Unit I

Computer

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions

stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to
specified rules, produce information (output), and store the information for future
use.

Characteristics of Computer

• Speed: A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to
humans while performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process
millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by computers
for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
• Accuracy: Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may
occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.
• Diligence: A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the
same consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of
concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human beings.
• Versatility: Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform
different kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency.
• Reliability: A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of
data i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same
result.
• Automation: Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs
tasks without manual intervention.
• Memory: A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it
stores data. Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives,
etc., which are also used to store data.
Block diagram of computer

A block diagram of a computer displays a structural representation of a computer

system. The block diagram gives a quick overview of the working process of a
computer from inputting the data to retrieving the desired results.

A computer system is a combination of three components:

• Input Unit.
• CPU (Central Processing Unit).
• Output Unit.
 Input Unit

The Input Unit consists of input devices such as a mouse, keyboard, scanner,
joystick, etc. These devices are used to input information or instruction into the
computer system. Like other electronic machines, a computer takes inputs as raw
data (binary data) and performs necessary processing giving out processed data.
Therefore, the input unit is the medium of communication that takes data from us
to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

The Input Unit performs the following major functions:

o The input unit converts the inputted data or instructions into binary form for
further processing.
o Input Unit transmits the data to the main memory of the computer.

• Central Processing Unit

CPU or Central Processing Unit is known as the brain of the computer system. It is
an electronic hardware device that processes all the operations (e.g., arithmetic and
logical operations) of the computer. It is also responsible for handling the
operations of several other units.

The Central Processing Unit performs the following major functions:

• The CPU controls all components, software and data processing of the computer
system.

• The CPU takes data from input devices, executes the data, and sends output to the
output devices.

• The CPU processes all the operations, including all the arithmetical and logical
operations.

The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU) are jointly called the
Central Processing Unit (CPU).
o Control Unit

As the name suggests, the control unit of a CPU controls all the activities and
operations of the computer. It is also responsible for controlling input/output,
memory, and other devices connected to the CPU.

The control unit acts like the supervisor which determines the sequence in
which computer programs and instructions are executed. It retrieves instructions
from memory, decodes the instructions, interprets the instructions and
understands the sequence of tasks to be performed accordingly. It further
transmits the instructions to the other parts of the computer system to execute
them. In short, the control unit determines the sequence of operations to execute
the given instructions.

o Arithmetic & Logic Unit

The data inputted through input devices is stored in the primary storage unit.
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logical operations.

The arithmetic unit controls simple operations such as addition, subtraction,

division and multiplication. On the other side, the logical unit controls the
logical operations such as AND, OR, Equal, greater than, and less than, etc.
Apart from it, the logic unit also responsible for performing several other
operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging data.

The information or data is transmitted to ALU from the storage unit only when
it is required. After completing the operations, the result is either returned to the
storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

 Memory Unit

Memory Unit is an essential part of the computer system which is used to store
data and instructions before and after processing. The memory unit transmits the
information to other units of the computer system when required.
There are two types of memory units:

o Primary memory

The primary memory cannot store a vast amount of data. The data stored in the
primary memory is temporary. The data will be lost if they are disconnected
from the power supply. The primary memory usually stores the input data and
immediate calculation results. The primary memory is also known as main
memory or temporary memory. RAM is an example of primary memory.

o Secondary memory

The use of primary memory is not possible to store data permanently for future
access. Therefore, there are some other options to store the data permanently for
future use, which is known as secondary memory or auxiliary storage or
permanent storage. The data stored in the secondary memory is safe even when
there is a power failure or no power supply. Hard Disk is usually considered a
secondary memory.

Note: Primary memory is the only memory that is directly accessible to the CPU.
Secondary memory is not directly accessible to the CPU. The data accessed from
the secondary unit is first loaded into RAM and then further transferred to the
Processing Unit. The use of different memory units depends entirely on the size of
the data.

 Output Unit

The output unit consists of devices that are used to display the results or output of
processing. The output data is first stored in the memory and then displayed in
human-readable form through output devices. Some of the widely used output
devices are Monitor, Printer, and Projector.

The Output Unit performs the following major functions:

• The output unit accepts the data or information in binary form, from the main
memory of the computer system.
• The output unit converts the binary data into a human-readable form for better
understanding.

Advantages of Computer:

1. Multitasking: Multitasking is one among the main advantage of computer.

Person can do multiple tasks, multiple operation at a same time, calculate
numerical problems within few seconds. Computer can perform millions or
trillions of work in one second.

2. Speed: Now computer isn’t just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer
has vital role in human life. One of the most advantages of computer is its
incredible speed, which helps human to finish their task in few seconds.

3. Cost/stores huge: Amount of knowledge it’s a coffee cost solution. Person

can save huge data within a coffee budget. Centralized database of storing
information is that the major advantage which will reduce cost.

4. Accuracy: One among the basis advantage of computer is which will

perform not only calculations but also with accuracy.

5. Data Security: Protecting digital data is understood as data security.

6. Task completer: Completes tasks that might be impossible for humans to

complete.

7. Communication: Computer helps the user in better understanding and

communication with the other devices.

8. Productivity: The level of productivity gets automatically doubled as the

computer can done the work at very fast.

9. Reduces work load: Information are often accessed by more than one person
with the necessity for work to be duplicated.

10.Reliability: Computers can perform same sort of work repeatedly without

throwing up errors thanks to tiredness or boredom, which are quite common
among humans.
 11.Storage: The pc has an in-built memory where it can store an outsized
amount of knowledge. You can also store data in auxiliary storage devices.

Disadvantages of Computer:

1. Virus and hacking attacks: Virus may be a worm and hacking is just an
unauthorized access over computer for a few illicit purposes. Virus can go to
other system from email attachment, viewing an infected website
advertisement, through removable device like USB etc.

2. Online Cyber Crimes: Online cyber-crime means computer and network

may have utilized in order to commit crime. Cyberstalking and fraud are the
points which comes under online cyber-crimes.

3. Reduction employed opportunity: Mainly past generation wasn’t used of the

pc or they need the knowledge of computer they faced an enormous problem
when computer came in field.

4. High cost: Computers are expensive. Even the foremost affordable

computers are still very expensive for the typical person in South Africa.

5. Distractions/disruptions: computers can be very distracting because of their

high entertainment value.

6. Increases waste and impacts the environment: With the speed that computers
and other electronics get replaced, all of the old devices that get thrown
away have a big impact on the environment.

Evolution (generations) of computers

Computer generations:

1. First Generation Computers (1940-1956).

2. Second Generation Computers (1956-1963).

3. Third Generation Computers (1964-1971).

4. Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present).

5. Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond).

1. First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass
device, which was called vacuum tubes. These computers were very heavy and
really large in size. These weren’t very reliable and programming on them was a
really tedious task as they used high-level programming language and used no OS.
First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control purpose.
They were too bulky and large that they needed a full room and consume rot of
electricity.

Main first-generation computers are:

• ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper

Eckert and John V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been
very heavy, large, and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
• EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed
by von Neumann. It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed
was enhanced.
• UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert
and Mauchly.

Main characteristics of first-generation computers are:

Main electronic component Vacuum tube.

Programming language Machine language.

Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.

Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.

Speed and size Very slow and very large in size (often taking up
entire room).

Examples of the first IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.
generation
2. Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)

Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky

vacuum tubes. Another feature was the core storage. A transistor may be a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a sign or opens or closes a
circuit.

The use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and with due speed.
It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the warmth too, which was
generated by vacuum tubes. Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input, and output units also came into the force within
the second generation.

Programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and
made programming comparatively a simple task for programmers. Languages used
for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and
COBOL (1959).

Main characteristics of second-generation computers are:

Main electronic Transistor.

component

Programming Machine language and assembly language.

language

Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.

Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.

Power and size Smaller in size, low power consumption, and generated less
heat (in comparison with the first-generation computers).

Examples of second PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC
generation 1107, CDC 3600 etc.
3. Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)

During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to
integrated circuits, also referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed
on silicon chips, called semiconductors. The most feature of this era’s computer
was the speed and reliability.

A single IC, has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of
silicon. The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were
increased during this generation. Programming was now wiped-out. Higher-level
languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
Minicomputers find their shape during this era.

Main characteristics of third generation computers are:

Main electronic Integrated circuits (ICs)

component

Programming language High-level language

Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk

Input / output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.

Examples of third IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500,
generation UNIVAC 1108, etc.

4. Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)

In 1971, the large scale of integration LSI circuits built on one chip called
microprocessors were used. The most advantage of this technology is that one
microprocessor can contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic,
and control functions on one chip.
The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation
provided the even smaller size of computers, with larger capacities. Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits.

Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating

speed, and virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and customary device. The
concept of private computers and computer networks came into being within the
fourth generation.

Main characteristics of fourth generation computers are:

Main electronic Very large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor

component (VLSI has thousands of transistors on a single microchip).

Memory semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)

Input/output pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor,

devices printer, etc.

Examples of fourth IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter
generation 8800, etc.

5. Fifth Generation Computers

The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers
to behave like humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of
medicines, and entertainment. Within the field of games playing also it’s shown
remarkable performance where computers are capable of beating human
competitors. The speed is highest, size is that the smallest and area of use has
remarkably increased within the fifth-generation computers.
 Main characteristics of fifth generation computers are:

Based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale

Main Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel processing method
electronic (ULSI has millions of transistors on a single microchip and
component Parallel processing method use two or more microprocessors to
run tasks simultaneously).

Language Understand natural language (human language).

Size Portable and small in size.

Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognize

Input / output
voice/speech), light scanner, printer, keyboard, monitor, mouse,
device
etc.

Example of
fifth Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
generation

Classification of Computers

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. On the basis of purpose.

2. On the basis of data handling/technology used.
3. On the basis of size & capacity.
4. On the basis of functionality.

1. Classification on the basis of purpose:

a) General Purpose Computer: These computers can store different programs

and can thus be used in countless application. A General-Purpose Computer can
perform any kind of jobs with equal efficiency simply by changing the
application program stored in main memory.

b) Special Purpose Computer: A Special Purpose Computer is the one that is

designed to perform only one special task. The program or instructions set is
 permanently stored in such a machine. It does its single task very quickly and it
cannot be used for any other purpose. These computers are often used to
perform specific function such as controlling a manufacturing process or
directing communications.

2. Classification on the basis of data handling/technology used:

a) Analog: An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. Anything that is variable with
respect to time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog
clock measures time by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the
clock around the circular dial.

b) Digital: A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with

quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and
“1”. Computer capable of solving problems by processing information
expressed in discrete form. from manipulation of the combinations of the binary
digits, it can perform mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data,
control industrial and other processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as
global weather patterns.

c) Hybrid: A computer that processes both analog and digital data. Hybrid
computer is a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to
digital and processes them in digital form.

3. Classification on the basis of size & capacity:

a) Super computers: The super computers are the highest performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a
general-purpose computer. The actual performance of a supercomputer is
measured in FLOPS instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500
supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Supercomputers actually
play an important role in the field of computation, and are used for intensive
 computation tasks in various fields, including quantum mechanics, weather
forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration, molecular modeling, and
physical simulations. and also, throughout the history, supercomputers have
been essential in the field of the cryptanalysis.

e.g., PARAM, Jaguar, IBM Roadrunner, Titan, Tianhe-I.

b) Mainframe computers: These are commonly called as big iron, they are
usually used by big organizations for bulk data processing such as statics,
census data processing, transaction processing and are widely used as the
servers as these systems has a higher processing capability as compared to the
other classes of computers, most of these mainframe architectures were
established in 1960s, the research and development worked continuously over
the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than the earlier ones,
in size, capacity and efficiency.

e.g., IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.

c) Mini computers: These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and
were sold at a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually
designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication
switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping, later they became
very popular for personal uses with evolution.
In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use
of transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less
expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR. They
usually took up one or a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large
mainframes that could fill a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS”
coined.

e.g., Personal Laptop, PC etc.

d) Microcomputers: A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive

computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor,
memory, and minimal I/O circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.
The previous to these computers, mainframes and minicomputers, were
 comparatively much larger, hard to maintain and more expensive. They actually
formed the foundation for present day microcomputers and smart gadgets that
we use in day-to-day life.

e.g., Tablets, Smartwatches.

4. Classification on the basis of functionality

a) Servers: Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer
some services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service
they offered.
e.g., security server, database server.

b) Workstation: Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by

single user at a time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones
which we use for our day to day personal / commercial work.

c) Information Appliances: They are the portable devices which are designed to
perform a limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia,
browsing internet etc. They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They
have very limited memory and flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.

d) Embedded computers: They are the computing devices which are used in
other machines to serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions
from the non-volatile memory and they are not required to execute reboot or
reset. The processing units used in such device work to those basic
requirements only and are different from the ones that are used in personal
computers- better known as workstations.

Common I/O devices and their characteristics

An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a

human operator or other systems to interface with a computer. Input/output
devices, as the name implies, are capable of delivering data (output) to and
receiving data from a computer (input).
An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or
process data. It receives data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as
sends computer data to storage media as a storage output.

Input Devices:

• Keyboard
The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input device for entering
data into a computer. Although there are some additional keys for performing
other operations, the keyboard layout is similar to that of a typical typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but currently
keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and the
Internet.

Types of Keys

o Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It

usually consists of a set of 17 keys.
o Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among
these keys.
o Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are
four directional arrow keys on it. Home, End, Insert, Alternate (Alt),
Delete, Control (Ctrl), etc., and Escape are all control keys (Esc).
o Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num lock, Tab, etc., and Print
Screen are among the special function keys on the keyboard.
o Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 on the topmost row of the
keyboard.

 Mouse
The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used to move a
little cursor across the screen while clicking and dragging. The cursor will stop
if you let go of the mouse. The computer is dependent on you to move the
mouse; it won’t move by itself. As a result, it’s an input device.
 A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat surface to
control the coordinates and movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer. The left
mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right mouse button
when clicked displays extra menus.

 Joystick
A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer
screen. A spherical ball is attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick.
In a socket, the lower spherical ball slides. You can move the joystick in all four
directions. The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is
primarily used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and playing video games on
the computer.

 Light Pen
A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to
select a menu item or to draw on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical
system are enclosed in a tiny tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen while the pen
button is pushed, the photocell sensor element identifies the screen location and
provides a signal to the CPU.

 Scanner
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s
employed when there’s information on paper that needs to be transferred to the
computer’s hard disc for subsequent manipulation.
Scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a digital format
that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can be
modified.

 OCR
OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads
printed text. OCR optically scans the text, character by character, turns it into a
machine-readable code, and saves it to the system memory.
 Optical Bar Code Reader
A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is
represented by light and dark lines).
Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It
could be a handheld scanner or part of a stationary scanner.
A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an alphanumeric value,
and then sends it to the computer to which it is connected.

 Web Camera
A webcam is a computer-connected tiny digital video camera. It’s also known
as a web camera because it can take images and record video. Because it
records a video image of the scene in front of it, a webcam is an input device. It
is either built inside the computer (for example, a laptop) or attached through a
USB connection.
These cameras come with software that must be installed on the computer in
order to broadcast video in real-time over the Internet. It can shoot images and
HD videos; however, the video quality isn’t as good as other cameras (In
Mobiles or other devices or normal cameras).

Output devices

 Monitor
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer’s
primary output device. It creates images by arranging small dots, known as
pixels, in a rectangular pattern. The number of pixels determines the image’s
sharpness.

The two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors are:

a) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): Pixels are minuscule visual elements that make
up a CRT display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the smaller the
pixels.
 b) Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a
flat-panel display is a type of video display with less volume, weight, and
power consumption. They can be hung on the wall or worn on the wrist.
Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computers, and graphical displays.

 Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There
are two types of printers:

a) Impact Printer:

Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against

the paper, in impact printers. The following are the characteristics of impact
printers:

o Exceptionally low consumable cost.

o Quite noisy

o Because of its low cost, it is ideal for large-scale printing.

o To create an image, there is physical contact with the paper.

b) Non-Impact Printers:

Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers.
Because these printers print a full page at a time, they’re also known as Page
Printers. The following are the characteristics of non-impact printers:

o Faster

o They don’t make a lot of noise.

o Excellent quality

o Supports a variety of typefaces and character sizes

 Microfilm and Microfiche
In this technique the output from the computer is recorded on a microfilm as
microscopic film image. The information recorded on the microfilm can be read
with the help of a microfilm reader.
A Microfiche (pronounced fish, French word which means card) is a 4×6-inch
film sheet. It can store up to 270 pages of information. It is easier to read a
microfiche as compared to a microfilm.

Primary Memory

Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly

by the processor. Primary memory is made up of semiconductors and it is the main
memory of the computer system. It is generally used to store data or information
on which the computer is currently working, so we can say that it is used to store
data temporarily.

Content of primary memory may or may not vanish when power is lost depending
on if it is stored in RAM or ROM.

 Content of ROM is non-volatile in nature, they are stored even when power
is lost.

 Content of RAM is volatile in nature, it vanishes when power is lost.

Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:

1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)

2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

1. Read-Only Memory

The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.

Types of ROM:

ROM can be broadly classified into 4 types based on their behaviour:

 MROM: Masked ROM are hardwired and pre-programmed ROM. Any content
that is once written cannot be altered anyhow.

 PROM: Programmable ROM can be modified once by the user. The user buys
a blank PROM and writes the desired content but once written content cannot
be altered.

 EPROM: Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed by

erasing the initial content which can be done by exposing EPROM to UV
radiation. This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge on ROM and
content can be rewritten on it.

 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be

changed by erasing the initial content which could be easily erased electrically.
However, one byte can be erased at a time instead of deleting in one go. Hence,
reprogramming of EEPROM is a slow process.
2. Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data
until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased. It is also known as physical memory. RAM is volatile, i.e., data stored in it
is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure.

Types of RAM:

RAM can be broadly classified into SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic
RAM) based on their behaviour:

• DRAM: Dynamic RAM or DRAM needs to periodically refresh in few

milliseconds to retain data. DRAM is made up of capacitors and transistors and
electric charge leaks from capacitors and DRAM needs to be charged
periodically. DRAM is widely used in home PCs and servers as it is cheaper
than SRAM.

• SRAM: Static RAM or SRAM keeps the data as long as power is supplied to
the system. SRAM uses Sequential circuits like a flip-flop to store a bit and
hence need not be periodically refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only
used where speed is the utmost priority.

Secondary Memory

It is important to have another form of memory that has a larger storage capacity
and from which data and programs are not lost when the computer is turned off.
Such a type of memory is called secondary memory. In secondary memory,
programs and data are stored. It is also called auxiliary memory. It is different from
primary memory as it is not directly accessible through the CPU and is non-
volatile. Secondary or external storage devices have a much larger storage capacity
and the cost of secondary memory is less as compared to primary memory.
Use of Secondary memory

Secondary memory is used for different purposes but the main purposes of using
secondary memory are:

 Permanent storage: As we know that primary memory stores data only when
the power supply is on, it loses data when the power is off. So we need a
secondary memory to stores data permanently even if the power supply is
off.

 Large Storage: Secondary memory provides large storage space so that we

can store large data like videos, images, audios, files, etc permanently.

 Portable: Some secondary devices are removable. So, we can easily store or
transfer data from one computer or device to another.

Secondary storage devices

• Hard disk: A hard disk is a part of a unit called a hard disk drive. It is used to
storing a large amount of data. Hard disks or hard disk drives come in different
storage capacities (like 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2 TB, etc.). It is created
using the collection of discs known as platters. The platters are placed one
below the other. They are coated with magnetic material. Each platter consists
of a number of invisible circles and each circle having the same center called
tracks. Hard disk is of two types: (i) Internal hard disk (ii) External hard disk.

• Magnetic tape: magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also
you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is
inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It
can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meters to 1200 meter
long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the
central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the
processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.

• Floppy disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic disc in a square plastic case.
It is used to store data and to transfer data from one device to another device.
 Floppy disks are available in two sizes (a) Size: 3.5 inches, the Storage capacity
of 1.44 MB (b) Size: 5.25 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.2 MB. To use a
floppy disk, our computer needs to have a floppy disk drive. This storage device
becomes obsolete now and has been replaced by CDs, DVDs, and flash drives.

• Compact disc: A Compact Disc (CD) is a commonly used secondary storage

device. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface. Its shape is circular and is
made up of polycarbonate plastic. The storage capacity of CD is up to 700 MB
of data. A CD may also be called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only
Memory), in this, computers can read the data present in a CD-ROM, but
cannot write new data onto it. For a CD-ROM, we require a CD-ROM.

• Digital Versatile Disc: A Digital Versatile Disc also known as DVD it is looks
just like a CD, but the storage capacity is greater compared to CD, it stores up
to 4.7 GB of data. DVD-ROM drive is needed to use DVD on a computer. The
video files, like movies or video recordings, etc., are generally stored on DVD
and you can run DVD using the DVD player.

• Blu-ray disc: A Blu-ray disc looks just like a CD or a DVD but it can store data
or information up to 25 GB data. If you want to use a Blu-ray disc, you need a
Blu-ray reader. The name Blu-ray is derived from the technology that is used to
read the disc ‘Blu’ from the blue-violet laser and ‘ray’ from an optical ray.

• Flash drive: A flash drive or pen drive comes in various storage capacities,
such as 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, up to 1 TB. A flash
drive is used to transfer and store data. To use a flash drive, we need to plug it
into a USB port on a computer. As a flash drive is easy to use and compact in
size, nowadays it is very popular.

• Solid-state disk: It is also known as SDD. It is a non-volatile storage device

that is used to store and access data. It is faster, does noiseless operations
(because it does not contain any moving parts like the hard disk), consumes less
power, etc. It is a great replacement for standard hard drives in computers and
laptops if the price is low and it is also suitable for tablets, notebooks, etc.
because they do not require large storage.
• SD card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used in portable
devices like mobile phones, cameras, etc., to store data. It is available in
different sizes like 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, etc. To
view the data stored in the SD card you can remove them from the device and
insert them into a computer with help of a card reader. The data stores in the SD
card is stored in memory chips (present in the SD Card) and it does not contain
any moving parts like the hard disk.

Difference between primary memory and secondary memory

Unit II

Software and its Types

In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands

that tells a computer what to do. Or in other words, the software is a computer
program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell
the computer what to do. For example, like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
The chart below describes the types of software:
 System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to
operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a
computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as
monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between
hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other
because hardware understands machine language (i.e., 1 or 0) whereas user
applications are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi,
German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into
machine language and vice versa.

Features of system software

1. System Software is closer to the computer system.
2. System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
3. System software is difficult to design and understand.
4. System software is fast in speed (working speed).
5. System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application
software.
Types of system software

1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the

computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as memory, CPU, printer,
hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to
interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to other
computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS,
Microsoft Windows, etc.

2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-

readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is
done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-
level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc. (known as source
code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines (known as
object code or machine code).

3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device

and helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer,
mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system
eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first
you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows
how to control or manage that device.

 Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much
more than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software.
Or in other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task
for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-
users’ requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database
management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Features of application software
1. An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized
tasks like word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
2. Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
3. Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and
design.
4. The application software is easy to design and understand.
5. Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Types of application software

1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a

variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For
example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.

2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to

perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For
example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice
management system, etc.

3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the

computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyse, configure, optimize and
maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example,
antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry
cleaners, disk space analyser, etc.

Freeware: software that is distributed for use to anyone who wants it without any
fees being required before use. E.g., Adobe reader, Skype, Free studio etc.

Shareware: software that is available free of charge and often distributed

informally for evaluation, after which a fee may be requested for continued use.
E.g., WinZip, Adobe Acrobat 8 Professional, GetRight, Fireball etc.
Open-source: software is computer software that is released under a license in
which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and
distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. E.g.,
Apache, Tomcat, Ubuntu, Firefox etc.

System Software Application Software

Manages the resources and helps to Performs a specific task according to

run hardware and application their type.
software of the computer system.

Computer software designed to Software designed to perform a group

provide a platform to other of coordinated functions, tasks or
software. activities for the benefit of the user.

Written in a low-level language Written in a high-level language

Less interactive for the users More interactive for the users

System software plays vital role for Application software is not so

the effective functioning of a important for the functioning of the
system. system, as it is task specific.

It is independent of the application It needs system software to run.

software to run.

Runs when the system starts and

Runs when the user requires.
runs till the end.
Developed using languages like C, Developed using languages like Java,
C++, Assembly. C, C++, Visual basic.
Ex. Word processor, spreadsheet,
Ex. Operating systems, language
presentation software, web browsers,
processor and device drivers.
graphics software.
Generation of Programming Languages

1. First Generation Language:

The first-generation languages are also called machine languages/ 1G language.

This language is machine-dependent. The machine language statements are written
in binary code (0/1 form) because the computer can understand only binary
language.

Advantages:

• Fast & efficient as statements are directly written in binary language.

• No translator is required.

Disadvantages:

• Difficult to learn binary codes.

• Difficult to understand – both programs & where the error occurred.

2. Second Generation Language:

The second-generation languages are also called assembler languages/ 2G

languages. Assembly language contains human-readable notations that can be
further converted to machine language using an assembler.

Assembler – converts assembly level instructions to machine level instructions.

Programmers can write the code using symbolic instruction codes that are
meaningful abbreviations of mnemonics. It is also known as low-level language.

Advantages:

• It is easier to understand if compared to machine language.

• Modifications are easy.
• Correction & location of errors are easy.
Disadvantages:

• Assembler is required.
• This language is architecture /machine-dependent, with a different
instruction set for different machines.

3. Third Generation Language:

The third generation is also called procedural language /3 GL. It consists of the use
of a series of English-like words that humans can understand easily, to write
instructions. It is also called High-Level Programming Language. For execution, a
program in this language needs to be translated into machine language using
Compiler/ Interpreter. Examples of this type of language are C, PASCAL,
FORTRAN, COBOL, etc.

Advantages:

• Use of English-like words makes it a human-understandable language.

• Lesser number of lines of code as compared to above 2 languages.
• Same code can be copied to another machine & executed on that machine by
using compiler-specific to that machine.

Disadvantages:

• Compiler/ interpreter is needed.

• Different compilers are needed for different machines.

4. Fourth Generation Language:

The fourth-generation language is also called a non – procedural language/ 4GL. It
enables users to access the database. Examples: SQL, Foxpro, Focus, etc.
These languages are also human-friendly to understand.

Advantages:
• Easy to understand & learn.
• Less time required for application creation.
 • It is less prone to errors.

Disadvantages:
• Memory consumption is high.
• Has poor control over Hardware.
• Less flexible.

5. Fifth Generation Language:

The fifth-generation languages are also called 5GL. It is based on the concept of
artificial intelligence. It uses the concept that that rather than solving a problem
algorithmically, an application can be built to solve it based on some constraints,
i.e., we make computers learn to solve any problem. Parallel Processing &
superconductors are used for this type of language to make real artificial
intelligence.

Example: PROLOG, LISP, etc.

Advantages:

• Machines can make decisions.

• Programmer effort reduces to solve a problem.
• Easier than 3GL or 4GL to learn and use.

Disadvantages:

• Complex and long code.

• More resources are required & they are expensive too.

Operating System

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes,
and memory. An Operating System acts as a communication bridge (interface)
between the user and computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to
provide a platform on which a user can execute programs in a convenient and
efficient manner. Thus operating system acts as the manager of all the resources,
i.e., resource manager.

The main task an operating system carries out is the allocation of resources and
services, such as the allocation of memory, devices, processors, and information.
The operating system also includes programs to manage these resources, such as a
traffic controller, a scheduler, memory management module, I/O programs, and a
file system.

Functions of Operating System

1. Security
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user
data.

2. Control over system performance

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the
response time between service requests and system response to having a
complete view of the system health. This can help improve performance by
providing important information needed to troubleshoot problems.

3. Job accounting
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and
users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user
or group of users.

4. Memory Management
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. It keeps
track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the
memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In
multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted
access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to a process when
 the process requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has
terminated or is performing an I/O operation.

5. Processor Management
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which
processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each
process has. This function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating
System performs the following activities for processor management.
Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is
known as a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process.
De-allocates processor when a process is no more required.

6. Device Management
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs
the following activities for device management. Keeps track of all devices
connected to the system. designates a program responsible for every device
known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets access to a
certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and efficient
way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

7. File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain other directories and other files. An
Operating System carries out the following file management activities. It keeps
track of where information is stored, user access settings and status of every
file, and more. These facilities are collectively known as the file system.

CPU Scheduling Algorithms in Operating Systems

• First Come First Serve (FCFS): Simplest scheduling algorithm that schedules
according to arrival times of processes. First come first serve scheduling
algorithm states that the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU
first. It is implemented by using the FIFO queue. When a process enters the
ready queue, its PCB is linked onto the tail of the queue. When the CPU is free,
 it is allocated to the process at the head of the queue. The running process is
then removed from the queue. FCFS is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm.

• Shortest Job First (SJF): also known as Shortest Job Next (SJN) scheduling.
Process which has the shortest burst time are scheduled first. If two processes
have the same bust time then FCFS is used to break the tie. It is a non-
preemptive scheduling algorithm.

• Priority Based scheduling (Non-Preemptive): In this scheduling, processes

are scheduled according to their priorities, i.e., highest priority process is
scheduled first. If priorities of two processes match, then schedule according to
arrival time. Here starvation of process is possible.

• Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF): It is preemptive mode of SJF

algorithm in which jobs are schedule according to shortest remaining time.

• Round Robin (RR) scheduling: is a CPU scheduling algorithm where each

process is assigned a fixed time slot in a cyclic way. It is simple, easy to
implement, and starvation-free as all processes get fair share of CPU. One of
the most commonly used technique in CPU scheduling as a core. It is
preemptive as processes are assigned CPU only for a fixed slice of time at most.
The disadvantage of it is more overhead of context switching.

Types of Operating Systems

1. Multiprogramming operating system

An operating system that is capable of running multiple programs on a single
processor is known as a multiprogramming operating system. If a program has
to wait for an I/O transfer in a multiprogramming operating system, other
programs utilize the CPU and other resources meanwhile.

One of the major aims of multiprogramming is to manage the various resources

of the entire system. Multiprogramming is the principal concept used by
 multiprogramming systems. These resources include, but are not restricted to,
the file system, memory, processors, input and output, etc. Some examples are
Linux distributions, Windows, IOS, etc.

2. Multiprocessing operating system

A multiprocessing operating system (OS) is one in which two or more central
processing units (CPUs) control the functions of the computer. Each CPU
contains a copy of the OS, and these copies communicate with one another to
coordinate operations. The use of multiple processors allows the computer to
perform calculations faster, since tasks can be divided up between processors.
Multiprocessing operating systems (OSs) perform the same functions as single-
processor OSs. They schedule and monitor operations and calculations in order
to complete user-initiated tasks. The difference is that multiprocessing OSs
divide the work up into various subtasks and then assign these subtasks to
different central processing units (CPUs). Some examples are Windows NT,
2000, XP, UNIX.

3. Time sharing operating system

The time-sharing operating system, also known as a multitasking OS, works by
allocating time to a particular task and switching between tasks frequently.
Unlike the batch system, the time-sharing system allows users to complete their
work in the system simultaneously. It allows many users to be distributed across
various terminals to minimize response time.
Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly.
Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. The task can be
from a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute
is called time slice or quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over
to the next task. Some examples are UNIX, Multics, Linux, Windows 2000
server, Windows NT server, TOPS-10 (DEC), TOPS-20 (DEC).

4. Real-time operating system

Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are used in environments where a large
number of events, mostly external to the computer system, must be accepted
and processed in a short time or within certain deadlines. such applications are
industrial control, telephone switching equipment, flight control, and real-time
 simulations. With an RTOS, the processing time is measured in tenths of
seconds. This system is time-bound and has a fixed deadline. The processing in
this type of system must occur within the specified constraints. Otherwise, this
will lead to system failure. Examples of the real-time operating systems: Airline
traffic control systems, Command Control Systems, Airline’s reservation
system, Heart Peacemaker, Network Multimedia Systems, Robot etc.

5. Online operating system

A Web Operating System is an internet-based user interface that allows people
to access applications not stored on their computers but completely or partly on
Internet. It is a dummy operating system that does not directly interact with
computer hardware and depends on traditional operating system to work. In
other words, it is an interface for distributed computing system such as
cloud. Some examples are amoebaOS, Cloudo, Lucid, Nivio, Schmedley,
WebX, and Windows4all.

6. Batch operating system

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and
group them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with
similar needs. Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System,
Bank Statements, etc.

Booting

Booting may be defined as process of loading the operating system into memory.
The booting process starts from the moment when we power on computer and
continues till moment, computer is ready for use. It initiates all the devices before
starting any work on the computer. Moreover, the operating system is loaded into
the main memory and the computer is ready to take commands from the user.
Types of Booting

1. Cold Booting
A cold boot is also called a hard boot. It is the process when we first start the
computer. In other words, when the computer is started from its initial state by
pressing the power button it is called cold boot. The instructions are read from
the ROM and the operating system is loaded in the main memory.

2. Warm Booting
Warm Boot is also called soft boot. It refers to when we restart the computer.
Here, the computer does not start from the initial state. When the system gets
stuck sometimes it is required to restart it while it is ON. Therefore, in this
condition the warm boot takes place. Restart button or CTRL+ALT+DELETE
keys are used for warm boot.

Steps of Booting

1. The Start-up: It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It
supplies electricity to the main components like BIOS and processor.
2. BIOS (Power on Self-Test): It is an initial test performed by the BIOS.
Further, this test performs an initial check on the input/output devices,
computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc. Moreover, if any error occurs, the
system produces a beep sound.
3. Loading of OS: In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main
memory. The operating system starts working and executes all the initial files
and instructions.
4. System Configuration: In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main
memory. Drivers are programs that help in the functioning of the peripheral
devices.
5. Loading System Utilities: System utilities are basic functioning programs, for
example, volume control, antivirus, etc. In this step, system utilities are loaded
into the memory.
6. User Authentication: If any password has been set up in the computer system,
the system checks for user authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and
password correctly the system finally starts.
Dual booting

A dual boot is when you run two operating systems on one computer at the same
time. This can be any combination of operating systems, for example, Windows
and Mac, Windows and Linux or Windows 7 and Windows 10. Some examples of
software that assist with a dual-boot include Acronis Disk Director for Windows,
Apple boot camp for Mac, and GRUB for Linux users. These programs allow users
to pick which operating system they want to load as the computer is starting up.
Users can change operating systems for different applications, if desired.

Unit-III

The Desktop

The desktop is a basic element of a personal computer that represents different

types of objects, including project folders, reference sources, drawing tools,
documents, writing tools, phone books, telephones. It is the primary user interface
of a computer that might be found on top of a physical desk. The desktop display is
that the default display and displayed once the start-up process is complete at the
time of booting the system.
The icons of files and folders that you store to the desktop are displayed on the
desktop, as well as the desktop wallpaper. In Windows operating system, it
includes a taskbar located at the base of the display screen. In Mac OS X, at the top
of the screen, it contains the Dock, at the bottom and a menu bar.

My computer

My computer is a Microsoft Windows feature first found in Windows 95 and

included with all later versions that allows you to explore and manage the contents
of your computer drives. The image shows examples of the My Computer icon in
Microsoft Windows XP, Vista and Windows 7, and the "This PC" icon
in Windows 8 and in Windows 10. Although the name has changed, "This PC" still
has the same functionality as "My Computer."
File: A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information, settings, or
commands used with a computer program. On a computer there are three types of
files, application files, data files, and system files.
In a GUI (graphical user interface), such as Microsoft Windows, files display
as icons that relate to the program that opens the file. For example, all PDF icons
appear the same and open in Adobe Acrobat or the reader associated with PDF
files.

Folder: A folder, also called a directory, is a space used to store files, other
folders, and shortcuts on a computer. A good analogy is the manila folders seen in
an office to store papers or reports. A folder can contain one or more files of any
type (documents, pictures, videos, etc.) and can even store other folders. They may
also contain shortcuts to programs.

Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer is the file manager used by Windows 95 and later versions. It
allows users to manage files, folders and network connections, as well as search for
files and related components. Windows Explorer has also grown to support new
features unrelated to file management such as playing audio and videos and
launching programs, etc. The desktop and the taskbar also form part of Windows
Explorer. The look, feel and functionalities of Windows Explorer have been
enhanced with each version of Windows.
Starting with Windows 8.0, Windows Explorer has been called File Explorer.

 To open File Explorer, click the File Explorer icon on the taskbar, or double-
click any folder on your desktop. A new File Explorer window will appear.
 Now you're ready to start working with your files and folders.
 From File Explorer, double-click a folder to open it. You can then see all of the
files stored in that folder.
 Notice that you can also see the location of a folder in the address bar near the
top of the window.
Windows Help and Support center

Windows provides a help system that most software developers use to provide
immediate help to the users of their Windows applications. The help is displayed
by pressing F1 or selecting the Help menu in the application. The help windows
can remain on screen so that you can try things out while you read the instructions.

Searching in windows

Windows Search (also known as Instant Search) is a content index desktop

search platform by Microsoft introduced in Windows Vista as a replacement for
both the previous Indexing Service of Windows 2000 and the optional MSN
Desktop Search for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, designed to facilitate
local and remote queries for files and non-file items in compatible applications
including Windows Explorer.
Windows Search creates a locally managed Index of files — documents, emails,
folders, programs, photos, tracks, and videos — and file contents, as well as of
non-file items including those of Microsoft Outlook for which users can
perform incremental searches based on details such as authors, contents, dates, file
names, file types, people, and sizes; the Index stores actual prose from inside
documents and metadata properties from other content. Control
Panel and Settings can also be searched.

System Utilities

System utility software is required for the maintenance of computer. System

utilities are used for supporting and enhancing the programs and the data in
computer. Some system utilities may come embedded with OS and others may be
added later on.

Some examples of system utilities are:

• Anti-virus utility to scan computer for viruses.

• Data Compression utility to compress the files.
 • Cryptographic utility to encrypt and decrypt files.
• Disk Compression utility to compress contents of a disk for increasing the
capacity of a disk.
• Disk Partitioning to divide a single drive into multiple logical drives. Each
drive is then treated as an individual drive and has its own file system.
• Disk Cleaners to find files that have not been used for a long time. It helps
the user to decide what to delete when the hard disk is full.
• Backup Utility to make a copy of all information stored on the disk. It also
restores the backed-up contents in case of disk failure.
• System Profiling Utility provides detailed information about the software
installed on the computer and the hardware attached to it.
• Network Managers to check the computer network and to log events.

Disk Cleanup is a Microsoft software utility first introduced with Windows 98 and
included in all subsequent releases of Windows. It allows users to remove files that
are no longer needed or that can be safely deleted. Removing unnecessary files,
including temporary files, helps speed up and improve the performance of the hard
drive and computer. Running Disk Cleanup at least once a month is an excellent
maintenance task and frequency. It has now been deprecated and replaced with a
modern version in the Settings app, although it still exists as a legacy tool in
Windows.
The disk clean-up utility searches files that are no longer of any use, and then
removes the selected unnecessary files. There are a number of different file
categories that Disk Clean-up targets when performing the initial disk analysis:
 Compression of old files
 Temporary Internet files
 Temporary Windows files
 Downloaded program files
 Recycle Bin
 Removal of unused applications or optional Windows components
 Setup log files
 Offline web pages (cached)
 WinSxS (Windows component store)
Aside from removing unnecessary files, users also have the option of compressing
files that have not been accessed over a set period of time. This option provides a
systematic compression scheme. Infrequently accessed files are compressed to free
up disk space while leaving the frequently used files uncompressed for faster
read/write access times. If after file compression, a user wishes to access a
compressed file, the access times may be increased and vary from system to
system.

Disk Defragmenter consolidates files so that each is saved in contiguous physical

space on the hard drive. When your computer crashes or freezes, the drive becomes
fragmented. This means the files may be broken up and stored in different
locations in your computer. This causes programs and files to run more slowly.
Files become fragmented when data is written to disk, and there is not enough
contiguous space to hold the complete file. Storage algorithms break the data apart
so that it will fit into the available space.
The process of defragmentation moves the data blocks on the hard drive around to
bring all the parts of a file together. Defragmentation reduces file system
fragmentation, increasing the efficiency of data retrieval and thereby improving the
overall performance of the computer. At the same time, it cleans the storage and
provides additional storage capacity.
Windows-based computers require periodic defragmentation; Unix and Linux-
based computers do not because of a different design for storing data, even if the
same hardware is used.
Back-end processes such as reading and writing storage media are always invisible
to users, who are unable to continuously defragment storage devices because of the
impact this has on a system's rhythm.
Defragmentation tools were introduced to eliminate this issue and are preinstalled
in different versions of the Windows OS. These built-in defragmenters rearrange
the hard drive data and reunite the fragmented files, which helps the computer to
run more efficiently. A hard drive uses automatic schedulers for periodic
defragmentation.

Start menu is a graphical user interface element used in Microsoft Windows since
Windows 95 and in some other operating systems. It provides a central launching
point for computer programs and performing other tasks in the Windows shell. The
Microsoft Windows Start menu is the primary location in Windows to locate your
installed programs and find any files or folders. By default, the Start menu is
accessed by clicking Start in the bottom-left corner of the
Windows desktop screen.

Notepad is a common text-only (plain text) editor. The resulting files—typically

saved with the .txt extension—have no format tags or styles, making the program
suitable for editing system files that are to be used in a DOS environment.
Notepad supports both left-to-right and right-to-left based languages, and one can
alternate between these viewing formats by using the right or left Ctrl+Shift keys
to go to right-to-left format or left-to-right format, respectively.

Paint (formerly Paintbrush for Windows) is a simple graphics painting program

that has been included with all versions of Microsoft Windows. It is often referred
to as MS Paint or Microsoft Paint. The program opens and saves files as Windows
bitmap (24-bit, 256 colour, 16 colour, and monochrome) .BMP, JPEG, GIF.
Paintbrush supports GIF without animation or transparency. Since Windows 98
Paint supports GIF with transparency. It also supports PNG (without alpha
channel), and TIFF (without multiple page support). The program can be in colour
mode or two-colour black-and-white, but there is no grayscale mode. For its
simplicity, it rapidly became one of the most used applications in the early versions
of Windows—introducing many to painting on a computer for the first time—and
still has strong associations with the immediate usability of the old Windows
workspace.

Microsoft WordPad is a free rich text editor included with Microsoft Windows 95
and the later. Earlier to Windows 95 there used to be an application called Write
for the same task. Although capable of doing much more than Notepad, WordPad
is not as advanced as Microsoft Word.
WordPad can format and print text, but lacks intermediate features such as a spell
checker, thesaurus, and support for tables. As such, it is suitable for writing letters
or short pieces, but underpowered for work that relies heavily on graphics or
typesetting.