Consider the following case studies…

1. A 24-year-old woman went to the hospital complaining of dizziness and

nausea. While giving her medical history, she shared that she didn’t walk
until the age of 7 and couldn’t clearly enunciate until age 6. What do you
suspect we’d find if we imaged her brain?
2. Neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran had a 17-year-old client with a missing
hand who felt sensations in the missing hand when his face was touched.
When water was dribbled onto his face, he felt as if it were running down
his arm. The patient also felt as if the water were running towards the
ceiling when he lifted his arm. What region of the brain do you suspect is
responsible for this?
 Case study #1

• A 24-year-old woman went to the hospital

complaining of dizziness and nausea. While
giving her medical history, she shared that
she didn’t walk until the age of 7 and
couldn’t clearly enunciate until age 6.

• What do you suspect?

 Case study #2

Neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran had a Neural pruning in the

17-year-old client with a missing hand who felt somatosensory cortex (on
sensations in the missing hand when his face the parietal lobe) allowed
was touched. When water was dribbled onto sensations from the face to
his face, he felt as if it were running down his “take over” the brain
arm. The patient also felt as if the water were region formerly dedicated
running towards the ceiling when he lifted his to his hand.
arm.
What region of the brain do you suspect is
responsible for this phenomenon?
Homunculus
 HELPFUL MNEMONIC DEVICES!

● Frontal Lobe→ controls thinking and judgement, tap forehead like you’re
making a difficult decision

● Occipital Lobe→ Two C’s→ to see, “eyes in the back of your head”

● Temporal→ Auditory→ Tempo to a song, music

● Parietal→ Controls touch and sensory processing, scratch top of head

like you’re washing your hair. Touch is controlled by that part of the “head.”
 HELPFUL MNEMONIC DEVICES!

Hippocampus→ If there was a hippo on campus you wouldn’t forget!

(memories)
Reticular formation→ tickle→ alertness/arousal
Cerebellum→ belle of the ball, needs coordination
Pons→ movement, sleep and dreams→ yawns
Hypothalamus→ Homeostasis, starts with h ends with s, 5 syllables
Broca’s area→ Boca→ speech
Medulla→ think of Medusa (greek mythological monster who turns people to
stone), breathing and heart rate
Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to
reorganize and adapt throughout life in
response to experiences, learning, and
environmental changes.

● Through processes like synaptic pruning,

As individuals practice and master a musical instrument, such as the
sprouting of new connections, and piano or violin, specific regions of their brain undergo changes.
changes in neural pathways, the brain can Studies using neuroimaging techniques have shown that musicians have
larger and more connected areas of the brain associated with motor
adapt and rewire itself to regain lost control, auditory processing, and memory compared to non-musicians.
Additionally, as musicians develop expertise, the neural circuits involved
functions or learn new ones. in coordinating finger movements, recognizing musical patterns, and
interpreting auditory feedback become more refined and efficient. This
neural reorganization allows musicians to perform complex musical
pieces with precision and fluidity.
Contralateral Hemispheric
Organization the phenomenon where
each hemisphere of the brain controls the
opposite side of the body.

● This means that sensory information

received by one side of the body is
For instance, when you decide to raise your right hand, the motor
processed by the opposite hemisphere commands originate in the left motor cortex of the brain. Nerve
of the brain. fibers from the left motor cortex cross over to the right side of the
brain and then travel down the spinal cord to control muscles in the
right arm and hand. Similarly, when you decide to move your left
foot, the motor commands originate in the right motor cortex and
control muscles on the left side of the body.
Hemispheric Specialization explored
through split brain research, refers to the
concept that each hemisphere of the brain
has specialized functions and abilities.

● Ex: language processing in the left,

A concrete example of hemispheric specialization is language
spatial awareness in the right. processing in the brain. In most individuals, language functions are
primarily localized to the left hemisphere, especially in right-handed
individuals. For instance, Broca's area, responsible for speech production,
and Wernicke's area, responsible for language comprehension, are typically
located in the left hemisphere. When someone speaks or listens to
language, their left hemisphere is primarily engaged in processing the
linguistic aspects of speech, such as grammar, syntax, and semantics.
Conversely, the right hemisphere tends to play a lesser role in language
processing.
Cerebral Cortex the outer layer of the
brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive
functions, including thinking, perceiving, and
decision-making.

● The cerebral cortex is highly folded to

increase its surface area, allowing for
complex neural processing and
integration of information. Grey matter is where the brain's "thinking" happens, containing the cell
bodies of neurons. White matter acts as the brain's "wiring," consisting of
myelinated axons that help transmit signals between different brain regions.
Think of grey matter as the brain's processor and white matter as the
cables connecting different parts of the processor.
Reward Center network of brain
structures, primarily located in the limbic
system, that processes pleasurable
experiences and reinforces behaviors
associated with them.

Imagine spending time with friends or loved ones, laughing and enjoying
each other's company. During these interactions, the brain's reward
system, including regions like the nucleus accumbens and the
ventral tegmental area, becomes activated. Socializing triggers the
release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and
reward, in response to the positive experiences and connections formed
during social interactions. This release of dopamine reinforces the behavior
of socializing, making it pleasurable and encouraging continued engagement
in social activities. As a result, you feel a sense of joy and fulfillment from
spending time with others, driven by the activity of the reward center in
your brain.
Complete 3.2 Practice with your groups!
 Broca’s Aphasia and Wernicke’s Aphasia

• Broca’s area
• In the left frontal lobe
• Responsible for speech production
• If damaged, person struggles to get words out
or put together sentences
• Wernicke’s area
• In the left temporal lobe
• Responsible for language comprehension
• If damaged, person uses nonsensical words
and struggles to comprehend words or
sentences
 Do we only use 10% of our brains!?

• The myth that we only use

10% of our brains is, in fact,
just a myth.

• A 44-year-old man was

discovered in 2007 to have an
unusually tiny brain, as shown
Corpus Callosum thick band of nerve
fibers that connects the left and right
hemispheres of the brain, facilitating
communication and information sharing
between the two hemispheres.

Imagine performing a task that requires both hands, such as

playing the piano or typing on a keyboard. As you engage in these
activities, your brain sends signals to coordinate the movements of
your fingers on both hands. The corpus callosum facilitates
communication between the left and right hemispheres of the
brain, allowing them to work together seamlessly. Without the
corpus callosum, each hemisphere would operate independently,
leading to difficulties in coordinating movements between the two
sides of the body.
 SUPER HERO BRAINS

It doesn’t have to be beautiful! Just follow directions, put in some

effort, and use color!
Lobes of the Brain The lobes of the brain
refer to the four main regions or sections
into which the cerebral cortex, the outer
layer of the brain, is divided.

Just as a map can be divided into hemispheres and continents, your cerebral
cortex is divided into lobes.
Association Areas They're parts of the
brain that take information from all over the
place—like what we see, hear, smell, and
touch—and put it together to help us
understand the world around us.
Association Areas They're parts of the
brain that take information from all over the
place—like what we see, hear, smell, and
touch—and put it together to help us
understand the world around us.

Association areas are like the specific landmarks, cities, and regions within
each continent on the map. Association areas integrate information from
different sensory modalities and higher cognitive functions, much like how
landmarks and cities serve as hubs for various activities and interactions
within a continent.
Frontal Lobes located at the front of the
brain and are involved in higher-level
cognitive functions, including
decision-making, problem-solving, planning,
and personality expression.

Imagine a chef working in a busy restaurant kitchen. The chef's frontal lobe is
like the head chef, coordinating and overseeing all the cooking processes. This
region of the brain is responsible for higher-level executive functions, including
decision-making, planning, and impulse control. As the chef prepares dishes,
their frontal lobe helps them make quick decisions about ingredient
quantities, cooking times, and plating arrangements. It also enables
them to prioritize tasks, such as multitasking between different orders and
managing kitchen staff. Additionally, the frontal lobe regulates the chef's
behavior, ensuring they maintain professionalism under pressure and resist the
urge to taste-test dishes before they are ready..
Prefrontal Cortex a region of the brain
located in the frontal lobe, responsible for
higher-level cognitive functions and
executive functioning.

Imagine a student preparing for a big exam. As they sit down to study,
their prefrontal cortex springs into action. This region of the brain is
responsible for executive functions, such as planning,
decision-making, and self-control. The student's prefrontal cortex
helps them create a study schedule, prioritize topics, and set goals for
each study session. During studying, it enables them to focus their
attention, inhibit distractions, and regulate their emotions to stay
motivated and on task. When faced with challenging questions, the
prefrontal cortex assists in problem-solving and critical thinking, allowing
the student to apply their knowledge effectively
Prefrontal Cortex a region of the brain
located in the frontal lobe, responsible for
higher-level cognitive functions and
executive functioning.

● Executive Functioning a set of

Imagine a student preparing for a big exam. As they sit down to study,
cognitive processes that enable their prefrontal cortex springs into action. This region of the brain is
responsible for executive functions, such as planning,
individuals to plan, organize, strategize, decision-making, and self-control. The student's prefrontal cortex
focus attention, regulate emotions, and helps them create a study schedule, prioritize topics, and set goals for
each study session. During studying, it enables them to focus their
manage time effectively. attention, inhibit distractions, and regulate their emotions to stay
motivated and on task. When faced with challenging questions, the
prefrontal cortex assists in problem-solving and critical thinking, allowing
the student to apply their knowledge effectively
Motor Cortex region of the brain located
in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning,
executing, motor learning, and controlling
voluntary movements of the body.

● It sends signals to the muscles, enabling

us to perform actions such as walking, Consider a basketball player dribbling the ball down the court. As they
navigate through defenders, their motor cortex is actively engaged,
talking, and grasping objects. orchestrating the complex movements needed to control the
ball with their hands and feet. Signals from the motor cortex travel
down the spinal cord and into the muscles, coordinating precise
dribbling, pivoting, and acceleration to outmaneuver opponents and
make their way towards the basket. Whether executing a quick
crossover or driving for a layup, the motor cortex plays a crucial role in
guiding the player's movements on the court.
Parietal Lobes located at the top of the
brain and are primarily responsible for
processing sensory information from the
body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial
awareness.

Imagine you're playing catch with a friend. As you throw and catch the
ball, your brain's parietal lobes are hard at work. They help you
accurately judge the trajectory of the ball, calculate its speed and
distance, and coordinate the movements needed to catch it.
Additionally, the parietal lobes integrate sensory information
from different modalities, such as touch and vision, to create a
coherent perception of the world around you. So, when you catch the
ball, your parietal lobes are crucial for coordinating your hand
movements, processing the sensation of the ball in your hand, and
integrating visual cues to successfully complete the catch.
Somatosensory Cortex region of the
brain located in the parietal lobe,
responsible for processing sensations from
the skin, muscles, and joints.

● It interprets touch, pressure,

temperature, and pain signals from Imagine you're walking barefoot on the sand at the beach. As your feet
touch the warm sand, receptors in your skin detect sensations
different parts of the body, allowing us like texture, temperature, and pressure. These sensory signals
travel up your spinal cord and into your brain. Specifically, they reach the
to perceive and respond to sensory somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal lobes of your brain. Here,
the somatosensory cortex processes the incoming sensory information
stimuli. from your feet. It interprets the sensations of the sand beneath your
feet, allowing you to feel its warmth, texture, and the pressure as you
walk.
Occipital Lobes located at the back of the
brain and is primarily responsible for
processing visual information received from
the eyes.

● It contains the primary visual cortex,

Imagine you're watching a beautiful sunset. In this scenario, your occipital
which interprets visual stimuli and lobes, located at the back of your brain, are hard at work. The primary
visual cortex, situated within the occipital lobes, receives visual
helps us perceive shapes, colors, and information from your eyes. As light rays carrying images of the
motion. sunset enter your eyes, they're focused onto the retina, where
photoreceptor cells convert them into electrical signals. These signals
are then transmitted via the optic nerves to the occipital lobes, where
they're processed and interpreted. The occipital lobes analyze the
colors, shapes, and movements of the sunset, allowing you to perceive its
beauty.
Temporal Lobes located on the sides of
the brain and are involved in processing
auditory information, language
comprehension, and memory formation.

● They contain the auditory cortex,

which interprets sound signals from the Imagine you're listening to your favorite song on the radio. As the music
plays, your temporal lobes come into action. The auditory cortex,
ears. located within the temporal lobes, processes the complex
patterns of sound waves transmitted from your ears. It breaks
down the melody, rhythm, and lyrics of the song, allowing you to
recognize the tune and understand the lyrics. Additionally, the temporal
lobes help you associate the music with memories and emotions. For
instance, hearing a particular song may evoke memories of a significant
event or stir up feelings of happiness or nostalgia.
Brainstem the oldest and most primitive
part of the brain, responsible for basic
life-sustaining functions such as breathing,
heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.

● It serves as a pathway for neural signals

traveling between the brain and the
rest of the body, connecting the
cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.
Medulla vital structure located at the base
of the brainstem, regulating essential
autonomic functions such as heartbeat,
breathing, and blood pressure.

● It serves as a relay station for nerve

signals traveling between the brain and Imagine you're going for a jog and your heart rate increases
to supply more oxygen to your muscles. The medulla
the spinal cord, controlling involuntary oblongata detects this increase in activity and sends
bodily processes crucial for survival. signals to adjust your heart rate accordingly, ensuring
that your cardiovascular system can meet the demands of
exercise. Similarly, if you accidentally inhale a piece of food
and start choking, the medulla triggers reflexes to initiate
coughing and clear your airway to prevent suffocation.
Reticular Activating System a network
of neurons located in the brainstem that
plays a critical role in regulating arousal,
attention, and consciousness.

● It filters sensory information and

Imagine you're peacefully asleep and suddenly awaken to the
modulates overall brain activity, helping sound of a smoke alarm in your house. Your RAS quickly
to maintain wakefulness and alertness. becomes activated, increasing your arousal levels and
alertness to respond to the potential danger. As you
become more alert, your RAS also helps you transition from
a state of deep sleep to wakefulness, allowing you to quickly
assess the situation and take appropriate actions to ensure
your safety.
Cerebellum located at the back of the
brain, below the cerebral hemispheres,
responsible for coordinating movement,
balance, and posture.

● It receives input from sensory systems

and other parts of the brain to Imagine you're riding a bike down a winding trail. As you navigate the
twists and turns, your cerebellum continuously processes sensory
fine-tune motor movements and information from your eyes, inner ear, and proprioceptive receptors
to adjust your body's position and movements. It helps you
ensure smooth coordination. maintain balance on the bike, smoothly steer around
obstacles, and adjust your speed as needed to stay upright and
avoid falling. Additionally, if you suddenly encounter a rough patch of
terrain, your cerebellum quickly adjusts your muscle movements to
stabilize your body and prevent you from losing balance.
Thalamus a relay station in the brain that
processes and relays sensory information,
such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the
cerebral cortex.

● It acts as a gateway for sensory input,

Imagine going through your daily routine and feeling progressively more
directing signals to the appropriate tired as the day goes on. As evening approaches, your body begins to
prepare for sleep. Signals from the environment, such as
areas of the brain for further decreasing light levels, are transmitted to the thalamus. The
processing. thalamus processes these signals and relays them to the pineal gland,
which then releases the hormone melatonin. Melatonin helps regulate
your sleep-wake cycle by promoting feelings of drowsiness and initiating
the transition to sleep. In the morning, as light levels increase, the
thalamus receives signals indicating the start of a new day, leading to
decreased melatonin production and a shift towards wakefulness.
Limbic System The limbic system, located
beneath the cerebral cortex, is a set of brain
structures involved in emotions, memory,
and motivation.
Hypothalamus a small but powerful
structure located below the thalamus,
responsible for regulating various essential
bodily functions, including hunger, thirst,
body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle.

● It serves as a control center helping to Imagine you're exercising on a hot day. As your body temperature begins
to rise due to physical exertion and exposure to the sun, sensors in
maintain homeostasis in the body. your body detect the increase in temperature and send signals to your
hypothalamus. In response, the hypothalamus activates
mechanisms to help cool your body down, such as initiating
sweating and dilating blood vessels near the skin's surface to promote
heat loss through perspiration and radiation. Conversely, if you're
exposed to cold temperatures, the hypothalamus triggers responses to
conserve heat, such as shivering and constriction of blood vessels to
reduce heat loss.
Pituitary Gland small pea-sized gland
located at the base of the brain, often
referred to as the "master gland" due to its
central role in regulating hormone
production and secretion throughout the
body.
Imagine a child experiencing a growth spurt during puberty. The
pituitary gland, often referred to as the "master gland"
● Plays a critical role in coordinating because it controls the release of hormones from other glands,
secretes growth hormone (GH) in response to signals from the
hormonal activity and maintaining hypothalamus. This growth hormone stimulates the growth of bones and
tissues, leading to increases in height and physical development. Without
homeostasis in the body. proper functioning of the pituitary gland and the secretion of growth
hormone, children may experience stunted growth or developmental
delays.
Hippocampus curved structure located
within the brain's temporal lobes, primarily
responsible for forming and consolidating
new memories.

Imagine studying for a history exam. As you learn about

historical events and facts, your hippocampus plays a
crucial role in encoding this information into
long-term memory. Later, during the exam, when you're
trying to recall specific details about those events, your
hippocampus retrieves the stored memories, allowing you to
answer questions accurately.
Amygdala small, almond-shaped structure
located deep within the brain's temporal
lobes, involved in processing emotions,
particularly fear and aggression.

● It plays a central role in the brain's

threat detection system, triggering the Imagine encountering a venomous snake while hiking in the
woods. Upon seeing the snake, your amygdala quickly
body's fight-or-flight response in assesses the situation, triggering a fear response. This
response to perceived danger. response may include increased heart rate, heightened
alertness, and the urge to flee or defend yourself. These
physiological and behavioral reactions are orchestrated by
the amygdala's role in detecting potential threats and
activating appropriate responses to ensure survival.
1. During a routine check-up, a neurologist explains to
a patient that the part of their brain responsible for
processing tactile information, like the feeling of a soft
blanket or the pain of a pinprick, is highly active. This
description best pertains to which part of the brain?
(A) Motor Cortex
(B) Somatosensory Cortex
(C) Occipital Lobes
(D) Temporal Lobes
1. During a routine check-up, a neurologist explains to
a patient that the part of their brain responsible for
processing tactile information, like the feeling of a soft
blanket or the pain of a pinprick, is highly active. This
description best pertains to which part of the brain?
(A) Motor Cortex
(B) Somatosensory Cortex
(C) Occipital Lobes
(D) Temporal Lobes
2. Ella, a pianist, practices a new piece for an
upcoming concert. The region of her brain that
coordinates the complex movements of her fingers is
particularly active during her practice sessions. This
region is known as:
(A) Cerebral Cortex
(B) Parietal Lobes
(C) Cerebellum
(D) Motor Cortex
2. Ella, a pianist, practices a new piece for an
upcoming concert. The region of her brain that
coordinates the complex movements of her fingers is
particularly active during her practice sessions. This
region is known as:
(A) Cerebral Cortex
(B) Parietal Lobes
(C) Cerebellum
(D) Motor Cortex
3. A neuroscientist studying emotion and memory is
particularly interested in the role of two brain
structures: one involved in forming new memories and
another in processing emotional reactions. These
structures are the:
(A) Hippocampus and Amygdala
(B) Thalamus and Hypothalamus
(C) Cerebellum and Medulla
(D) Reticular Activating System and Limbic System
3. A neuroscientist studying emotion and memory is
particularly interested in the role of two brain
structures: one involved in forming new memories and
another in processing emotional reactions. These
structures are the:
(A) Hippocampus and Amygdala
(B) Thalamus and Hypothalamus
(C) Cerebellum and Medulla
(D) Reticular Activating System and Limbic System
4. During a car accident, Leo hit his head, leading to a
temporary loss of vision. His neurologist explains that
the impact likely affected the back part of his brain,
which is responsible for visual processing. This part of
the brain is called the:
(A) Parietal Lobes
(B) Occipital Lobes
(C) Temporal Lobes
(D) Frontal Lobes
4. During a car accident, Leo hit his head, leading to a
temporary loss of vision. His neurologist explains that
the impact likely affected the back part of his brain,
which is responsible for visual processing. This part of
the brain is called the:
(A) Parietal Lobes
(B) Occipital Lobes
(C) Temporal Lobes
(D) Frontal Lobes
5. Sarah has been diagnosed with a hormonal
imbalance involving her body's stress response. Her
doctor explains that a small gland, acting as the
master gland of the body, might not be functioning
properly. This gland is known as the:
(A) Thalamus
(B) Hypothalamus
(C) Pituitary Gland
(D) Pineal Gland
5. Sarah has been diagnosed with a hormonal
imbalance involving her body's stress response. Her
doctor explains that a small gland, acting as the
master gland of the body, might not be functioning
properly. This gland is known as the:
(A) Thalamus
(B) Hypothalamus
(C) Pituitary Gland
(D) Pineal Gland