Language Programs and Policies
Language Programs and Policies
Hand Out
Written by Prof. Joshua Ayson, LPT, MED
Topic #1
Languages in the Philippines: An Overview
The Philippines is a linguistically diverse country, home to over 180 languages and dialects. This linguistic
diversity is a reflection of the country's rich cultural heritage, shaped by various indigenous groups and
foreign influences throughout its history.
1. Major Languages
Filipino: The national language of the Philippines, Filipino, is based primarily on Tagalog, a major
language spoken in the capital region and surrounding provinces. It is taught in schools and used in
government, media, and everyday communication.
English: English is an official language in the Philippines, widely used in government, education,
business, and the media. It serves as a second language for many Filipinos and is a key language of
instruction in schools.
2. Regional Languages
Cebuano: Spoken by approximately 20 million people, Cebuano is the most widely spoken language in
the Visayas and parts of Mindanao. It is also referred to as Bisaya.
Ilocano: The dominant language in northern Luzon, particularly in the Ilocos Region and parts of Cagayan
Valley.
Hiligaynon: Predominantly spoken in Western Visayas, particularly in Iloilo and Negros Occidental.
Waray-Waray: Commonly spoken in Eastern Visayas, particularly in the Samar and Leyte provinces.
There are several other significant regional languages such as Bicolano, Pangasinense, and Maranao,
each with millions of speakers.
3. Indigenous Languages
The Philippines is also home to many indigenous languages spoken by smaller ethnolinguistic groups,
especially in Mindanao and the Cordilleras. Some of these languages include:
These languages are integral to the cultural identity and heritage of the indigenous groups that speak
them.
Despite the rich linguistic diversity, many of the indigenous languages are under threat of extinction due
to declining numbers of speakers, urbanization, and the dominance of major languages like Filipino and
English. Efforts to preserve these languages include documentation, education in native languages, and
the promotion of linguistic diversity through cultural programs.
5. Multilingualism
The multilingual nature of the Philippines is evident in daily life, where code-switching between Filipino,
English, and regional languages is common. Filipinos often use multiple languages depending on the
context, such as speaking their regional language at home, Filipino in informal settings, and English in
formal or professional environments.
The Philippine government recognizes the importance of mother tongue-based multilingual education
(MTB-MLE). The K-12 curriculum mandates the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction
from Kindergarten to Grade 3, after which Filipino and English become the primary languages of
instruction. This policy aims to improve learning outcomes by building on the linguistic strengths of
students.
Conclusion
The linguistic landscape of the Philippines is a vibrant mosaic that reflects the country’s history, culture,
and identity. While the major languages like Filipino and English dominate, the regional and indigenous
languages continue to play a crucial role in the daily lives of millions of Filipinos. Preserving and
promoting this linguistic diversity is essential for maintaining the country's cultural heritage and
ensuring that future generations can appreciate and communicate in their native languages.
Topic #2
Language-in-Education Policy Evolution in the Philippines
Before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers, various ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines had their
own languages and writing systems. Education during this time was informal and conducted in native
languages. With the arrival of the Spaniards in the 16th century, Spanish became the language of
religion, governance, and education, although its influence was limited mainly to urban centers.
During the Spanish colonial period, education was primarily religious and conducted by the Catholic
Church. Spanish was the medium of instruction in schools established by the Spaniards, especially in
urban areas, but this did not significantly replace the use of native languages among the general
population. Most Filipinos continued to use their local languages in daily life.
With the advent of American colonization, English was introduced as the medium of instruction in
schools. The Americans established a public education system, and English became the primary
language of instruction and governance. This period marked the beginning of English's widespread use
in the Philippines, which has continued to the present day. The policy aimed to create a population
proficient in English to serve the needs of the American administration.
The 1935 Constitution of the Philippines recognized English and Spanish as official languages, but it also
mandated the development and adoption of a national language based on one of the existing native
languages. In 1937, Tagalog was selected as the basis for the national language, which would later be
called "Pilipino" and eventually "Filipino."
After gaining independence from the United States in 1946, the Philippines retained English as an official
language. Pilipino (later Filipino) was increasingly promoted as a national language, but English
remained the primary medium of instruction in schools. The 1973 Constitution further emphasized the
development of Filipino as the national language, reflecting a growing sense of national identity.
In 1974, the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports (DECS) introduced the Bilingual Education
Policy (BEP), which mandated the use of both Filipino and English as mediums of instruction in schools.
Filipino was to be used in subjects related to social studies, arts, and physical education, while English
was used for science, mathematics, and technology subjects. This policy aimed to develop proficiency in
both languages among students.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution further reinforced the role of Filipino as the national language and the
medium of instruction. It also recognized the role of regional languages as auxiliary languages in
education. The Constitution mandated the government to take steps to initiate and sustain the use of
Filipino as a medium of official communication and as a language of instruction.
In 2009, the Department of Education (DepEd) issued Order No. 74, institutionalizing Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). This policy marked a significant shift in the language-in-
education approach by mandating the use of the learners' mother tongue as the primary medium of
instruction from Kindergarten to Grade 3. After Grade 3, Filipino and English are gradually introduced as
languages of instruction. The MTB-MLE policy was fully implemented with the introduction of the K-12
curriculum in 2012. It aims to improve learning outcomes by leveraging students' native language for
early literacy and concept development.
The implementation of the K-12 curriculum reinforced the MTB-MLE policy, emphasizing the use of the
mother tongue in the early years of education. The curriculum also includes the teaching of Filipino and
English as separate subjects from Kindergarten onwards. This approach is intended to ensure that
students become proficient in their mother tongue, Filipino, and English, thereby enhancing their
cognitive and linguistic development.
While the MTB-MLE policy has been praised for its inclusivity and potential to improve learning
outcomes, it also faces challenges, including:
Resource limitations: There is often a lack of educational materials in various mother tongues, especially
for less widely spoken languages.
Teacher preparedness: Not all teachers are adequately trained to teach in multiple languages,
particularly in regions where several languages are spoken.
Standardization and consistency: Implementing the policy consistently across diverse linguistic regions
can be challenging, leading to varying degrees of success.
Conclusion
The evolution of the Language-in-Education Policy in the Philippines reflects the country's efforts to
balance national identity, linguistic diversity, and global competitiveness. From the dominance of
Spanish and English to the promotion of Filipino and the inclusion of indigenous languages through
MTB-MLE, the policy continues to evolve in response to the educational needs of a linguistically diverse
population.
Topic #3
Schools of Thought in Second Language Acquisition:
1. Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology
2. Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology
3. Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology were two early influences in the study of language
acquisition. The focus here was on observable behavior and systematic structures in language.
Key Concepts:
Language as a System of Structures: Structural linguistics, led by figures like Leonard Bloomfield, saw
language as a set of habits formed through exposure to patterns (phonology, morphology, syntax). The
goal was to identify and analyze the rules that govern these structures.
Learning through Imitation and Habit Formation: Behavioral psychology, particularly B.F. Skinner’s
theory of Behaviorism, held that language learning is a process of stimulus-response (S-R). Children learn
language through repetition, reinforcement, and conditioning.
Key Method: Audiolingual Method (ALM), popular in language classrooms in the mid-20th century,
focused on drilling and repetition, using language patterns through imitation and correction of errors.
Criticism:
Critics, such as Noam Chomsky, argued that behaviorism couldn’t explain the complexity of language
acquisition. Children produce novel sentences they have never heard before, which suggests a more
innate capacity for language.
In response to behaviorist theories, Generative Linguistics (led by Noam Chomsky) and Cognitive
Psychology emerged as dominant paradigms in SLA research. These schools emphasized the mental
processes involved in language learning.
Key Concepts:
Universal Grammar (UG): Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate language faculty,
known as Universal Grammar. This means that certain linguistic principles are hardwired into the brain,
allowing individuals to acquire any language to which they are exposed.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD): According to Chomsky, the LAD is a hypothetical brain mechanism
that helps humans understand and produce language. Language acquisition is seen as a creative
process, not just habit formation.
Focus on Mental Processes: Cognitive psychology emphasizes that language learning involves complex
mental processes such as problem-solving, hypothesis testing, and the processing of rules and patterns.
SLA Theories:
Krashen's Monitor Model: Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis suggests that learners acquire language
when they are exposed to comprehensible input slightly beyond their current level (i+1). He also
distinguishes between acquisition (subconscious learning) and learning (conscious study of language).
Criticism:
Chomsky’s focus on innate grammar was seen as too narrow, as it downplayed the role of social
interaction and context in language learning.
Constructivism in SLA draws from multiple disciplines, emphasizing the role of social interaction,
cognitive development, and the learner’s active role in constructing knowledge.
Key Concepts:
Social Interaction and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Vygotsky argued that language learning is a
socially mediated process. Through interactions with more knowledgeable others (teachers, peers),
learners progress through their ZPD—the gap between what they can do independently and what they
can achieve with guidance.
Cognitive and Social Constructivism: While Piaget emphasized internal cognitive development, Vygotsky
focused on external social factors. In SLA, this means learners are influenced both by their internal
cognitive capacities and by external interactions.
SLA Theories:
Interaction Hypothesis (Long): Michael Long proposed that language learning is facilitated through
interaction, particularly when breakdowns in communication lead to negotiations of meaning. Such
negotiations help learners process language more deeply and effectively.
Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT): This theory focuses on the importance of social interaction and cultural
context in learning. Language learning occurs through participation in culturally relevant activities and
the use of language in real-life contexts.
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): TBLT emphasizes the use of authentic tasks that encourage
meaningful communication, allowing learners to actively use the target language in context.
Criticism:
Constructivist approaches can be more challenging to implement in traditional classroom settings where
standardization and formal assessment dominate.
Comparison and Conclusion
Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology focused on language as a set of habits acquired through
repetition, while the cognitive approach (Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology) emphasized
the mental processes and innate capacities involved in learning.
Constructivism, on the other hand, highlights the learner's active role in constructing meaning through
social interaction and cognitive engagement.
The evolution of these schools of thought reflects a shift from viewing language learning as passive habit
formation to understanding it as an active, dynamic process influenced by cognitive, social, and
environmental factors. Today, language teaching practices often integrate aspects from all these
approaches, depending on the learners' needs and contexts.
MIDTERMS
Multilingualism in the Classroom: Overview and Importance in the Philippine Education System
Multilingualism refers to the use of multiple languages by individuals or communities. In the classroom
setting, multilingualism involves the use of more than one language as a medium of instruction or as a
subject of learning. In a multilingual country like the Philippines, where over 180 languages are spoken,
incorporating multilingualism in the classroom has become essential to cater to the linguistic diversity of
the population.
The Philippines has a long history of grappling with language policies in education, oscillating between
English, Filipino, and regional languages. MTB-MLE aims to address this by using the language students
are most familiar with during their early years, as research suggests that children learn best in their
native language.
Multilingual education, particularly mother tongue instruction, allows children to develop strong
foundational skills. Learning in the language they are most comfortable with fosters better
comprehension and critical thinking, enabling them to grasp concepts more easily. This enhances
cognitive development, which is essential for higher-order thinking and problem-solving.
In a multilingual nation like the Philippines, linguistic diversity in the classroom reflects the country’s
regional and cultural diversity. By embracing multilingualism, the education system becomes more
inclusive, ensuring that learners from different linguistic backgrounds feel represented and understood.
This policy also addresses the needs of indigenous and rural communities who have historically been
marginalized by monolingual education models, often centered on English or Filipino.
MTB-MLE contributes to the preservation of the Philippines' linguistic heritage. Many local languages,
especially those spoken in indigenous communities, face the threat of extinction. By using these
languages in schools, the government promotes the continuity of cultural and linguistic traditions,
fostering pride in regional identities.
Research shows that strong skills in the first language lay the groundwork for learning additional
languages more effectively. In the Philippine education system, children who receive instruction in their
mother tongue for the first few years find it easier to transition to Filipino and English in later grades.
This smoother transition helps reduce dropout rates and language-related challenges in upper grades.
Multilingualism promotes cognitive flexibility, as students must switch between languages depending on
the context. This enhances critical thinking and adaptability, skills that are valuable not only in academic
settings but also in the workplace. Students who are proficient in multiple languages can navigate
various social and professional contexts more effectively, making them more competitive in a globalized
world.
While the Philippines promotes Filipino as the national language and English as the medium of global
communication, acknowledging the importance of regional languages in the classroom supports the idea
that linguistic diversity strengthens national unity. It fosters an understanding of and respect for the
country’s diverse cultural and linguistic landscape, encouraging students to appreciate both their own
and others' languages.
Resource Development: Creating textbooks and educational materials in various regional languages can
be a challenge due to limited resources. Ensuring the quality and availability of such materials is vital for
the success of multilingual education.
Conclusion
Multilingualism in the classroom is crucial for the Philippines, a linguistically and culturally diverse
country. The use of mother tongues through the MTB-MLE approach promotes inclusivity, enhances
learning, and helps preserve local languages and cultures. While challenges such as teacher training and
resource development exist, the overall benefits of multilingual education far outweigh these
difficulties, contributing to a more equitable and effective education system in the country.
MIDTERMS
Topic #2
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight global goals established by the United Nations in
2000, with a target to be achieved by 2015. The MDGs aimed to address critical issues such as poverty,
education, gender equality, and environmental sustainability. In the context of Philippine education,
language played a significant role in the pursuit of these goals, particularly in achieving universal primary
education, promoting gender equality, and empowering marginalized communities.
Language is a critical component in achieving the Millennium Development Goals for several reasons:
Accessibility to Education
Language is the medium through which education is delivered. When students are taught in a language
they understand, they are more likely to succeed in school. For multilingual nations like the Philippines,
using the mother tongue in the early years of education helps ensure that all children, regardless of
their linguistic background, can access and benefit from education. This supports the MDGs related to
universal primary education and gender equality by addressing barriers to education caused by language
mismatches.
Conclusion
Language is central to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly in
the context of education, health, gender equality, and poverty reduction. In the Philippines, language-in-
education policies like MTB-MLE play a key role in making education accessible, empowering
marginalized groups, and ensuring that development goals are inclusive and sustainable. By addressing
linguistic barriers, the country is better positioned to achieve equitable development outcomes and
ensure that no one is left behind.