Guard Cell} -Unspecialized cells that divide quickly do not have a

{Palisade Mesophyll Cell}
particular function yet.
– To open and close stoma pore -Only stem cells can differentiate into many types of
cells – The main site of photosynthesis
- When they are turgid, the stoma – Lots of chloroplasts
-Can be used for leukemia.
pore is open, but when it’s flaccid, present for photosynthesis.
they are closed.
– They are curved to
create the stoma pore so
oxygen & water can leave
the cell, & carbon dioxide
enters

pg. 3
 3: :

-Nuclear division plus cytokinesis, and produces two

identical daughter cells during PMAT w/ prometaphase.  Interphase
 Prophase
-Interphase is often included in discussions of mitosis, but
rather encompasses stages G1, S, and G2 of the cell cycle
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
-Division of somatic / body cells  Telophase

{Mitosis: Interphase} {Mitosis: Mitotic Stage}

-Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condensate and become visible

-The cell is engaged in metabolic activity & prepares for
in the light microscope as chromosomes while the nucleus
PMAT. disappears.
-Chromosomes are not clearly recognizable in the nucleus, -Chromosomes are thickening, shorten and paired while becoming
more visible.
although the nucleolus (dark spot) may be visible
-2 chromatids joined by a centromere.
-The cell may contain a pair of centrioles (or microtubule -Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell & fibers
organizing centers in plants) both of which are extend. As the fibers extend, some cross the cell to form the
organizational sites for microtubules. mitotic spindle.

-Interphase is composed of G1 phase (Cell growth), S phase

(DNA synthesis), followed by G2 phase (Cell growth).
-Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell
-At the end of interphase comes the mitotic phase (PMAT), nucleus. The line is referred to as the metaphase plate.
which is made up of mitosis & cytokinesis & leads to the -The organization ensures that in the next phase, when the
formation of 2 daughter cells. chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will receive one
copy of each chromosome.
0 -Becomes attached to spindle fibers by centromeres.
-Homologous chromosomes do not associate.
-G0 phase / resting phase is a period in the cell cycle which
cells exist in an “inactive” state
-This is viewed as either an extended G1 phase, where the cell -The paired chromosomes separate the kinetochores & move AWAY
is neither dividing nor preparing to divide, or a distinct to opposite sides of the cell.
inactive stage that occurs outside the cell cycle. -Motion results from a combination of kinetochore movement along
the spindle microtubules & through the physical interaction of
1 polar microtubules.
-Spindle fibers contract pulling chromatids to the opposite poles
- G1 / GAP 1 is the first of four phases of the cell cycle that of the cell.
takes place in eukaryotic cell division.
-In G1, the cell synthesizes RNA & proteins in preparation for
the following steps leading to mitosis. This phase ends when -Chromatids, arrive at the opposite poles of cell, & new membranes
the cell moves into the S phase. form around the daughter nuclei.
-The chromosomes disperse & are no longer visible under the light
microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, & the cytokinesis or the
portioning of the cell may also begin during this stage.
-This is the stage when DNA replication occurs -Chromosomes uncoil, spindle fibers disintegrate, centrioles
replicate, & nuclear membrane forms finally the cell divides.
-S Phase: to produce two similar daughter cells, the complete
DNA instructions in the cell must be duplicated. DNA replication
occurs during the S Phase.

2
{Mitosis: Cytokinesis}
- During the gap between DNA synthesis & mitosis, the cell will
continue to grow and produce new proteins.
-ANIMAL CELLS: cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a
-At the end of this gap is another control checkpoint (G2 protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts
Checkpoint) in order to determine if the cell ca proceed to pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus.
enter M (mitosis) and divide. -PLANT CELLS: The rigid wall requires that a cell plate be
synthesized between the two daughter cells.

pg. 4
 3.1: :

-Process that produced haploid gametes.

-A type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is  Interphase  Prophase II
reduced by half.  Prophase I  Metaphase II
-Occurs only in certain special cells of the organisms
 Metaphase I  Anaphase II
-During this, homologous chromosomes separate, and haploid cells
form that have only one chromosome from each pair.  Anaphase I  Telophase II
-Two cell divisions occur during meiosis, and a total of four haploid  Telophase I  Cytokinesis
cells are produced. The two cell divisions are called MEIOSIS I and  Cytokinesis  Interphase
MEIOSIS II

{Meiosis: interphase} {Meiosis Ii: M-PHASE}

-The centrioles duplicate. This occurs by separation of the two members of the pair, & then the
-Prior to undergoing meiosis, a cell goes through an interphase period formation of a daughter centriole perpendicular to each original centriole. The two pairs of
which it grows, replicates its chromosomes, & checks all of its systems centrioles separate into two centrosomes.
to ensure that it is ready to divide. -The nuclear envelope breaks down, & the spindle apparatus forms.
-Everything that happens in Mitosis during interphase also happens in -While chromosome duplication took place in meiosis I, no new chromosome replication occurs
Meiosis. before meiosis II.

{Meiosis I: M-PHASE}

-This is the longest phase of meiosis, typically consuming 90% of the

time for the two divisions.
-In the beginning, the chromosomes have already duplicated. During it,
they coil & become shorter & thicker & visible under the light -Each of the daughter cells completes the formation of a spindle apparatus.
microscope. -Single chromosomes align on the metaphase plate, much as chromosomes do in mitosis. This is in
-The duplicated homologous chromosomes pair, & crossing-over contrast to metaphase I, in which homologous pairs of chromosomes align on the metaphase plate.
occurs. At this point, each homologous chromosome pair is visible as a -For each chromosomes, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles, and
bivalent or a tight group of two chromosomes, each consisting of two each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.
sister chromatids.
-The sites of crossing-over are seen as crisscross nonsister
chromatids are called chiasmata (singular: chiasma)
-In the cytoplasm, the meiotic spindle, consisting of microtubules &
other proteins forms between the two pairs of centrioles as they
migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
-The nucleolus disappears during prophase I, while the nuclear
envelope disappears at the end of prophase I, which allows the spindle
to enter the nucleus. -The centromeres separate, & the two chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles on
the spindle. The separated chromatids are now call chromosomes in their own right.

-The centrioles are at opposite poles of the cell.

-The pairs of homologous chromosomes (the bivalents), no as tightly
coiled & condensed as they will be in meiosis, become arranged on a
plane equidistant from the poles called the metaphase plate.
-Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one chromosome of
each pair (seen as sister chromatids), & spindle fibers from the
opposite pole attach to the homologous chromosome. -A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.
-Cytokinesis takes place, producing four daughter cells (gametes, in animals), each with a haploid
Tetrad/Bivalent – four chromatids set of chromosomes.
-Because of crossing-over, some chromosomes are seen to have recombined segments of the
-Begins when the two chromosomes of each bivalent separate & start original parental chromosomes
moving toward opposite poles of the cell as a result of the action of
the spindle.
-The sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres & move
together toward the poles.
- Difference between mitosis & meiosis is that sister chromatids remain
joined after metaphase in meiosis I, while they separate in mitosis.

-The homologous chromosome pairs complete their migration to the {Meiosis I} {Meiosis Ii}
two poles as a result of the action of the spindle. Now a haploid set
of chromosomes is at each pole, with each chromosome having two
chromatids.
-A nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, the spindle
disappears, & cytokinesis follows. In animal cells, the cytokinesis
involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, resulting the pinching of
the cells into two cells. After cytokinesis, each of the two progeny
(descendant) cells has a nucleus with a haploid set of replicated
chromosomes.
-Many cells undergo rapid meiosis do not decondense the
chromosomes at the end of telophase I.
-Other cells do exhibit chromosome decondensation at this
time; the chromosomes recondense in prophase II.

pg. 5
 4:
{Homeostasis}
Cell transport refers to the
movement of nutrients,
products, & wastes in & out It is the ability to maintain a stable internal state that persists despite of
of the cell. changes in the outside world.

{Types of Transport}
{Cell Membrane}
Living cells depend on the movement of chemicals around the body. Chemicals
-The cell membrane controls what such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, & dissolved food need to be transported
moves in and out of the cell. into & out of cells. This is done by the processes of diffusion & osmosis &
active transport. These processes depend on the body’s water & salt
-Semi-permeable membrane. balance, which are maintained by homeostasis.

-Cell membranes only allow some

solutes (solids) to move across it.

-Movement across the membrane

depends on size & type of the solute This fluid helps solids move around inside, and outside the cell & cross the cell
(solid) membrane.

{Diffusion} {Osmosis} {Active Transport}

-The diffusion of water across a membrane -It is the process by which dissolved molecules move across a cell
-The process by which molecules membrane from a LOWER to a HIGHER concentration.
spread from areas of high -Water will move in the direction where there is a high -Particles move against the concentration gradient & therefore require
concentration, to areas of low concentration of solute (& hence a lower concentration of an input of energy from the cell.
water)
concentration. -Sometimes dissolved molecules are larger or at a higher concentration
-In order to remember this: Salt is a solute, when it is inside the cell than outside, but, because the organism needs these
-When the molecules are even concentrated inside or outside the cell, it will draw water in molecules, they still have to be absorbed.
throughout a space – it is called its direction.
{Active Transport & DIGESTION}
EQUILIBRIUM.
-has a HIGHER SOLUTE CONCENTRATION than another solution. . the villi in the small intestine absorb the soluble
-During digestion,
-Water particles will move out of the cell, causing crenation.
{Diffusion and -When a cell is placed in this solution, it will shrivel up. nutrients. Over time, the concentration of nutrients in the villi reach an
equilibrium with the concentration in the gut.
-Active transport is used to continue the transport of small amounts of
digestion} -has a LOWER SOLUTE CONCENTRATION than another solution.
remaining nutrients against the concentration gradient.
-Water particles will move into the cell, causing the cell to
expand & eventually lyse. -Amino acids are also absorbed by active transport.
-When a cell is placed in this solution, water will enter it by
-Carbohydrates, proteins, & fats are osmosing causing it to swell.
made up of large molecules that
cannot be absorbed by the body. {Glossary}
-has the SAME SOLUTE CONCENTRATION as another solution.
Digestion breaks these down into -There is no net movement of water particles, & the overall
concentration on both sides of the cell membrane remain
simpler form such as glucose, amino constant.
– The movement of molecules against a concentration
acids, & fatty acids that can be easily - When a cell is placed in this solution, there will be equal amounts gradient, & which requires energy.
absorbed. of water moving in & out of the cell at equal rates. {Review: Osmosis}
– The difference in concentration across a
. food molecules are usually
-Small . {Osmosis & DIGESTION} -Solution is made of solutes given area.
absorbed in the small intestine, dissolved in a liquid or gas.
diffusing across the intestine wall & – The movement of molecules from an area of high
-In order to remain healthy, animal cells need to maintain
into the bloodstream. homeostasis in water balance. This means that the water
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION – high concentration to low concentration.
concentration both inside & outside the cell are equal. amount of solutes
-Only some food molecules are small – The diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution to a
-In the large intestine, water is absorbed back in the body HYPOTONIC SOLUTION – low more concentrated solution.
enough to diffuse through the villi & cells by osmosis. This also makes the feces solid. amount of solutes
into the bloodstream. Fats, fat-soluble
– A membrane that allows only
vitamins, & glucose can move into the -Good bacteria in the large intestine produce vitamins like ISOTONIC SOLUTION – equal
Vitamin K which is also reabsorbed by osmosis. certain sized molecules to pass through it.
bloodstream by diffusion. amount of solutes
-These bacteria also produce flatus, a mixture of nitrogen & – Tiny finger-like projections on the inner surface of the small
-These molecules diffuse from the small carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the hydrogen, methane, & DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM is reached intestine, across which nutrient diffuse.
intestine into the blood, moving from hydrogen sulphide. when solutes & water move .
HIGHER to LOWER concentration. across a membrane at equal
rates because concentrations {Review: Types of Transport}
are isotonic (equal).
.
HOMEOSTASIS – all living systems
need to maintain perfect -Molecules move from area of
-Molecules move from area of
concentrations inside each cell. low to high concentration.
high to low concentration.
-Movement is down the -Movement is up the
. concentration gradient. concentration gradient.
{Passive Transport} -No energy needed. -Energy is required (ATP)
-Small molecules such as H2O, O2, -Large molecules such as ions.
& CO2
-Diffusion and osmosis do not
require energy so they are
called passive transport

pg. 6
 5: {Benefits of Protein}
{Carbohydrates} {Sugars that make up Carbohydrates} {Proteins}
-Required for building & repair of body tissues :
-Most common organic molecule : monosaccharide. -Enzymes, hormones, & many immune molecules are
EX: Glucose, fructose (in fruits) -Transport molecules in & out of the cell
: Primary energy source our body needs proteins.
2 : disaccharide -Control the speed of chemical reactions
: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (1:2:1 ratio) -Essential body processes such as water balancing
EX: maltose, sucrose -Used for growth & repair
nutrient transport, & muscle contractions require
/ : Monosaccharides (Glucose is 3+ : polysaccharide -Proteins make up the structure of living things like hair,
protein to function
most common) EX: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, & Chitin nails, skin, bones, muscle, etc, are all built by protein.
: Polysaccharides (Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin) {How often do we need protein?} : Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

: Chocolate, Bread, Pasta, Fruits, Vegetables {Types of Polysaccharides} / : Amino Acids

At least once daily preferably two or more times a day
: proteins
1. Carbohydrates give the body energy. They are the best Our body utilizes proteins as amino acids constantly and
-Used for energy storage in plants : Hemoglobin in red blood cells, albumin in eggs,
source of fuel for the body. Carbohydrates also help to -Potatoes, pasta, and rice are starches needs to replace the amino acids on a regular basis.
digest protein & fat. -They provide a quick form of energy for the body enzymes that control reactions in the body, &
{Why can’t Carbohydrates & Fats replace protein?}
antibodies.
2. 45-65% of our food should come from carbohydrates.
-Used for energy storage in animals A diet that is low in essential amino acids does not carry out : fish, eggs, meat
3. If we eat more carbohydrates than the needed amount, -Glycogen are form in the Liver all of it protein functions.
the extra is stored in the liver or in the tissues as fat.
Protein follows the all-or-none law: inadequate amount of
4. Carbohydrates are grains, fruits, legumes, & sugar. -Provide structural support in plants (found in the cell essential amino acids cause the body to excrete proteins in
wall)
urine as urea.
5. Simple carbohydrates are quick energy sources. They
come from sugar. They do not usually supply any other {Why Shouldn’t I fast?}
nutrients or fiber. -Found in exoskeletons of arthropods (insects,
spiders) Fasting will cause your body to slowly start shutting down.
6. Glucose or blood sugar is the basic source of energy -Found in cell wall of some fungi
You must eat the right types of food, not just protein.
for all living things.
{Amino Acids} {Types of Protein}
7. Sucrose or table sugar is made from sugar beets or -Cannot be made by the body. As a result, they
sugar cane. must come from food.
They are organic compounds that
-The essential amino acids are: histidine, -Includes all essential amino acids.
8. Fructose is sugar found in fruit, honey, and vegetables. combine to form proteins. Amino
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, -Include animal proteins like meat, eggs, cheese,
acids and proteins are the building phenylalanine, tryptophan, & valine. yogurt, milk.
9. Maltose is grain starch broken down into sugar. blocks of life.
-Does not include essential amino acids
10. Lactose is milk sugar. -Means that our bodies produce an amino acid, -Include vegetable proteins like vegetables,

11. Complex carbohydrates supply longer lasting energy, as

{Biomolecules} even if we don’t get it from the food we eat.
- Includes: alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, &
beans (legumes), grains, fruits, & nuts.

well as other nutrients and fiber that the body needs. glutamic acid
{Sources of Protein}
12. Complex carbohydrates come from starchy foods such -They are the numerous substances that are -Usually not essential, except in times of illness
-Seafood
-White Meat Poultry
-Pork Tenderloin
-Soy
as whole grains, flour, seeds, nuts, vegetables and fruits.
produced by cells and living organisms, and this & stress. -Milk, Cheese, & Yogurt
-Eggs
-Lean Beef

. includes: . -Include: arginine, cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine,

glycine, ornithine, proline, & serine.
-Beans

 Carbohydrates
c

.  Proteins
{Lipids/FATS}  Lipids/ Fats {Nucleic Acid}
 Nucleic Acid
: Store energy, Insulates your . :
body, and make up the cell membrane. -Provide our genetic information
: Carbon, Hydrogen, -Holds the instructions to make proteins
Oxygen Lipids are HYDROPHOBIC (water fearing) & do not dissolve in {Types of Nucleotides} : Carbon, Hydrogen,
water.
.
/ : Glycerol & Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus
Lipids can be: ( )
3 fatty acids / : Nucleotides
: The bonds between all the carbons are single -The pentose sugar is RIBOSE (has a hydroxyl group in the 3rd
: Phospholipids, triglycerides -A nucleotide is made up of: Sugar, Phosphate,
carbon --- OH)
: Steroids, cholesterol, fats, oils, bonds. . Nitrogen Base (A, T, G, C, or U) of DNA.
-Solid at room temperature : DNA (Genetic Code), RNA (Protein
nuts, waxes, & makes up part of the cell ( )
membrane -Mainly animal fats (bacon grease, lard) Recipe) and ATP (Energy Carrier)
-The pentose sugar is DEOXYRIBOSE (has just an hydrogen in the
.same place---H)
: .There is at least one double or triple bond Deoxy = “minus oxygen”
{Daily Fat Intake}
between carbons present.
Nutritionists recommend that 20- {Nucleotides Composition} {The double Helix – Structural Model}
-Liquid at room temperature
35% of your calories come from -Model proposed by Watson & Crick, 1953
-Mainly plant based fats (olive oil, peanut oil) as well as oily fish ( )
fat, primarily unsaturated fat. (Tuna, Sardines) 1. Ribose Sugar (WITH O in 3rd carbon) -Two sugar-phosphate strands, next to each other, but
.
c2. Phosphate group
running in opposite directions.
3. One of 4 types of bases (all containing -PECIFIC HYDROGEN BONDS occur among bases from one chain
{Cholesterol} {Trans Fats} nitrogen): to the other:
-Adenine A---T , C---G
-It is a waxy, fatlike substance that is -They are made when manufacturers add -Uracyl (only in RNA) Due to this specificity, a certain base on one strand indicates
found only in animal products. a certain base in the other.
hydrogen to the fat molecules in vegetable oils. -Cytosine
-Guanine -The 2 strands intertwine, forming a double-helix that winds
-Your body needs a certain amount of -They are found in margarine, chips, & around a central axis
4. Single stranded arrangement
cholesterol to make cell membranes and commercially baked goods.
.nerve tissue, certain hormones, and ( ) {How DNA Works}
-Trans fat seems to have many of the negatives 1. Deoxyribose Sugar (NO O in 3rd carbon)
substances that aid in the digestion of of saturated fat. 2. Phosphate group 1. DNA stores genetic information in segments called genes
fat. 3. One of 4 types of bases (all containing
nitrogen): 2. The DNA code is in Triplet Codons (short sequences of 3
-Adenine nucleotides each)
-Thymine (only in DNA) .
-Cytosine 3. Certain codons are translated by the cell into certain amino
-Guanine acids.
4. Double-stranded helix arrangement .
4. Thus, the sequence of nucleotides in DNA indicate a
sequence of amino acids in a protein.
pg. 7