Hurricane physics

A hurricane is a strong tropical storm having a low-pressure center (the eye of the hurricane)
around which the air masses rotate with high speed. The general name for this type of extreme
weather condition is that of cyclone. In the Western hemisphere it is called hurricane, while in
Asia it is called typhoon. Regardless of the name, the hurricane forms above the warm sea
water.
Task 1: Hurricane Mechanics (4.40 points)
To understand more about the mechanics of air
movement towards the hurricane’s eye, let us
consider an idealized vortex – the cylindrical one.
For simplicity, consider that the eye wall is
cylindrical and vertical, taking its symmetry axis as
the axis Oz of a cylindrical coordinate system
(having 𝑟̂ , 𝜑̂ and 𝑧̂ as unit vectors). The air flows
horizontally, towards the eye wall, so the velocity
of any fluid particle outside the eye wall is
𝑣⃗ = 𝑟̂ 𝑣𝑟 + 𝜑̂𝑣𝜑 + 𝑧̂ 0 (see the adjacent figure).
Note: In Fluid Mechanics, a fluid particle is a fluid volume, much smaller than the entire fluid volume
to be considered as a particle and much bigger than a fluid molecule to encompass all the macroscopic
properties of the fluid.

Determine a mathematical expression for the velocity of a fluid particle at

a distance 𝑟 form the axis, in the outer region of the vortex. The fluid
1.a. particle enters the outer region at a distance 𝑟0 from the axis, with the 0.60 p
radial speed 𝑣0 . In the outer region of the vortex the air flow is not
rotational.
Solution:

Using a cylindrical surface with an arbitrary height ℎ, the continuity equation is

(0.4 p) 𝑣𝑟 ∙ 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 𝑣0 ∙ 2𝜋𝑟0 ℎ,
so
𝑣 𝑟
(0.1 p) 𝑣𝑟 = 0𝑟 0 ,
Or, vectorially
𝑣0 𝑟0
(0.1 p) 𝑣⃗ = −𝑟̂ 𝑟
,
because 𝑣𝜑 = 0 everywhere in the outer region, the flow being irrotational.

Between the outer region and the eyewall there is an annulus in which the velocity of the fluid
𝐶
particle has an azimuthal component (𝑣𝜑 = ), also keeping the same radial dependence of
𝑟
𝑣𝑟 , as in the outer region. 𝐶 is a positive, known constant.

Derive the equation for the fluid particle trajectory in the annulus. The
1.b. transition of the fluid particle from the outer region to the annulus takes 1.70 p
place at 𝑟 = 𝑟1 < 𝑟0 .
Solution:
Since the velocity of the fluid particle is tangent to the trajectory and taking an elementary
displacement 𝑑𝑠⃗, then
(0.3 p) 𝑣⃗ × 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ⃗0⃗.
Because
(0.3 p) 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝑟 + 𝜑̂𝑟𝑑𝜑,
Then the above vectorial equation becomes
𝑑𝑟
(0.2 p) 𝑧̂ (−𝑣0 𝑟0 𝑑𝜑 − 𝐶 ) = 0⃗⃗.
𝑟
This gives
(0.3 p) 𝑑(𝑣0 𝑟0 𝜑 + 𝐶𝑙𝑛𝑟) = 0,
or
(0.2 p) 𝑣0 𝑟0 𝜑 + 𝐶𝑙𝑛𝑟 = 𝐶1 .
By choosing 𝜑 = 0 when 𝑟 = 𝑟1 (0.1 p), the integration constant is
(0.1 p) 𝐶1 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛𝑟1 .
As a result,
𝑣0 𝑟0
(0.2 p) 𝑟 = 𝑟1 𝑒 − 𝐶 𝜑 ,
meaning that the trajectory is a logarithmic spiral in the annulus.
Usually, a difference in temperature in the atmosphere will produce a pressure difference, and
the pressure force will move the atmospheric air, creating what we commonly call winds. We
witness this air circulation from the Earth, which is a non-inertial reference frame due to its
diurnal rotation (with an angular speed 𝜔 = 7,29 ∙ 10−5 rad/s). In such a reference frame, to
formally write Newton’s second law of motion, some inertia forces should be added to the
ones resulting from interactions. Among them, the Coriolis force is of interest here. Its
expression is 𝐹⃗𝐶𝑜𝑟 = −2𝑚𝜔 ⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗𝑟𝑒𝑙 , where 𝑣⃗𝑟𝑒𝑙 is the relative velocity of a body with respect to
the non-inertial reference frame. Although the Earth’s angular speed is rather small, the value
of the Coriolis force becomes noticeable as the speed increases.
In the adjacent sketch you can see a crude representation of a low
pression region, some isobars (the dashed curves) and a few low
arrows representing the wind directions. The representation does
not consider the Earth rotation around its own axis. Imagine that
this sketch describes a real situation somewhere in Romania (for
simplicity, consider the North latitude as 𝜆 = 45°)

Redraw the above sketch and on each arrow draw the direction of Coriolis
1.c. force; as a result, redraw the air currents (arrows) affected by the Coriolis 0.50 p
force.
Solution:

(0.3+0.2) low
When the wind speed increases, its direction is more and more modified by the Coriolis force,
until the fluid particles spiral around a closed loop where the Coriolis force has values
comparable with the pressure force. This type of circular flow is observed in the annulus, close
to the eyewall of the hurricane.
Consider a fluid particle with a small volume 𝛿𝑉 at a distance 𝑟 from the eye axis, moving
around it (the air density is 𝜌 = 1.29 kg/m3) with constant speed.

Derive the equation of motion for the fluid particle, neglecting the
viscosity of air, and obtain a mathematical expression for the wind speed
1.d. 𝛿𝑝 1.30 p
as a function of the pressure gradient 𝛿𝑟
, the distance 𝑟, air density 𝜌, the
geographic latitude 𝜆, and the angular speed of the Earth 𝜔.
Solution:
For a fluid particle with the mass
(0.1+0.1) 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝛿𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝛿𝑟,
𝑣⃗
(𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝)𝐴
(0.3) 𝑝𝐴
𝑟
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑐𝑓
lex secunda has the form: 𝛿𝑟
𝑣2
(0.3 p) (𝑝 + 𝛿𝑝)𝐴 = 𝑝𝐴 + 2𝛿𝑚𝜔𝑣sin𝜆 + 𝛿𝑚 ,
𝑟
or
𝑣2 1 𝛿𝑝
(0.2 p) 𝑟
= 𝜌 𝛿𝑟 − 2𝜔𝑣sinλ .

Rearranging the eq. of motion

𝑟 𝛿𝑝
(0.1 p) 𝑣 2 + 2(𝑟𝜔sinλ)𝑣 − 𝜌 𝛿𝑟 = 0,
its solution is
𝛿𝑝

(0.2 p) 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔sinλ (√1 + 𝛿𝑟

𝜌𝜔 2𝑟sin2 λ
− 1) .

The table below gives the so-called Saffir-Simpson intensity scale for hurricanes.
Minimum central sea- Maximum wind
Category Damage
level pressure/kPa speed/(m/s)
1 ≥ 98.0 33 – 42 minimal
2 97.9 – 96.5 43 – 49 moderate
3 96.4 – 94.5 50 – 59 extensive
4 94.4 – 92.0 60 – 69 extreme
5 < 92.0 ≥ 70 catastrophic

Calculate the minimal value of the air pressure gradient at 25 km from the
1.e. 0.30 p
center of the low-pressure region to qualify a wind as a hurricane.
Solution:

From the eq. of motion, it follows that

 𝛿𝑝 𝜌𝑣 2
(0.2 p) 𝛿𝑟
= 𝑟
+ 2𝜌𝜔𝑣sinλ.
m
With 𝑣 = 33 s , the pressure gradient value is
𝛿𝑝 Pa Pa Pa Pa
(0.1 p) 𝛿𝑟
= 5,62 ∙ 10−2 m
+ 4,39 ∙ 10−3 m
= 6,06 ∙ 10−2 m
≅ 6,1 ∙ 10−2 m
.

Task 2: Hurricane Thermodynamics (5.60 points)

A hurricane path is not very difficult to forecast,
but until recently, its intensity was. A new
model, which is thermodynamical in nature, is
able to offer accurate results1. In essence, a
hurricane operates as a heat engine,
transforming a part of the heat absorbed at the
ocean surface to mechanical energy of the
hurricane wind. The succession of steps can be,
briefly, outlined as follows:
1. As the air currents (wind) spiral towards the
eye of the hurricane, they absorb heat from
the ocean’s surface (water from the surface of the ocean vaporizes and is carried by the
wind together with its latent heat of evaporation); the segment A – B is essentially an
isothermal process at the temperature 𝑇1 ≅ 300 K.
2. Reaching the eye wall, the moist air will rise quickly up to about 17 km (segment B – C).
3. A short, isothermal segment (C – D) during which the wind transfers heat to the outer space
and the air dries up (the temperature is 𝑇2 ≅ 200 K).
4. The dry air quickly descends towards the ocean surface (segment D – A).

Using the above information, determine the maximum rate of energy

2.a. transferred from the ocean to the kinetic energy of the wind, considering 0.80 p
𝑑𝑄
that the absorbed heat rate from the ocean surface is 𝑑𝑡1 > 0.

Solution:
1. The segment A – B: isothermal process (at 𝑇1 ≅ 300 K) during which the wind absorbs heat
𝑑𝑄1
from the ocean with the rate 𝑑𝑡
.
2. The segment B – C: essentially an adiabatic process, being a fast one (the wind speed is the
highest at the eye wall of the hurricane). Since the pressure decreases with altitude, the air
expands adiabatically and cools down.
3. The segment C – D: isothermal process (at 𝑇2 ≅ 200 K) As the moist air’s temperature
dropped, the water vapors in it condense as rain, releasing the enthalpy of vaporization (latent
|𝑑𝑄2 |
heat), most of which being radiated into outer space. The rate of the released heat is 𝑑𝑡
.
4. The segment D – A: adiabatic compression of dry air.
During the cycle, a part of the enthalpy absorbed from the ocean is converted into mechanical
𝑑𝑊
energy of the hurricane wind, with the rate 𝑑𝑡
. Thus, according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics,

1 The author of the thermodynamic model is dr. Kerry Emanuel, from MIT.
 𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑊 |𝑑𝑄2 |
(0.3 p) 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
.

From Carnot’s theorem:

|𝑑𝑄2 | 𝑑𝑄1
(0.3 p) 𝑇2
≥ 𝑇1
,

so
𝑑𝑊 𝑇 𝑑𝑄1
(0.2 p) 𝑑𝑡
≤ (1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑑𝑡
.
1

In a hurricane, the mechanical energy of the wind is converted into heat due to wind friction,
almost all of it at the ocean surface. This heat, in turn, contributes to the rate at which heat is
absorbed by the wind at the ocean surface.
The entire air circulation takes place inside a cylindrical volume, having the hurricane eye axis
as its symmetry axis, the height of 17 km, and the radius of its circular base 𝑅 = 100 km.

If 𝑑𝑄10 /𝑑𝑡 is the rate at which the heat is released from the ocean’s surface
𝑑𝑄
by evaporation, write an expression for 𝑑𝑡10 , relating it to the given
2.b. temperatures, the air density, and the wind speed. Any non-dimensional 1.60 p
proportionality coefficient being of the order of unity, should be taken as
equal to one.
Solution:
According to the information given in the text:
𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑄10
(0.2 p) = + ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
so
𝑑𝑄10 𝑇2 𝑑𝑊
(0.2 p) ≥ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝑑𝑡
Since
𝑑𝑊
(0.2 p) 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐹𝑟 𝑣
and
𝜌𝑣 2
(0.4+0.1) 𝛿𝐹𝑟 = 𝐶1 ∙ 𝛿𝑆 ∙ 2
≅ 𝜌𝑣 2 𝛿𝑆.
[Alternatively, at the ocean surface, the wind loses its vertical component of the velocity, which means
that
𝑑𝑚(0−𝑣) 𝑑𝑚
(0.1+0.1+0.1) 𝐹𝑟 = | 𝑑𝑡
|=(
𝑑𝑡
) 𝑣,
while
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑉
(0.1+0.1) 𝛿 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝜌𝛿 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝜌𝑣 ∙ 𝛿𝑆].
As a result
𝑑𝑊 𝑅
(0.2+0.1) = ∫𝑆 𝜌𝑣 3 𝑑𝑆 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝜌𝑣 3 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑡
and
𝑑𝑄10 𝑇 𝑅
(0.2 p) 𝑑𝑡
2
≥ 2𝜋 𝑇 −𝑇 ∫0 𝜌𝑣 3 𝑟𝑑𝑟.
1 2
Note: From the above reasoning we obtain 𝑑𝑄10 /𝑑𝑡 = |𝑑𝑄2 |/𝑑𝑡, which implies that the heat of
vaporization absorbed by the hurricane wind at the ocean surface is released at higher altitudes where
the water condenses. This heat is radiated out of Earth’s atmosphere. Thus, the vaporization and
condensation of water vapor is a mechanism that transfers heat from the oceans to higher altitudes where
it is released into the outer space. Otherwise, the heat would be transferred back to the wind, making it
extremely strong!
Let us denote by ℎ the specific enthalpy (the enthalpy per mass unit) of the inflowing dry air
(at constant pressure, the enthalpy variation is the heat exchanged by the system with its
environment) and with ℎ ∗ the specific enthalpy of the wet air immediately above the ocean
surface (the latent heat of evaporation is, in fact, the evaporation enthalpy).
𝑑𝑄10
Derive a mathematical expression for 𝑑𝑡
, relating it to the given specific
2.c. enthalpies. Any non-dimensional proportionality coefficient being of the 1.20 p
order of unity, should be taken as equal to one.
Solution:
According to the information in the text
(0.2 p) 𝛿𝑄10 = (ℎ ∗ – ℎ )𝛿𝑚,
where
(0.1 p) 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝛿𝑉
and
(0.2+0.2+0.2+0.1) 𝛿𝑉 = 𝛿𝐴𝛿𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑟𝛿𝑟 ∙ 𝐶2 𝑣𝛿𝑡 ≅ 2𝜋𝑟𝛿𝑟 ∙ 𝑣𝛿𝑡.
So,
𝑑𝑄10 𝑅
(0.2 p) 𝑑𝑡
= 2𝜋 ∫0 𝜌 (ℎ ∗ – ℎ) 𝑣 𝑟𝑑𝑟 .

Under stationary conditions (constant local pressure and temperature in a given point on the
surface of the ocean’s water), the specific enthalpy of water vapors at 0 ℃ is ℎ𝑤0 = 2437 kJ/kg,
kJ
and the specific heat of water is 𝑐𝑝,𝑤 = 4.18 kgK
. The air above the water surface is saturated
with water vapors. The molar mass of air is 𝑀𝑎 = 28.97 g/mol, saturated vapor pressure of
water at 300 K is 𝑝𝑠 = 3.561 kPa and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa. The water vapors
can be considered an ideal gas.
𝑑𝑄10
Assuming that both expressions derived for 𝑑𝑡
are valid for any value of
2.d. the radius 𝑅 greater than the radius of the eye, derive an expression for 2.00 p
the maximum wind speed and calculate its numerical value.
Solution:
𝑑𝑄10
From both expressions found for 𝑑𝑡
, it follows that
𝑅 𝑇2
(0.2 p) 2𝜋 ∫0 𝜌 [(ℎ ∗ – ℎ ) − 𝑣 2 ] 𝑣 𝑟𝑑𝑟 ≥ 0,
𝑇1 −𝑇2
or
𝑇1 −𝑇2
(0.2 p) 𝑣≤√ (ℎ ∗ – ℎ ) = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝑇2

If ℎ is the specific enthalpy for dry air and ℎ ∗ 𝑤 that for water vapors, then, the specific enthalpy
for the humid air is
(0.2 p) ℎ ∗ = ℎ + 𝑥ℎ𝑤
∗
,
so
(0.1 p) ℎ ∗ − ℎ = 𝑥ℎ𝑤
∗
,
where 𝑥 (kg/kg) is the humidity ratio, i.e. the ratio of the mass of water vapors present in wet
air to the mass of dry air, present in the same volume of wet air:
𝑝 𝑉
𝑚𝑤 𝑀𝑤 𝑠 𝑀𝑤 𝑝𝑠
𝑅𝑇
(0.2+0.2+0.2+0.1 p) 𝑥= = (𝑝−𝑝𝑠 )𝑉 =
𝑚𝑎 𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑎 𝑝−𝑝𝑠
𝑅𝑇

and
(0.2 p) ℎ ∗ 𝑤 = ℎ𝑤0 + 𝑐𝑝,𝑤 (𝑇1 − 𝑇0 ).
Numerically,
g
18 3.561 kPa g
mol
(0.1 p) 𝑥= g × 101.3 kPa−3.561 kPa = 22.64 kg
28.97
mol

and
kJ kJ kJ
(0.1 p) ℎ ∗ 𝑤 = 2437 kg + 4.18 kgK
× 27 K = 2550 kg
,
such that
kJ
(0.1 p) ℎ ∗ − ℎ = 57.73 kg
.
As a result,
𝑇1 −𝑇2 m
(0.1 p) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ (ℎ ∗ – ℎ ) = 170 .
𝑇2 s

Proposed by
Assoc. Prof. Sebastian POPESCU, PhD
Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, ROMANIA