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Neighborhood Operations in Images

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighborhood

► Adjacency

► Connectivity

► Paths

► Regions and boundaries

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).

 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

m-adjacent if

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(p) has no pixels whose
values are from V.

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Path
 A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel
q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

 Here n is the length of the path.

 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

 We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency
used.

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Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent

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Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}

0 1 1
1,1 1,2 1,3 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0
2,1 2,2 2,3 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1
3,1 3,2 3,3 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3): The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels
p with coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn)
are said to be connected in S if there exists a path

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where i, 0  i  n, ( xi , yi )  S

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is

called a connected component of S.

► If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected

Set.

► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a

connected set.
► Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Label connected components in 2-D binary image:

bwlabel(BW) returns the label matrix L that contains labels for the 8-connected objects found in BW.

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

BW = imread('text.png');
imshow(BW);
CC = bwconncomp(BW);
numPixels = cellfun(@numel,CC.PixelIdxList);
[biggest,idx] = max(numPixels);
BW(CC.PixelIdxList{idx}) = 0;
figure, imshow(BW);

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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Boundary (or border)

 The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that
have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
 If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the
set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.

► Foreground and background

 An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote

the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.

Question 1

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Region 2

1 1 1
1 1 1

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Question 2

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Part 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Part 2

1 1 1
1 1 1

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two

regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Region 2

1 1 1
1 1 1

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► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two

regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
foreground
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 background

1 1 1
1 1 1

Question 3

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 8-adjacency is used, true or false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

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Question 4

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 4-adjacency is used, true or false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

Distance Measures

► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t),

(u, v) respectively, the distance function D has
following properties:

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

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Distance Measures

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

Question 5

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the chessboard distance between the
circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

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Question 6

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the city-block distance between the circled
two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Introduction to Mathematical Operations in

DIP
► Array vs. Matrix Operation

a a12  b b 
A   11 B   11 12 
 a21 a22 
b21 b22 
Array
product
operator
a b a12b12  Array product
A .* B   11 11
 a21b21 a22b22 
Matrix
product
operator
a b  a b a11b12  a12b22  Matrix product
A * B   11 11 12 21
 a21b11  a22b21 a21b12  a22b22 

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Introduction to Mathematical Operations in

DIP
► Linear vs. Nonlinear Operation

H  f ( x, y )   g ( x, y )
H  ai f i ( x, y )  a j f j ( x, y ) 
Additivity
 H  ai f i ( x, y )  H  a j f j ( x, y ) 
 ai H  fi ( x, y )  a j H  f j ( x, y )  Homogeneity

 ai g i ( x, y )  a j g j ( x, y )
H is said to be a linear operator;
H is said to be a nonlinear operator if it does not meet the
above qualification.

Arithmetic Operations

► Arithmetic operations between images are array

operations. The four arithmetic operations are denoted
as

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)

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Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y) (at every pair of coordinates (x,y), the noise is uncorrelated
and has zero average value)
Corrupted image: g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {gi(x,y)}

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

1 K 
E  g ( x, y )  E   gi ( x, y )  
2
2 K
 K i 1  g ( x ,y ) 1
 gi ( x , y )
K i 1
1 K

 E    f ( x, y )  ni ( x, y ) 
 K i 1  1 2
2K   n( x, y )
1 K
 1
K

 ni ( x , y )
 f ( x, y )  E  ni ( x, y )  K i 1

K i 1 
 f ( x, y )

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Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

► In astronomy, imaging under very low light levels

frequently causes sensor noise to render single images
virtually useless for analysis.

► In astronomical observations, similar sensors for noise

reduction by observing the same scene over long
periods of time. Image averaging is then used to
reduce the noise.

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An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode Radiography

Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body

Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after injection of

the contrast medium

Enhanced detail g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)

The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast medium

propagates through the various arteries in the area being observed.

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An Example of Image Multiplication

Set and Logical Operations

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Set and Logical Operations

► Let A be the elements of a gray-scale image
The elements of A are triplets of the form (x, y, z), where
x and y are spatial coordinates and z denotes the intensity
at the point (x, y).

A  {( x, y, z ) | z  f ( x, y )}
► The complement of A is denoted Ac
Ac  {( x, y, K  z ) | ( x, y, z )  A}
K  2k  1; k is the number of intensity bits used to represent z

Set and Logical Operations

► The union of two gray-scale images (sets) A and B is
defined as the set

A  B  {max(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
z

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Set and Logical Operations

Set and Logical Operations

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Spatial Operations

► Single-pixel operations
Alter the values of an image’s pixels based on the intensity.

s  T ( z)

e.g.,

Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

The value of this pixel is

determined by a specified
operation involving the pixels in
the input image with coordinates
in Sxy

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Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

Geometric Spatial Transformations

► Geometric transformation (rubber-sheet transformation)

— A spatial transformation of coordinates

( x, y )  T {(v, w)}
— intensity interpolation that assigns intensity values to the spatially
transformed pixels.

► Affine transform
 t11 t12 0
x y 1   v w 1 t21 t22 0 
t31 t32 1 

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Image Registration

► Input and output images are available but the

transformation function is unknown.
Goal: estimate the transformation function and use it to
register the two images.

► One of the principal approaches for image registration is

to use tie points (also called control points)
 The corresponding points are known precisely in the
input and output (reference) images.

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Image Registration

► A simple model based on bilinear approximation:

 x  c1v  c2 w  c3vw  c4

 y  c5v  c6 w  c7 vw  c8

Where (v, w) and ( x, y ) are the coordinates of

tie points in the input and reference images.

Image Registration

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Image Transform

► A particularly important class of 2-D linear transforms,

denoted T(u, v)
M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u , v)
x 0 y 0

where f ( x, y ) is the input image,

r ( x, y, u , v) is the forward transformation ker nel ,
variables u and v are the transform variables,
u = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and v = 0, 1, ..., N-1.

Image Transform

► Given T(u, v), the original image f(x, y) can be recoverd

using the inverse tranformation of T(u, v).

M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )    T (u , v ) s( x, y, u , v)
u 0 v 0

where s( x, y, u, v ) is the inverse transformation ker nel ,

x = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and y = 0, 1, ..., N-1.

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Image Transform

Example: Image Denoising by Using DCT Transform

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Forward Transform Kernel

M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y ) r ( x, y , u, v)
x 0 y 0

The kernel r ( x, y, u, v) is said to be SEPERABLE if

r ( x, y , u , v )  r1 ( x, u ) r2 ( y , v)

In addition, the kernel is said to be SYMMETRIC if

r1 ( x, u ) is functionally equal to r2 ( y, v), so that
r ( x, y , u , v )  r1 ( x, u ) r1 ( y, u )

The Kernels for 2-D Fourier Transform

The forward kernel

r ( x, y , u , v )  e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
Where j = 1

The inverse kernel

1 j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
s ( x, y , u , v )  e
MN

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2-D Fourier Transform

M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
x 0 y 0

M 1 N 1
1
f ( x, y ) 
MN
  T (u, v)e
u 0 v0
j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )

Probabilistic Methods
Let zi , i  0, 1, 2, ..., L -1, denote the values of all possible intensities
in an M  N digital image. The probability, p( zk ), of intensity level
zk occurring in a given image is estimated as
nk
p ( zk ) ,
MN
where nk is the number of times that intensity zk occurs in the image.
L 1

 p( z ) 1
k 0
k

The mean (average) intensity is given by

L 1
m= z
k 0
k p( z k )

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Probabilistic Methods

The variance of the intensities is given by

L 1
 =  ( zk  m) 2 p ( z k )
2

k 0

The n th moment of the intensity variable z is

L 1
un ( z ) =  (z
k 0
k  m) n p ( z k )

Example: Comparison of Standard Deviation

Values

  14.3   31.6   49.2

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