( DATA COMMUNICAT

~ CREATED BY - Vivek
Agrawal

(VIVEK – AGRAWAL )
(BCA 2nd sem)
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Data Communication and Computer Network

Unit – 2
1). Theoretical Basis for Data communication.
Ans=> The theoretical basis for data communication in computer networks encompasses
several key concepts and models that describe how data is transmitted, received, and
managed across different systems. These theories and models ensure that data
communication is efficient, reliable, and secure. Below are the primary theoretical
foundations

1. Shannon's Information Theory

 Claude Shannon's Information Theory (1948) is foundational in understanding how
data can be transmitted over a communication channel. It introduces concepts like
entropy, which measures the uncertainty or information content in a message, and
channel capacity, which is the maximum rate at which information can be reliably
transmitted over a channel.
 Key Concepts:
o Entropy (H): A measure of the amount of uncertainty or the average
information content per message.
o Channel Capacity (C): The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted
over a communication channel without error.
2. Nyquist and Shannon Sampling Theorems
 Nyquist Theorem provides a criterion for sampling analog signals to convert them
into digital signals without losing information. It states that the sampling rate must
be at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal.
 Shannon Sampling Theorem builds on Nyquist's work and states that a continuous-
time signal can be completely represented in its samples and fully reconstructed if
it is sampled at a rate greater than twice its highest frequency component.
3. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)
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 The OSI Model is a conceptual framework used to understand and standardize the
functions of a communication system, divided into seven layers: Physical, Data Link,
Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
 Layer Functions:
o Physical Layer: Deals with the physical connection between devices and the
transmission of binary data as electrical or optical signals.
o Data Link Layer: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error
detection/correction.
o Network Layer: Manages logical addressing and routing of data across the
network.
o Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between end systems.
o Session Layer: Manages sessions or connections between applications.
o Presentation Layer: Translates data formats and encrypts/decrypts data.
o Application Layer: Provides network services to applications.
4. TCP/IP Model
 The TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is another
conceptual model, more practical than OSI, and forms the basis for the internet. It
consists of four layers: Link, Internet, Transport, and Application.
 Core Protocols:
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-
checked delivery of data.
o IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of packets across
networks.
5. Queueing Theory
 Queueing Theory is used to model and analyze the performance of networks,
focusing on the behavior of data packets in queues at different points in a network
(such as routers and switches).
 Key Metrics:
o Queue Length: Average number of packets in a queue.
o Throughput: Rate at which packets are successfully transmitted.
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o Latency: Time taken for a packet to travel from source to destination.

6. Error Detection and Correction
 Error Detection and Correction theories provide methods for identifying and
correcting errors in transmitted data. Techniques like Parity Checks, Checksums,
and Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) are commonly used.
 Forward Error Correction (FEC): Involves sending extra data (redundancy) to detect
and correct errors without requiring retransmission.
7. Modulation and Encoding Techniques

 Modulation Techniques: Modulate a carrier signal to encode information for transmission over a
medium. Techniques include Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), and Phase
Modulation (PM).

 Encoding Techniques: Convert data into a form suitable for transmission, such as Manchester
encoding, NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero), and Hamming Code for error detection and correction.

8. Network Theories and Algorithms

 Routing Algorithms: Determine the optimal path for data to travel across a network (e.g.,
Dijkstra’s algorithm, Bellman-Ford algorithm).

 Congestion Control Theories: Manage network traffic to avoid congestion, such as TCP congestion
control algorithms (e.g., Slow Start, Congestion Avoidance).

 Flow Control Theories: Ensure that a sender does not overwhelm a receiver by regulating data
flow (e.g., Sliding Window Protocol).

These theories form the backbone of modern data communication, enabling efficient, reliable, and
secure communication across computer networks.

Q.2) Transmission media..?

Ans=> Transmission media refer to the physical pathways through which data is
transmitted from one device to another within a network. These pathways can
be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed,
and interference. In this article, we will discuss the transmission media.
What is Transmission Media?
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver
i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
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~ type of transmission media…

1. Guided Media

Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

 High Speed

 Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such
pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Least expensive

 Easy to install
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 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky

Coaxial Cable
 It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband
mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables.
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Advantages of Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
 It is easy to install coaxial cables.
 Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and
durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers,
this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core
made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass
or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of
large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes,
namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
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Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

 Fragile

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the
earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-
frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched
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between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI
immunity.
Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as Terrestrial and Satellite.

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.
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Infrared

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves Vs Micro Waves Vs Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are
These are omni-directional These are unidirectional in
Direction unidirectional in
in nature. nature.
nature.

At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they can

They cannot
penetrate through solid penetrate through solid
penetrate through
Penetration objects and walls but high objects and walls. at high
any solid object and
frequency they bounce off frequency, they cannot
walls.
the obstacle. penetrate.
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Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

Frequency Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz to Frequency range:

range 1GHz. 300 GHz. 300 GHz to 400 GHz.

These offers medium These offers high

Security These offers poor security.
security. security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Some frequencies in the Some frequencies in the

There is no need of
Government radio-waves require microwaves require
government license
License government license to use government license to use
to use these waves.
these. these.

Setup and usage Cost is Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very
Usage Cost
moderate. high. less.

These are not used

These are used in long These are used in long
Communication in long distance
distance communication. distance communication.
communication.

Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media

 Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium’s bandwidth, the
faster a signal’s data transmission rate.

 Transmission Impairment: Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal

differs from the transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of
transmission impairment.
 Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disturbing a signal as it travels
over a communication medium with the addition of an undesired signal .
Causes of Transmission Impairment
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 Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with

increasing distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium.
This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated
signal which gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.
 Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally
seen in composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats
why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every component arrive at different
time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end
from what they had at senders end.
 Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is
called noise. There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise,
thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.

Conclusion
In conclusion, transmission media are fundamental ways for data
transmission in networks, and they are classified as directed (wired) or
unguided (wireless). Guided media, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial
cables, and optical fibers, provide secure, fast, and dependable data
transmission over short distances. Unguided media, such as radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared, provide wireless communication at
various distances, with security and attenuation trade-offs. The choice of
transmission media is determined by bandwidth, transmission
impairment, and interference.

Q.3). Twisted pair (UTP, STP)

Ans.=> What is an Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)?
UTP is a type of twisted pair cable. It stands for Unshielded twisted pair. Both
Data and voice are transmitted through UTP because its frequency range is
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suitable. In UTP grounding cable is not necessary also in UTP much more
maintenance is not needed therefore it is cost-effective.

Unshielded Twister Pair cable (UTP)

Features
 Cost-Effective: UTP cables are relatively inexpensive compared to other
types of network cables.
 Easy to Install: UTP cables are easy to install and terminate, which makes
them a popular choice for small and medium-sized networks.
 Vulnerable to Interference: UTP cables are vulnerable to interference
from nearby sources of electromagnetic radiation, such as power lines,
motors, and other electrical equipment. This can cause signal degradation
and data loss.
 Limited Distance: UTP cables have a limited distance over which they can
reliably transmit data, typically up to 100 meters.
What is Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) ?
STP is also the type of twisted pair which stands for Shielded twisted pair. In
STP grounding cable is required but in UTP grounding cable is not required. in
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) much more maintenance is needed therefore it is
costlier than Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
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Features
 Enhanced Protection: STP cables are shielded with a layer of metal foil or
braided copper mesh, which provides additional protection against
electromagnetic interference.
 Better Performance: STP cables can transmit data over longer distances
and at higher speeds than UTP cables, making them ideal for high-
bandwidth applications.
 More Complex to install: STP cables are more complex to install and
terminate than UTP cables, which can increase installation costs and
require specialized skills.
 More Expensive: STP cables are more expensive than UTP cables due to
the additional shielding and manufacturing costs involved.
Similarities Between Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted
Pair (STP) Cables
 Both UTP and STP cables use twisted pairs of copper wires for data
transmission. The wires are twisted together to reduce interference and
crosstalk between pairs.
 Both UTP and STP cables are commonly used in Ethernet and other
networking applications.
 Both UTP and STP cables can be terminated with the same connectors,
such as RJ-45 connectors.
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 Both UTP and STP cables can support various network standards, including
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet.
 Both UTP and STP cables have limitations on the distance over which they
can reliably transmit data, typically up to 100 meters for UTP and up to
1000 meters for STP.
Difference Between UTP and STP

Parameter UTP STP

UTP stands for

STP stands for Shielded
Unshielded Twisted
Twisted Pair.
Full Form Pair.

In UTP grounding
While in STP grounding
cable is not
cable is required.
Grounding Cable necessary.

Data rate in UTP is

slow compared to Data rate in STP is high.
Data Rate STP.

The cost of UTP is While STP is costlier than

Cost less. UTP.

Less maintenance Much more maintenance

Maintenance needed. is needed.

Noise is high
Noise is less.
Noise compared to STP.
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Parameter UTP STP

The generation of
Generation of crosstalk is
Generation of crosstalk is also high
also less.
crosstalk compared to STP.

Attenuation is high in
Attenuation is low.
Attenuation comparison to STP.

About 10 to up to About 10 to up to 100

Speed 1000 Mbps. Mbps.

Expensive than UTP and

Easy and inexpensive
Installation difficult to install.

Max nodes 1024 270

Data transmission
within short distance Connecting organizations
such as for home and over a long distance.
used for office networks.

Electromagnetic
interference is more Shielded Twisted Pair
in Unshielded cable reduces
Twisted Pair cable Electromagnetic
compared to interference because of
Electromagnetic Shielded Twisted Pair the protective sheath.
Interference(EMI) cable.
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Parameter UTP STP

UTP cables
categories as
specified by EIA-
Category-1,
Shielded cables have
Category-2,
commonly these
Category-3,
configurations- Foil
Category-4,
Shielded and Braid
Category-5,
Shielded.
Category-
5e,Category-6,
Category-6a and
Catagories Category-7.

Used for Telephone

Used in frigid
wiring, Local Area
temperature,emplyoed
Networks (LAN) and
under highg radiation etc.
Usage more.

Conclusion
In the conclusion, the choice between UTP and STP which to use is depends
on various aspects like enviroment, cost performance requirements
etc.Although UTP cables, lacking additional shielding are cost effective and
easy to install and ideal for low interference setting like home and officies. On
the other hand STP with its additinal shielding is best fitted for high
electromagentic interference places.

Q.4 ). Coaxial Cable= page no 6

Q.5). Fiberoptics: Selection and Evaluation factors ?

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What is Fiber Optics?

Fiber optics refers to the technology and method of transmitting data as light pulses along
a glass or plastic strand or fiber. Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance and high-
performance data networking. They are capable of transmitting data over longer
distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables, making them a
critical component in modern telecommunications, internet, and computer networking.
Main Elements of Fiber Optics
 Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically transparent dielectric
medium and carries the light transmitter to receiver and the core diameter may
vary from about 5um to 100 um.
 Cladding: It is an outer optical material surrounding the core having a reflecting
index lower than the core and cladding helps to keep the light within the core
throughout the phenomena of total internal reflection.
 Buffer Coating: It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made of silicon rubber.
The typical diameter of the fiber after the coating is 250-300 um.

Uses of Fiber Optics

 Fiber Optics can be used in Computer Broadcasting and Networking

 Fiber Optics are used on the Internet. They are also used in Television Cable.

 Fiber Optics are widely used in Military Activities. They are also used in Medical Purposes like for
precise illumination.

 They can also be used in Underwater environments as they don’t require to be replaced
frequently.

Advantages of Fiber Optics

 Fiber Optics supports bandwidth with higher capacities.

 Electromagnetic Interference is very little with Fiber Optics.

 Fiber Optics are stronger and lighter than copper cables.

 Very little Maintenance is required in Optical Fiber.

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Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

 Fiber Optics is more costly than Copper Wire.

 Huge manual work is required to install new cables.

 Some optical fibers like glass fiber require more protection.

 Fiber Optics are more fragile i.e., can be easily broken, or signals can be lost easily.

Questions to Consider When Selecting Process Grade Fiber Cable:

 Optical wavelength range of use.

 Diameter of the optical fiber cable.

 Environmental conditions.

 Required distance for signal transmission.

 Installation requirements.

When selecting and evaluating fiber optics for a particular application, several key factors must be
considered. These factors are crucial for ensuring optimal performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness
in both the installation and long-term operation of fiber optic systems. Here's an overview:

1. Type of Fiber

 Single-mode vs. Multi-mode:

o Single-mode fiber (SMF): Used for long-distance communication, typically over 10 km,
with a smaller core (8-10 microns). It supports higher bandwidth and is ideal for
telecommunications, internet backbones, and cable TV networks.

o Multi-mode fiber (MMF): Used for shorter distances, up to 2 km, with a larger core (50-
62.5 microns). It's suitable for LANs, data centers, and other applications where high data
rates over short distances are required.

2. Future Expansion

 Scalability: Consider how easily the fiber network can be expanded or upgraded in the future.

 Emerging Technologies: Keep in mind potential future technologies that may require different
types of fibers or higher capacities.

3. Connector Types and Compatibility

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 Connector Compatibility: Ensure that the fiber connectors are compatible with existing
equipment and the intended use.

 Connector Losses: Different types of connectors (e.g., SC, ST, LC) have varying levels of insertion
loss. Low-loss connectors are preferred

Q.6) Line of Sight Transmission,

Ans=> In computer networking, Line of Sight (LoS) Transmission refers to a communication method
where the transmitting and receiving antennas or devices must be directly visible to each other without
any physical obstructions in the path. This method is commonly used in wireless communication
systems, especially those involving high-frequency signals, such as microwave and infrared
transmissions.

Key Characteristics of Line of Sight Transmission:

1. Direct Path Requirement: The transmitting and receiving devices must have an unobstructed
direct path between them. Any physical obstruction, such as buildings, trees, or mountains, can
block the signal and disrupt communication.

2. High-Frequency Use: LoS transmission is typically used in systems that operate at higher
frequencies, such as microwaves, millimeter waves, and infrared. These high-frequency signals do
not easily diffract around obstacles, making a clear line of sight essential.

3. Applications:

o Satellite Communication: Satellites in orbit use LoS transmission to communicate with

ground stations.

o Microwave Links: Telecommunication companies use microwave towers to transmit data

over long distances, where each tower must have a clear line of sight to the next.

o Point-to-Point Wireless Networks: Many point-to-point wireless networking systems, like

certain types of Wi-Fi bridges, rely on LoS transmission.

4. Signal Propagation: LoS transmission often involves direct signal propagation, where the signal
travels in a straight line between the transmitter and receiver. This method typically results in
lower latency and higher data transfer rates.

5. Limitations:

o Obstruction Sensitivity: Any physical blockage can cause signal loss.

o Weather Conditions: Adverse weather conditions like heavy rain, fog, or snow can
attenuate the signal, especially at higher frequencies.

o Distance Limitations: The effective range of LoS communication is limited by the curvature
of the Earth and the power of the transmission signal.
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Understanding LoS transmission is crucial for designing and optimizing wireless communication
networks, ensuring that devices are placed in locations where they can maintain a clear line of sight to
function effectively.

Q.7) what is Communication satellites

Ans=> Communication satellites are artificial satellites that relay and amplify radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder, creating a communication channel
between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. These
satellites are used for a wide variety of applications, including television broadcasting,
internet access, telephone communications, and military communications.
Key Components and Functions:
1. Transponder: This is the primary part of the communication satellite, which
receives the uplinked signal, amplifies it, and retransmits it back to Earth on a
downlink frequency.
2. Antenna: The satellite uses antennas to receive and transmit signals to and from
the Earth. These antennas are typically highly directional to focus the signals on
specific areas.
3. Power Source: Communication satellites are usually powered by solar panels,
which generate electricity from sunlight. Batteries are used to store energy for
times when the satellite is in the Earth's shadow.
4. Stabilization and Control: Satellites have systems to maintain their orientation in
space and ensure the antennas are pointed towards the correct locations on Earth.
This includes gyroscopes, reaction wheels, and thrusters.
5. Orbital Position: Communication satellites can be placed in different types of orbits
depending on their intended use:
o Geostationary Orbit (GEO): The satellite orbits the Earth at an altitude of
about 35,786 kilometers and appears stationary relative to a fixed point on
Earth. This is ideal for consistent communication coverage over a specific
area.
o Low Earth Orbit (LEO): These satellites orbit much closer to Earth, typically at
altitudes of 160 to 2,000 kilometers. LEO satellites are used for mobile
satellite communications, such as satellite phones.
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o Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): These are in between GEO and LEO, often used
for navigation systems like GPS.
What are 10 uses of satellites?
Communications, spying, Ground Positioning System, weather detection, geological
studies, earth's magnetic field studies, sun studies, earth's surface mapping, missile
launch detection, and earth's atmospheric studies
Applications of Communication Satellites:
1. Television Broadcasting: Satellites deliver television signals to millions of homes
worldwide, enabling live broadcasts and satellite TV services.
2. Internet Access: Satellites provide internet connectivity, especially in remote and
rural areas where traditional broadband services are not available.
3. Telephony: Satellites support long-distance telephone communication, particularly
in areas where laying cables is impractical.
4. Military Communications: Secure and reliable communication channels for military
use, including command and control systems, are provided by dedicated military
communication satellites.
5. Disaster Management: Communication satellites are vital in disaster recovery,
providing connectivity when terrestrial communication infrastructure is damaged
or destroyed.
Communication satellites play a crucial role in the global telecommunications network,
enabling instant communication over vast distances and across remote areas.

Q.8) ~ Analog and Digital transmission.

Ans=> What is an Analog Signal?
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Analog signal is a type of signal that represents continuous data using a continuous range
of values. In other words, it can take on any value within a certain range. Analog signals
are characterized by their smooth and continuous nature.
For example, imagine a sound wave. In analog form, the sound wave is represented by a
continuously varying electrical signal that mirrors the fluctuations in air pressure caused
by the sound.
What is Digital Signal?
Digital signal is a type of signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values, typically
using binary numbers, it also contain different voltage values. Unlike analog signals, which vary
continuously over time, digital signals are discrete and quantized, meaning they only take on
specific, distinct values.

In digital communication and computing systems, information is encoded into digital signals for
transmission, processing, and storage. These signals are commonly used in telecommunications,
audio and video processing, computer networks, and many other applications.

~ Difference Between Analog And Digital Signal

The difference between analog signal and digital signal could be understood from the
table given below:

Basis Analog Signal Digital Signal

Analog signals represent

Digital signals are Discrete and
continuous variations in
quantized, with specific values.
Definition magnitude over time.

Signal Type Continuous waveforms Discrete Signals

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Basis Analog Signal Digital Signal

Requires complex processing for Easier to process and manipulate

Processing manipulation. digitally.

Less efficient for storage due to More efficient for storage due to
Storage continuous nature. discrete values.

Typically requires more Requires less bandwidth for

Bandwidth bandwidth. transmission.

Analog audio signals, analog

Digital audio signals, digital
radio waves, Human voice,
data streams, computers, etc.
Examples etc.

Susceptible to noise and More resistant to noise and

Errors distortion distortion

Circuit Amplifiers, filters, Microprocessors, binary

Component continuous-wave oscillators counters, logic gates

Signal Values Infinite range of values Limited to discrete values

Analog-to-digital conversion
No conversion required
Conversion (ADC) required

Analog signals are used in Digital signals are used in

electric fan, landlines, radio computers, smartphones,
frequency communications, digital sensors, digital
Applications etc. imagining, etc.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.9) what is switching

Ans => What is a Switch?

A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects other devices, like computers
and servers. It helps multiple devices share a network without their data interfering with
each other.
What is a Network Switching?
(Switching in IT and computer networking is the transfer of data packets, or blocks of data, through a
network switch. Switches transfer data from source ports on devices such as computers to destination
ports on devices such as routers.)

A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process of switching i.e.,
incoming data packets and transferring them to their destination. A switch works at the Data Link
layer of the OSI Model. A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source computer or
network and decides the appropriate port through which the data packets will reach their target
computer or network.

A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its
destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A switch does this effectively by maintaining a
switching table, (also known as forwarding table). A network switch is more efficient than a network
Hub or repeater because it maintains a switching table, which simplifies its task and reduces congestion
on a network, which effectively improves the performance of the network.

(Process of Switching)

The switching process involves the following steps:

 Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a computer connected to its
ports.

 MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data frame and collects the
destination MAC Address from it.

 MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC Address, it performs a lookup
in its Switching table to find a port that leads to the MAC Address of the data frame.

 Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch matches the destination MAC
Address of the frame to the MAC address in its switching table, it forwards the data frame to the
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

respective port. However, if the destination MAC Address does not exist in its forwarding table, it
follows the flooding process, in which it sends the data frame to all its ports except the one it
came from and records all the MAC Addresses to which the frame was delivered. This way, the
switch finds the new MAC Address and updates its forwarding table.

 Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch sends the data frame to that
port and forwards it to its target computer/network.

Types of Switching

There are three types of switching methods:

 Message Switching

 Circuit Switching

 Packet Switching

 Datagram Packet Switching

 Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Transmission page no 4 par hain

Q.10) Frequency Division and Time division multiplexing

Ans. => Frequency Division and Time division multiplexing

Multiplexing is used in cases where the signals of lower bandwidth and the transmitting media is having
higher bandwidth. In this case, the possibility of sending a number of signals is more. In this, the signals
are combined into one and are sent over a link that has greater bandwidth of media than the
communicating nodes.

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its signals in the
allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2 adjacent signals to avoid over-
lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted frequencies so this decreases the probability of
collision. The frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels, in which every user feels that
they possess a particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously at the same time
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each signal. It is used in radio and TV transmission.
Therefore to avoid interference between two successive channels Guard bands are used.

Application of FDM:

1. In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was used.

2. The use of FDM in television broadcasting

3. FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies.

#) Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

* Efficient Use of Bandwidth: FDM allows multiple signals to be transmitted over a single
communication channel, which can lead to more efficient use of available bandwidth.
* No Time Synchronization Required: FDM does not require precise time synchronization
between the transmitting and receiving devices, making it easier to implement.
* Low Implementation Cost: FDM is a relatively simple technique that does not require
sophisticated hardware or software, making it less expensive to implement.

Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 Limited Capacity: FDM is limited in terms of the number of signals that can be transmitted
over a single communication channel, which can be a disadvantage in applications where a large
number of signals need to be transmitted.

* Interference: FDM can be susceptible to interference from other signals transmitted on

nearby frequencies, which can degrade the quality of the transmitted signals.
Difficulty in Assigning Frequencies: FDM requires careful assignment of frequencies to different
signals to avoid interference, which can be a complex and time-consuming process.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

This happens when the data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and each
signal is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all transmissions appear to be
parallel. In frequency division multiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with different
frequencies, but in time-division multiplexing, all the signals operate with the same frequency at
different times.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

It is of the following types:

1. Synchronous TDM:

The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source is not ready with data at
this time. In this case, the slot is transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized voice streams.

2. Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM:

The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source or their ready state. It
dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input channels’ needs, thus saving the channel
capacity.

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

 High Capacity: TDM can support a large number of signals over a single communication
channel, making it ideal for applications where many signals need to be transmitted.

 Simple Implementation: TDM is a relatively simple technique that is easy to implement,

making it a cost-effective solution for many applications.


Precise Time Synchronization: TDM requires precise time synchronization between the
transmitting and receiving devices, which can help ensure accurate transmission of signals.

Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Inefficient Use of Bandwidth: TDM may not make optimal use of available bandwidth, as time slots
may be left unused if there are no signals to transmit during a particular time slot.

High Implementation Cost: TDM requires sophisticated hardware or software to ensure precise time
synchronization between the transmitting and receiving devices, making it more expensive to implement
than FDM.

* Vulnerable to Timing Jitter: TDM can be vulnerable to timing jitter, which can occur when the
timing of the transmitting and receiving devices drifts out of sync, leading to errors in the transmission of
signals.

Q.11) STDM (Statistical time division multiplexing )

Ans=> Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM) is one method for transmitting several
types of data simultaneously across a single transmission cable or line. STDM is often
used for managing data being transmitted via a local area network (LAN) or a wide area
network (WAN).
STDM stands for Space-Time Division Multiplexing. It is a technique used in
telecommunications and signal processing that allows multiple signals to be transmitted
over the same communication channel by separating them in both space and time. This
technique can be used to increase the capacity and efficiency of communication systems
by allowing multiple data streams to coexist without interference.
Key Features of STDM:
1. Dynamic Time Slot Allocation:
o In STDM, time slots are allocated to data streams dynamically. If a particular
stream has more data to send, it can be given more time slots, while streams
with less data will receive fewer slots.
2. Efficiency:
o STDM is more efficient than TDM because it reduces wasted bandwidth. In
TDM, time slots are assigned whether or not there is data to transmit,
leading to potential underutilization of the channel. STDM avoids this by only
assigning time slots when data is actually present.
3. Buffering:
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o STDM typically uses buffers to temporarily hold data before it is transmitted.

This helps in managing data streams that might have bursts of data or
periods of inactivity.
4. Statistical Analysis:
o STDM relies on the statistical behavior of data streams to make decisions
about slot allocation. For example, it may use historical data to predict which
streams are likely to need more bandwidth.
5. Applications:
o STDM is used in various communication systems where efficient use of
bandwidth is critical, such as in data networks, telecommunication systems,
and satellite communications.

Advantages of STDM:
 Better Bandwidth Utilization: Because time slots are allocated based on need,
STDM can make better use of available bandwidth.
 Flexibility: STDM can adapt to varying data transmission rates, making it suitable
for networks with fluctuating traffic.
Disadvantages of STDM:
 Complexity: The dynamic nature of slot allocation in STDM requires more
sophisticated hardware and software, which can increase the complexity of the
system.
 Latency: If the demand for time slots exceeds availability, some data streams might
experience delays, leading to increased latency.
Overall, STDM is a powerful technique for managing multiple data streams over a shared
communication channel, offering flexibility and improved efficiency compared to
traditional multiplexing methods.

Q.11.) Circuit switching, packet switching and message switching.?

Ans.=>
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Circuit Switching
In this approach, there is a dedicated route between sender and receiver. Before the link is determined
in the circuit switching approach, the dedicated route will continue until the connection is eliminated .

Parameters Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching

1. Dedicated There is a dedicated There is no dedicated path There is no dedicated path

Path path in circuit in message Switching in packet switching
switching

2. Connection By establishing a Between each node along Between each node along
dedicated path the route, a link is the route, a link is
between the source individually generated. individually generated.
and destination,
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

connection is made
possible.

3. Routing Between the source Messages travel a To carry the destination,

and the destination, separate path to their packets take an
there is just one destination. autonomous path.
dedicated path.

4. Data Entire message Entire message Into Packets

Segmentation

5. Routing There is no routing There is limited Routing There is Routing flexibility

Flexibility flexibility in Circuit flexibility in message in Packet switching
Switching switching

6. Bandwidth Yes No No
Reservation

7. End Telegraph, Teletype Telephone, modem Computer

Terminal

8. Addressing Geographical Hierarchical numbering Hierarchical address space

scheme addresses plan

9. Data Real-time Non-real-time Both Real-time and Non-

Transmission real-time

10. Network There is low There is low Resource There is high Resource
Resource Network Resource Efficiency(per message) Efficiency(Shared)
Efficiency Efficiency(dedicated
path)

11. Character message Circuit multiplexing Character multiplexing

Multiplexing multiplexing shared media access
Scheme networks
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

12. Examples Traditional Telex Systems is an Internet and Ethernet are

Telephone is an example for Message examples for Packet
example of Circuit Switching Switching
Switching

Message Switching:- is an approach in which a message is sent as a whole unit and

routed by the intermediate hub at which it is saved and delivered. There is no installation of
a dedicated route between the sender and receiver in the message switching approach.
The destination location is added to the message. It supports flexible routing as the
message is routed by the intermediate hub based on its data.

Packet Switching
Packet switching is a switching approach in which the message is transmitted in one go, but
it is split into the lower item, and they are sent separately. The message divided into lower
elements are called packets, and these packets are provided with a specific number to
recognize their series at the receiving end.
Data is sent in various units of variable length of structures which are known as packets in a
packet-switched network. Each packet includes some data in its headers, including source
address, destination address and order number.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Difference between Circuit Switching, Message Switching, and Packet Switching

End unit 2
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Unit- 3

Q.1) Brief Overview of LAN (Local Area Network) : Classification.

Ans=> A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and other devices within a
limited geographical area, such as a home, office, or a building. It enables devices to communicate and
share resources, such as files, printers, and internet connections. LANs are the foundation of networking
in smaller environments and are typically faster, more secure, and less costly than wider area networks
(WANs).

Classification of LANs

1. Based on Topology:

o Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable, called a bus. Data sent
from one device is received by all others, but only the intended recipient processes the
data.

o Star Topology: Devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Data from one device
passes through the hub before reaching the destination. This topology is common due to
its ease of troubleshooting.

o Ring Topology: Each device is connected to two others, forming a circular data path. Data
travels in one direction, and each device regenerates the data before passing it along.

o Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. This provides high
redundancy and reliability but is costly and complex to implement.

o Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more different topologies, like star-bus or star-
ring, to leverage the advantages of each.

2. Based on Transmission Technology:

o Ethernet LAN: The most common type of LAN, using Ethernet standards to transmit data.
It supports speeds from 10 Mbps to 100 Gbps.

o Wi-Fi LAN (WLAN): A wireless LAN that uses radio waves to connect devices. It offers
mobility and ease of installation but can be less secure and slower than wired Ethernet
LANs.

3. Based on Size and Scope:

o Home LAN: A small network within a home, connecting personal devices like computers,
smartphones, and smart home devices.

o Office LAN: A network within a small to medium-sized office, connecting computers,

printers, and servers.

o Enterprise LAN: A large network within a corporation or campus, connecting thousands of

devices across multiple buildings or floors.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

4. Based on Management Type:

o Client-Server LAN: A network where devices (clients) connect to a central server that
manages resources and access.

o Peer-to-Peer LAN: A decentralized network where each device has equal status and can
share resources without a central server.

LANs are crucial for enabling effective communication, resource sharing, and internet access within
confined spaces, forming the backbone of most local networks in homes and businesses.

Q.2) Brief overview of Wide Area Network (WAN).

Ans=> A WAN (Wide Area Network) is to connect multiple smaller Local Area Networks (LANs). It is a
computer network designed. WANs can help in communication, the sharing of information, and much
more between systems or devices from around the world through a WAN provider.

What is a WAN?

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers a large geographical area
consisting of two or more LANs or MANs. These networks are established with
leased telecommunication circuits, in which two sides which are connected have routers that connect
the LAN of both sides together in a network to facilitate communication.

WAN Full Form

History of WAN => The roots of WAN are connected to the U.S Department of defense which developed
ARPANET to let researchers communicate and share computer resources remotely. The connection can
be circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission or optical fiber transmission. It is used to
exchange data with users all over the world, they can be client, employee, buyer, seller, student, etc.
WAN has the ability to transmit data, image, audio data, video data over large distances.

What is a WAN Router?

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

An organisation can access a carrier network by using a WAN router, sometimes referred to as an edge
router or border router, which routes data packets between WAN locations. Packet over SONET/SDH
(PoS), Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), ATM, and Frame Relay are many WAN protocol were
developed.

(WAN Network)

What is Software-Defined WAN (SD-WAN)?

 It is a technique for making WAN architectures easier to construct, run, and
administer is software-defined WAN (SD-WAN). It relies on virtualization, overlay
networks, application-level policies and onsite SD-WAN devices
and software platforms.
 SD-WAN improves the efficiency of data transfer across a WAN by shifting traffic to
less expensive network links to replace more expensive leased or MPLS lines.
Types of WAN Technologies
There are mainly two technologies that are used in the WAN network design.
 Circuit switching: Circuit switched networks operate on the virtual connection
principle, which dictates that all messages will take the same way and that
resources along this path are set aside for this connection.
 Packet Switching: The size of a packet in a packet switched network is dictated by
the outgoing link, and these packets may follow different route. These packets are
ready to collected and reassembled at the destination.
 TCP/IP protocol suite: TCP/IP is a protocol suite of foundational of the internet
protocols used to interconnect devices on Internet and other computers networks
or device network. Full form of TCP/IP is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
 Router: A router is a networking device which transfers data packets between
device networks and also we can say it is used to interconnect LANs to form a wide
area network (WAN).
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 Packet over SONET/SDH (PoS): Packet over SONET and SDH is a communication
protocol used for WAN transport. When using optical fiber and SONET or SDH
communication protocol used to defines how point-to-point links communicate.
 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS): Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is an
IP packet routing technique and also a network routing optimization technique that
routes IP packet through paths via labels instead of looking at complex routing
tables of routers.
Characteristics of WAN
 Broader Reach: The reach of WAN in terms coverage of geographical area is very
high which can be a region, country or the world itself.
 Higher Capacity: The capacity of WAN in terms of number of LANs or
WANs connected in a network is very high, which results in connection of large
number of user over different location all around the globe.
 Use of Public Carrier: WAN uses telephone network, cabled system, satellites etc
for connection and transmission purpose which are easily available.
 Resource Sharing: WAN enables its users to share data and information over large
area. Computer resources can be accessed remotely which makes transmission and
exchange of data very easy.

Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to
transmit data quickly and cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data
provided by WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be
minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and
allows to exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and
high number of connected system within the network.

Q.3) Salient features and differences of LAN with emphasis on: Media,
Topology, Speed of Transmission, Distance, Cost.?
Ans=> Local Area Networks (LANs) are a type of network that connects computers and other devices
within a relatively small area, such as a home, office, or campus. Here’s a breakdown of the salient
features of LANs with emphasis on the specified criteria:

(1). Media
Media refers to the physical means through which data is transmitted in the network. The most common
types include:

 Twisted-Pair Copper Cables (Ethernet):

o Common Types: Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a, Cat7, etc.

o Use: Widely used for LAN connections.

o Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, and provides adequate speed for most
applications.

 Fiber Optic Cables:

o Use: Used for high-speed, high-bandwidth applications, often in backbones.

o Advantages: Supports higher speeds and longer distances than copper cables, immune to
electromagnetic interference.

 Wireless (Wi-Fi):

o Use: Provides wireless connectivity using radio waves.

o Advantages: Offers mobility and eliminates the need for physical cables, though it may
have higher latency and lower speed compared to wired connections.

(2). Topology
Topology refers to the layout or arrangement of devices in a LAN. Common topologies include:

 Bus Topology:

o Layout:- All devices share a common communication line.

o Advantages:- Simple and cost-effective for small networks.

o Disadvantages:- Limited scalability and difficult troubleshooting.

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 Star Topology:

o Layout:- All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

o Advantages:- Easy to manage, isolate issues, and expand.

o Disadvantages: The failure of the central hub can bring down the entire network.

 Ring Topology:

o Layout:-Devices are connected in a circular fashion.

o Advantages:- Data is transmitted in one direction, reducing the chance of packet

collisions.

o Disadvantages:- If one device fails, it can affect the entire network unless a dual-ring or
fault-tolerant mechanism is implemented.

 Mesh Topology:

o Layout:- Each device is connected to multiple other devices.

o Advantages:- Provides high redundancy and reliability.

o Disadvantages:- Complex and expensive to implement.

(3). Speed of Transmission

Speed of transmission varies depending on the media and technology used:

 Ethernet (Copper cables):

o Speeds:-Typically ranges from 10 Mbps (older Ethernet) to 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet) and
up to 10 Gbps or more with newer standards (e.g., 10GBASE-T).

 Fiber Optic:

o Speeds:- Ranges from 1 Gbps to 100 Gbps and beyond.

 Wireless (Wi-Fi):

o Speeds:- Varies widely depending on the standard (e.g., 802.11n up to 600 Mbps, 802.11ac
up to 3.5 Gbps, 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) up to 9.6 Gbps).

(4). Distance
Distance refers to the maximum length over which data can be transmitted without significant
degradation:

 Twisted-Pair Copper Cables (Ethernet):

o Maximum Distance:- Typically 100 meters (328 feet) without the need for repeaters.

 Fiber Optic:
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o Maximum Distance:- Can range from a few hundred meters to several kilometers,
depending on the type (single-mode vs. multi-mode).

 Wireless (Wi-Fi):

o Maximum Distance:- Typically ranges from 20 to 100 meters indoors, depending on the
environment and the standard used.

(5). Cost
Cost includes both the initial setup and ongoing maintenance:

 Twisted-Pair Copper Cables (Ethernet):

o Cost:- Relatively low for both cables and associated hardware (switches, routers).

 Fiber Optic:

o Cost:- Higher initial cost for cables and installation, but cost per bit transmitted is lower,
especially over long distances.

 Wireless (Wi-Fi):

o Cost: - Moderate; the cost of access points and wireless adapters can be higher than
Ethernet, but installation is simpler and often cheaper due to the lack of cabling.

Key Differences and Considerations:-

 Media: - Ethernet (copper) is most common due to cost-effectiveness, while fiber is
preferred for high-speed, long-distance applications. Wireless is favored for its
convenience and flexibility.
 Topology:- Star topology is the most widely used in modern LANs because it is easy
to manage and scale.
 Speed:- Fiber optic offers the highest speeds, followed by Ethernet and then Wi-Fi.
 Distance:-Fiber optic supports the greatest distances, making it suitable for larger
networks, while Ethernet and Wi-Fi are typically used for smaller areas.
 Cost:- Ethernet is generally the most affordable, while fiber optic involves higher
costs but offers superior performance, especially over longer distances. Wi-Fi offers
a middle ground with moderate costs and flexibility.

Q. 4). What is Terminal Handling …?

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Ans=> Terminal handling in computer networks refers to the processes and protocols
used to manage the interactions between terminals (such as computers, terminals, or any
devices that send and receive data) and the network infrastructure. This includes
managing how data is transmitted, received, and processed by different terminals in a
networked environment. Here's an overview of the key aspects of terminal handling:
1. Terminal Types
 Local Terminals:- Directly connected to a host computer or server.
 Remote Terminals: - Connected to a host over a network (e.g., via the internet or a
private network).
2. Communication Protocols
 Telnet/SSH: - Protocols for accessing remote terminals securely (SSH) or insecurely
(Telnet).
 Terminal Emulation:- Allows a computer to emulate a terminal, enabling it to
interact with legacy systems (e.g., VT100 emulation).
 X.25/Frame Relay:- Older protocols used for network terminal communication
over packet-switched networks.
3. Data Transmission
 Synchronous vs. Asynchronous:- Synchronous transmission involves data being
sent at regular intervals, while asynchronous transmission sends data irregularly, as
needed.
 Full-duplex vs. Half-duplex:- Full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way
communication, while half-duplex allows two-way communication but not
simultaneously.
4. Session Management
 Session Initiation: - Involves starting a communication session, often requiring
authentication (e.g., login prompts).
 Session Maintenance: - Ensures that the session remains active and data integrity is
maintained during the interaction.
 Session Termination:- Properly closing a session to ensure that resources are
released and data is not lost.
5. Error Handling
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 Flow Control:- Mechanisms (e.g., TCP windowing) to ensure that data is transmitted
at a rate the receiving terminal can handle.
 Error Detection and Correction:- Techniques like checksums, CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check), and retransmission protocols (e.g., TCP) to handle errors in
data transmission.
6. Security
 Encryption:- Ensures that data sent between terminals and the network is secure
and cannot be intercepted or altered.
 Authentication:- Verifying the identity of the terminal or user before granting
access to the network or resources.
7. Terminal Services
 Remote Desktop Services:- Allows a terminal to access a desktop environment
remotely.
 Virtual Terminal Services: - Allows multiple users to interact with a remote system
through terminal emulation.

8. Terminal Servers
 Devices or software that manage connections between multiple terminals and a
network or host system. They often provide services like buffering, session
management, and protocol conversion.
9. Terminal Handling in Modern Networks
 Cloud-based Terminals:- Modern terminals often interact with cloud-based
services, requiring different handling methods, such as load balancing, API
management, and more sophisticated encryption techniques.
 IoT Devices: - Terminal handling has expanded to include IoT (Internet of Things)
devices, which often have different requirements in terms of bandwidth, security,
and latency.
Terminal handling is a critical aspect of network management, ensuring that devices can
communicate effectively, securely, and reliably.

Q.5).what is polling …?
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Ans=> Polling is the process where the computer or controlling device waits for an external
device to check for its readiness or state, often with low-level hardware. For example, when
a printer is connected via a parallel port, the computer waits until the printer has received
the next character.
Polling in networking refers to a technique where a central device or controller
repeatedly checks each connected device to see if it has any data to send or receive. This
is a method used in various network protocols to manage communication between
multiple devices, especially in situations where devices share a common communication
channel.
Key Points:
1. Polling Mechanism : - The controller sends a signal or a request to each device in
turn, asking if it has data to transmit. If a device has data, it sends it; if not, the
controller moves on to the next device.
2. Advantages : -
o Control:- The central device has full control over the communication,
reducing the chance of data collisions.
o Simplicity:- The mechanism is straightforward and can be easier to
implement in certain scenarios.
3. Disadvantages : -
o Latency: - Devices might have to wait for their turn to communicate, leading
to potential delays, especially in networks with many devices.
o Inefficiency : - If most devices have no data to send, the polling process can
waste time and resources.
Use Cases : -
 Peripheral Device Communication : - Common in scenarios like communication
between a computer and its peripheral devices (e.g., printers, scanners).
 Shared Medium Networks : - Used in networks where multiple devices share the
same communication channel, like in some bus networks.

Q.6). Token passing in computer network…?

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Ans=> Token passing is a network protocol used in computer networks to manage access
to a shared communication channel, ensuring that only one device can transmit data at a
time. It is particularly useful in networks where multiple devices need to communicate
over the same physical medium, preventing data collisions and ensuring orderly
communication.
Key Concepts : -
1. Token:
o The "token" is a special data packet that circulates among devices in the
network.
o Only the device holding the token is allowed to send data.
o After transmitting its data, the device passes the token to the next device in
the network.
2. Token Ring and Token Bus:
o Token Ring: - In a token ring network, devices are arranged in a physical or
logical ring. The token circulates around the ring, and each device waits for
the token to reach it before transmitting data.
o Token Bus:- In a token bus network, devices are arranged in a logical bus
(linear) topology, but the token still controls access to the network. The
token is passed according to a predefined sequence among devices on the
bus.
3. Advantages :-
o Collision Avoidance:- Since only the token holder can transmit, collisions are
avoided.
o Deterministic Access:- Devices are guaranteed a chance to transmit, leading
to predictable performance.
o Fairness: - Each device gets equal opportunity to communicate as the token
circulates.
4. Disadvantages : -
o Overhead: - The process of passing the token adds some overhead, especially
in networks with many devices.
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o Single Point of Failure:- If the token is lost or a device holding the token fails,
the entire network can be disrupted.
5. Examples of Use : -
o Token Ring networks were popular in the 1980s and 1990s, particularly in
IBM’s networking systems.
o Token passing is also used in certain industrial networks and in some real-
time systems where deterministic communication is essential.
Process of Token Passing:-
1. Initialization:- When the network starts, a token is generated and passed to the
first device.
2. Token Passing: - The device that receives the token checks if it has data to send. If it
does, it sends the data and then passes the token to the next device. If it doesn’t, it
simply passes the token.
3. Transmission: - While holding the token, the device sends its data frames to the
network. Once done, it releases the token.
4. Token Management:- The token circulates continuously, ensuring that all devices
get a chance to transmit.
Token passing is an efficient way to manage network communication, particularly in
environments where controlled and collision-free access to the network is critical.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.7) IEEE Standards: their need and developments.

Ans => IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It is a professional
association with a nonprofit organization with its headquarter in New York in the United
States of America. It is composed of engineers, scientists, allied professionals, advancing
innovation and technological excellence for the benefit of humanity. IEEE mainly focuses
on the areas of Electrical Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Computer Engineering, and Information Technology.

History : -
On January 1, 1963, IEEE merged with two institutions, the AIEE (American Institute of
Electrical Engineers) was founded in 1884 and the IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers) was
founded in 1912 to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). In the
starting, it had 150, 000 members and 140, 000 from the United States.

Characteristics : -
1. Compatibility:- Able to achieve performance very similar to that currently offered
by Ethernet, meeting the current traffic demands.
2. Technical societies: There are various technical areas addressed by IEEE’s 39
societies and each one focused on a certain knowledge area.
3. Media:- Each of the IEEE standards specify the medium through which signals are
traveled in a network. Like Twisted Pair cable, coaxial cable, etc.
4. Speed:- The IEEE standard defines the maximum speed through which data can be
transferred. Usually, the data transfer speed is in Mbps, but in some fast systems, it
can go up to Gbps.
5. Access Method:- IEEE standard defines the method through which a network
system can access a transmission channel to send/receive the data.
6. Topology:- Topology used by the network can be implemented using the IEEE LAN
standard.
Advantages :-
1. The data communication system is faster than the speed of transportation.
2. Multi-path propagation increases the transmission rate and reduces error
incidence.
3. Manually fix the modulation used by the transmission.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

4. Developing standards for the computer and electronic industry.

5. It is a non-profit professional association and works for the benefit of Humanity.
Disadvantages :-
1. It requires periodic maintenance.
2. Network security needs to stay securety It has unauthorized

Unit – 3

end
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Unit – 4
Q.1.) Open System: What is an Open System? Network Architectures
Ans= > An open system is a computer system that can be modified and extended, and is
based on open standards that allow it to work with other systems. Open systems are also
known as open architecture or open source.
Some characteristics of open systems include: -
 Interoperability: - Open systems can work with other systems because they are
based on the same open standards.
 Portability: - Open systems can be used in a variety of environments.
 Source code:- The source code is available for understanding and possible
modification or improvement.
 Flexibility:- Open systems are designed to be adaptable and incorporate new
technologies and standards as they emerge.
 Transparency:- Open systems are designed to be transparent, allowing external
parties to access, modify, and redistribute their components.

Q.2 ) Network Architectures…?

Ans=> Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say
that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

ADVERTISEMENT
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network:-
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together
with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but
this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:-

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:-
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

(2).Client/Server Network :-
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients,
to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as
Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network
are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate
its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we
can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers
the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
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o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large

memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources
to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the
resources.

Q.3 ). ISO-OSI Reference Model…?

Ans=> What is OSI Model…?
The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO , is a reference framework that explains the
process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers that work
together to carry out specialised network functions , allowing for a more systematic
approach to networking.

Data Flow In OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of
OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then
climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
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The Seven Layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
o Function:- Deals with the physical connection between devices. It includes
the hardware elements involved in the transmission of raw binary data over
a physical medium (like cables, switches, etc.).
o Examples:- Ethernet cables, fiber optics, hubs, and switches.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

o Function:- Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error
detection/correction. It ensures that data is transferred without errors
between adjacent nodes.
o Examples:- MAC addresses, Ethernet, switches.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):
o Function:- Handles the routing of data across networks and manages packet
forwarding including the routing through different routers.
o Examples:- IP addresses, routers.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):
o Function:- Ensures complete data transfer. It manages the delivery of data,
including error recovery, flow control, and reassembly of data if necessary.
o Examples:- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):
o Function:- Manages sessions or connections between two applications. It
establishes, manages, and terminates the connections.
o Examples:- Session management protocols, APIs for managing sessions.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
o Function:- Translates data between the application layer and the network. It
manages data encryption, compression, and translation of data formats.
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o Examples:- SSL/TLS, data encryption protocols, data format translation.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
o Function:- The closest layer to the end-user, it interacts with software
applications to implement a communicating component. It provides network
services directly to the applications.
o Examples:- HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer:- Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer:- Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer:- Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer:- Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer :- Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer:- Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer:- Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly,
and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

Advantages of OSI Model

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The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers.
Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to
understand and troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model .
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 Complexity:- The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard
to understand for beginners.
 Not Practical:- In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
 Slow Adoption:- When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted
by the industry, which preferred the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.
 Overhead:- Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations,
which can make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 Theoretical: - The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great
for understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It has 4 layers named
as Physical layer, Network layer, Transport layer, and Application layer. It also can be
used as a communications protocol in a private computer network. It was designed by
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in the 1970s.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Advantages
 Many Routing protocols are supported.
 It is highly scalable and uses a client-server architecture.
 It is lightweight.
Disadvantages
 Little difficult to set up.
 Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the transport layer.
 Vulnerable to a synchronization attack.
Conclusion :-
In conclusion, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework
that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven
distinct layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and
Application. Each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts with the layers directly
above and below it, ensuring seamless communication and data exchange across diverse
network environments. Understanding the OSI model helps in troubleshooting network
issues, designing robust network architectures, and facilitating interoperability between
different networking products and technologies.

Q.4). Physical Layer - Transmission, Bandwidth, Signaling devices used, media type..?
Ans => The Physical Layer is the first layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model, responsible for the physical connection between devices. It handles the
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

transmission of raw data streams over a physical medium. Here's an overview of the key
aspects:
1. Transmission
 Role: The Physical Layer is concerned with the bit-by-bit transmission of data
between devices. It converts digital bits into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission across the chosen medium.
 Techniques: It uses various methods for transmission, including synchronous (data
transmitted at regular intervals) and asynchronous (data transmitted at irregular
intervals) transmission.
2. Bandwidth
 Definition: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a communication
channel can carry, directly affecting data transmission rates. It’s the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies in a continuous set of frequencies.
 Impact: Higher bandwidth allows for faster data transfer, supporting higher data
rates and more complex data types, like video or large file transfers.
3. Signaling Devices Used
 Examples:-
o Repeaters:- Used to regenerate or replicate signals that may have weakened
or degraded over distance.
o Hubs: - Simple devices that connect multiple Ethernet devices, making them
act as a single network segment.
o Network Interface Cards (NICs):- Hardware that allows computers to connect
to a network, converting data into a form suitable for transmission over the
network medium.
o Modems:- Convert digital data into analog signals (and vice versa) for
transmission over telephone lines.

4. Media Type:-
 Wired Media:-
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o Twisted Pair Cables:- Common in Ethernet networks; comes in shielded (STP)

and unshielded (UTP) varieties.
o Coaxial Cables: - Used for cable TV and early Ethernet networks; provides
better shielding against interference.
o Fiber Optic Cables:- Use light to transmit data; offers very high speeds and
bandwidth over long distances.
 Wireless Media:-
o Radio Waves:- Used in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks; allows data
transmission without physical cables.
o Microwaves:- Used for long-distance communication; typically require line-
of-sight between transmission points.
o Infrared:- Used for short-range communication, like remote controls or
certain types of wireless networks.
The Physical Layer essentially lays the groundwork for data communication, providing the
necessary infrastructure for the higher layers in the OSI model to operate.

Q.5.) Data Link Layer -: Addressing, Media Access Methods, Logical link
Control, Basic algorithms/protocols…?
Ans:- The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model. It plays a crucial role in ensuring reliable data transfer between adjacent network
nodes by providing error detection, flow control, and framing. The layer is divided into
two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC). Here's
a breakdown of key concepts related to the Data Link Layer:
1. Addressing
 MAC Addressing:- Each device on a network interface is assigned a unique Media
Access Control (MAC) address. This 48-bit address is usually represented as a 12-
digit hexadecimal number (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E). MAC addresses are used to
identify devices at the Data Link Layer and ensure data frames are delivered to the
correct destination.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

2. Media Access Methods

 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):- Used primarily
in Ethernet networks, this method allows devices to detect whether the
communication medium is free before transmitting data. If a collision occurs (i.e.,
two devices transmit simultaneously), the devices detect the collision, stop
transmission, and retry after a random time interval.
 CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): - Used in
wireless networks.
 (e.g.,:- Wi-Fi), this method involves checking whether the medium is free before
sending data, and if it is busy, the device waits for a random backoff period before
retrying. Unlike CSMA/CD, collision avoidance is prioritized due to the difficulties in
detecting collisions in wireless networks.
 Token Passing:- Used in Token Ring and Token Bus networks, this method involves
passing a token around the network nodes. A device can only transmit data when it
holds the token, preventing collisions.
 Polling:- A centralized controller asks each node in turn if it needs to send data.
Only the node being polled can transmit, avoiding collisions but potentially
introducing delays.
3. Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Error Checking and Flow Control:- The LLC sublayer provides mechanisms for error
detection and control (e.g., using frame check sequences). It also manages the flow
of data between devices to ensure that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow
receiver.
 LLC Protocols:- LLC protocols, such as IEEE 802.2, are used to manage
communication and multiplex multiple network layer protocols over the same MAC
layer.
4. Basic Algorithms/Protocols
 Sliding Window Protocol:- A flow control protocol that allows multiple frames to be
sent before needing an acknowledgment for the first one. The receiver can send an
acknowledgment (ACK) for multiple frames at once, improving efficiency.
 Stop-and-Wait Protocol:- A simple protocol where the sender transmits a frame
and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next one. It’s reliable but not
very efficient, as it waits for an acknowledgment for each frame.
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 Error Detection and Correction:- Methods such as Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
are used to detect errors in transmitted frames. If an error is detected, the frame
may be discarded or a request for retransmission may be made.
These components and protocols ensure that data is accurately and efficiently
transmitted across a network, handling the intricacies of physical media and preparing
data for the network layer.

Q.6.) difference between ISO – OSI model…?

Ans =>

Differences Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model.

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(OSI vs TCP/IP)
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model are two frameworks used to understand how data
moves through networks. While they both help in organizing network communication,
they have distinct structures and purposes. Understanding these differences is essential
for anyone learning about or working with computer networks

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

Transmission Control
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
Protocol/Internet
Full Form Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

It is horizontally
It is vertically approached
Approach approached
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Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Delivery of the package

Delivery of the package is guaranteed in OSI
is not guaranteed in
Model
Delivery TCP/IP Model

Replacing the tools is

Replacement of tools and changes can easily
Replacemen not easy as it is in OSI
be done in this model
t Model

It is more reliable than

It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model
Reliability OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but examples

include HTTP (Application), SSL/TLS HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP,
Protocol (Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP (Network), Ethernet
Example Ethernet (Data Link)

Error Built into protocols like

Built into Data Link and Transport layers
Handling TCP

Both connection-oriented (TCP) and TCP (connection-

Connection connectionless (UDP) protocols are covered oriented), UDP
Orientation at the Transport layer (connectionless)
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DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Other...
Q.1) Difference Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Data Transmission…?
Ans=> What is Synchronous Transmission?
In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in the form of blocks or frames. This
transmission is the full-duplex type. Between sender and receiver, synchronization is
compulsory. In Synchronous transmission, There is no time gap present between data. It
is more efficient and more reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer a large
amount of data.
Both the sender and receiver are synchronized with a common clock signal. This means
they operate at the same speed and know exactly when to send and receive data. Data is
sent in a continuous stream, with each byte or chunk of data following the previous one
without any gaps. It’s efficient for sending large amounts of data quickly because there’s
less overhead (extra bits) needed to start and stop the transmission.
Example:
 Chat Rooms
 Telephonic Conversations
 Video Conferencing

What is Asynchronous Transmission?

In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character. This transmission
is the half-duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added
with data. It does not require synchronization. Asynchronous transmission is like sending
individual text messages without knowing exactly when the other person will read them.
The sender and receiver do not share a common clock signal. Instead, data is sent one
byte or character at a time, with start and stop bits indicating the beginning and end of
each byte. Each piece of data is sent independently, with gaps in between, allowing the
receiver to process each byte as it arrives. It’s flexible and simpler to implement,
especially useful for communications where data is sent intermittently.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Example:
 Email
 Forums
 Letters

Difference Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission:

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In Synchronous transmission,
In Asynchronous transmission, data is sent in
data is sent in form of blocks or
form of bytes or characters.
frames.

Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

Synchronous transmission is
Asynchronous transmission is economical.
costly.

In Synchronous transmission, the In Asynchronous transmission, the time

time interval of transmission is interval of transmission is not constant, it is
constant. random.

In this transmission, users have Here, users do not have to wait for the
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

to wait till the transmission is

completion of transmission in order to get a
complete before getting a
response from the server.
response back from the server.

In Synchronous transmission,
In Asynchronous transmission, there is a gap
there is no gap present between
present between data.
data.

Efficient use of transmission lines While in Asynchronous transmission, the

is done in synchronous transmission line remains empty during a gap
transmission. in character transmission.

The start and stop bits are used in

The start and stop bits are not
transmitting data that imposes extra
used in transmitting data.
overhead.

Asynchronous transmission does not need

Synchronous transmission needs
synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in
precisely synchronized clocks for
this transmission for information of new
the information of new bytes.
bytes.

Errors are detected and corrected Errors are detected and corrected when the
in real time. data is received.

Low latency due to real-time High latency due to processing time and
communication. waiting for data to become available.

Examples: Telephonic
conversations, Video Examples: Email, File transfer,Online forms.
conferencing, Online gaming.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.2). What is Network Topology..? Different type of topologies bus ,ring ,star, tree, mess,
hybrid….?
Ans => Network topology refers to the layout or structure of a computer network. It
defines the way different components in a network, like links, nodes, and connecting
devices, are arranged and how they communicate with each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
1).Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender
and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

(Point to Point Topology)

2).Mesh Topology:-
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
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(Mesh Topology)
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number
of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is
also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

3).Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same
time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in
them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology,
many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.
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(Star Topology)
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks
where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
4). Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology,
various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections
like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
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(Bus Topology): - A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to
the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines
are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected
to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television
networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

5). Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with
100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-
Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit
the data.

(Ring Topology) : -
A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure. .
6). Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration )
are used.

(Tree Topology)
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top
of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child
nodes) of the company.
7). Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we
have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It
means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of
various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that
has been discussed earlier.

8). Hybrid Topology

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network
may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone
through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology
connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh
topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication
between different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each
building.

UNIT – 4

~ END
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

UNIT – 5
Q.1) Network Layer...?
Ans => What is the Network Layer?
The network layer is a part of the communication process in computer networks. Its main
job is to move data packets between different networks. It helps route these packets
from the sender to the receiver across multiple paths and networks. Network-to-network
connections enable the Internet to function. These connections happen at the “network
layer,” which sends data packets between different networks. In the 7-layer OSI model,
the network layer is layer 3. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a key protocol used at this layer,
along with other protocols for routing, testing, and encryption.
Features of Network Layer
 The main responsibility of the Network layer is to carry the data packets from the
source to the destination without changing or using them.
 If the packets are too large for delivery, they are fragmented i.e., broken down into
smaller packets.
 It decides the route to be taken by the packets to travel from the source to the
destination among the multiple routes available in a network (also called routing).
 The source and destination addresses are added to the data packets inside the
network layer.

Q.2 ) Routing…! Fewest-Hops routing..?

Ans=>What is Routing: -

Routing is a process that is performed by layer 3 (or network layer) devices to

deliver the packet by choosing an optimal path from one network to another.
It is an autonomous process handled by the network devices to direct a data
packet to its intended destination. The node here refers to a network
device called – ‘Router‘. Routing is a crucial mechanism that transmits data
from one location to another across a network (Network type could be any
like LAN, WAN, or MAN). The process of routing involves making various
routing decisions to ensure reliable & efficient delivery of the data packet by
finding the shortest path using various routing metrics.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 Fewest-Hops routing : - is a networking algorithm or strategy used to determine

the most efficient path for data to travel across a network. The primary goal of
Fewest-Hops routing is to minimize the number of intermediary nodes (or "hops")
that data packets must pass through to reach their destination.
Key Concepts:-
1. Hop:- A hop in networking terms is one segment of the path between source and
destination, typically defined as a direct connection between two network devices
like routers or switches.
2. Routing Table:- This table stores information about the routes to different network
destinations, helping the router decide where to forward packets based on the
Fewest-Hops principle.
3. Path Selection:- When data needs to be sent from one point to another, the routing
algorithm looks for the path with the fewest hops, which often correlates with
lower latency and higher efficiency, but not always the shortest geographical
distance.
4. Advantages:-
o Simplicity:- Easy to implement and understand.
o Efficiency:- Generally, fewer hops can mean faster data transmission and less
congestion.
5. Disadvantages:-
o It may not always be the optimal choice in terms of bandwidth or latency.
o It ignores other factors like network congestion, link reliability, and
bandwidth, which can lead to suboptimal routing decisions.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Fewest-Hops routing is often contrasted with other routing strategies, such as shortest
path routing, which might consider multiple factors, including link weights, to determine
the best path.

Q.3 ) type of services routing…?

Ans=> Types of Routing
Routing is typically of 3 types, each serving its purpose and offering different
functionalities.

1. Static Routing
Static routing is also called as “non-adaptive routing”. In this, routing
configuration is done manually by the network administrator. Let’s say for
example, we have 5 different routes to transmit data from one node to
another, so the network administrator will have to manually enter the routing
information by assessing all the routes.
Advantages of Static Routing
 No routing overhead for the router CPU which means a cheaper router
can be used to do routing.
 It adds security because only an only administrator can allow routing to
particular networks only.
 No bandwidth usage between routers.
Disadvantage of Static Routing
 For a large network, it is a hectic task for administrators to manually add
each route for the network in the routing table on each router.
 The administrator should have good knowledge of the topology. If a new
administrator comes, then he has to manually add each route so he
should have very good knowledge of the routes of the topology.
Configuration of Static Routing
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

R1 having IP address 172.16.10.6/30 on s0/0/1, 192.168.20.1/24 on fa0/0.

R2 having IP address 172.16.10.2/30 on s0/0/0, 192.168.10.1/24 on fa0/0.
R3 having IP address 172.16.10.5/30 on s0/1, 172.16.10.1/30 on s0/0, 10.10.10.1/24 on
fa0/0.
Now because only static routes for router R3:
R3(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2
R3(config)#ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.6
Here, provided the route for the 192.168.10.0 network where 192.168.10.0 is its network
I’d and 172.16.10.2 and 172.16.10.6 are the next-hop address.
Now, configuring for R2:
R2(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
R2(config)#ip route 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
R2(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
Similarly for R1:
R1(config)#ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5
R1(config)#ip route 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5
R1(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5

2. Default Routing :-
This is the method where the router is configured to send all packets toward a single
router (next hop). It doesn’t matter to which network the packet belongs, it is forwarded
out to the router which is configured for default routing. It is generally used with stub
routers. A stub router is a router that has only one route to reach all other networks.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Advantages of Default Routing:-

 Default routing provides a “last resort” route for packets that don’t match any
specific route in the routing table. It ensures that packets are not dropped and can
reach their intended destination.
 It simplifies network configuration by reducing the need for complex routing tables.
 Default routing improves network reliability and reduces packet loss.
Disadvantages of Default Routing:-
 Relying solely on default routes can lead to inefficient routing, as it doesn’t
consider specific paths.
 Using default routes may introduce additional network latency
Configuration of of Dynamic Routing
Using the same topology which we have used for static routing before.

In this topology, R1 and R2 are stub routers so we can configure default routing for both
these routers. Configuring default routing for R1:
R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.10.5
Now configuring default routing for R2:
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

R2(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.10.1

3. Dynamic Routing :-
Dynamic routing makes automatic adjustments of the routes according to the current
state of the route in the routing table. Dynamic routing uses protocols to discover
network destinations and the routes to reach them. RIP and OSPF are the best examples
of dynamic routing protocols. Automatic adjustments will be made to reach the network
destination if one route goes down. A dynamic protocol has the following features:
 The routers should have the same dynamic protocol running in order to exchange
routes.
 When a router finds a change in the topology then the router advertises it to all
other routers.
Advantages of Dynamic Routing
 Easy to configure.
 More effective at selecting the best route to a destination remote network and also
for discovering remote networks.
Disadvantage of Dynamic Routing
 Consumes more bandwidth for communicating with other neighbors.
 Less secure than static routing.
Q.4 ) Updating Gateway routing information..?
Ans=> Updating Gateway routing information typically refers to modifying the settings
that control how data is directed and managed within a network. Here’s a general guide
on how to update routing information on a gateway:
1. Access the Gateway Interface
 Web Interface: Most gateways have a web-based interface. You can access this by
typing the gateway's IP address into a web browser. Common IP addresses for
gateways are `192.168.1.1 ` or `192.168.0.1`
 Credentials: You may need a username and password to log in. If you haven’t
changed it, the default credentials are usually printed on the gateway itself or
available in the manual.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

2. Locate the Routing Settings

 Once logged in, navigate to the section labeled something like Routing, Advanced
Routing, Static Routing, or Network Settings.
 This section is where you can view and modify the routing table of your gateway.
3. Add or Modify Routing Information
 Static Routes: If you need to direct traffic to a specific network or IP range, you can
add a static route. You'll typically need to specify:
o Destination IP/Network: The IP address or range you want to route traffic to.
o Subnet Mask: Defines the network portion of the IP address.
o Gateway: The IP address of the next hop (another router or gateway) where
traffic should be sent.
o Metric: A value that defines the preference of this route over others (lower is
preferred).
 Dynamic Routes: If your network uses dynamic routing protocols (like RIP, OSPF, or
BGP), you can enable or adjust these settings to automatically update routing
information.
4. Apply and Save Changes
 After making your changes, ensure you apply or save them. Some interfaces may
require you to restart the gateway for changes to take effect.
5. Test the Configuration
 Verify that the new routing rules work by trying to reach the intended destinations.
You can use tools like `ping`,` tracert,` or ` traceroute` to check if the routes are
working correctly.
6. Backup Configuration (Optional)
 It’s a good idea to back up the configuration after making changes, so you can
restore it if needed.
If you’re working with a specific type of gateway or have a particular configuration in
mind, let me know, and I can provide more detailed steps.
Diagram same as a routing…
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.5) Brief overview of Gateways…?

Ans:- A network gateway is a device that connects different networks by translating
messages from one protocol into another protocol. The gateway monitors and controls all
the incoming and outgoing network traffic. Gateways are also known as protocol
converters because they play an important role in converting protocols supported by
traffic on different networks. As a result, it allows smooth communication between two
networks.

Features of Gateways:-
Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of these are:-
 A gateway is situated at a network’s edge and manages all data that enters or exits
the network.
 A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer
of the OSI model.
 Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and
divided it into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk.
 Gateways provide security within the network.

Types of Gateways:-
These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of direction of flow of data:
 Unidirectional Gateways:- Data can only pass through unidirectional gateways in
one direction. The destination node replicates changes made in the source node
but not the other way around. They are tools for archiving the packets.
 Bidirectional Gateway:- Data can pass through bidirectional gateways in both
directions. They are tools for synchronisation.
These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of functionality of Gateway:
 Network Gateway:- The most popular kind of gateway, known as a network
gateway acts as an interface between two disparate networks using distinct
protocols. Anytime the word gateway is used without a type designation, it refers
to a network gateway.
 Cloud Storage Gateway:- A network node or server known as a cloud storage
gateway translates storage requests made using various cloud storage service API
calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or REST (Representational State
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Transfer). Data communication is made simpler since it makes it easier to integrate

private cloud storage into applications without first moving those programmes to a
public cloud.
 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O):- Project HERMES and Global Educational
Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO) are two well-known I2O gateways that
connect devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft orbiting the earth.
 IoT Gateway:- Before delivering sensor data to the cloud network, IoT
gateways assimilate it from Internet of Things (IoT) devices in the field and
translate
between sensor protocols. They link user applications, cloud networks, and IoT
devices.
 VoIP Trunk Gateway:- By using a VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network, it
makes data transmission between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices like
landlines and fax machines easier.
How Gateways Work?
 The gateway receives data from devices within the network.
 After receiving data the gateway intercept and analyze data packets, which include
analyzing packet header, payload etc.
 Based on the analysis of the data packets, the gateway calculate an appropriate
destination address of data packet. It then routes the data packets to their
destination address.
 In some cases, the gateway might also want to transform the format of the
obtained data to ensure compatibility at the receiver.
 Once the data packets have been analyzed, routed, and converted, then the
gateway sends the last packets to their respective destinations address inside the
network.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

(Gateways)

Advantages of Gateways:-
 Gateway helps in connecting two different network.
 Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to the
network.
 Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.
 Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external attacks.
Limitations of Gateways:-
There are few limitations of gateways as well. Here are some of them:
 Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the network
requires time.
 Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other networks.
 The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost efficient.
 Gateway is hard to manage
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.6 ). Q.6) Bridges and Routers…?

Ans=>

Bridge is a network device, which works in data link layer. Through bridge, data or
information is not stored and sent in the form of packets. Whereas Router is also a
network device which works in network layer. Through router, data or information is
stored and sent in the form of packets. The main difference between bridge and router is
that, bridge study or scan the device’s MAC address. On the other hand, router study or
scan the device’s IP address.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Let’s see the difference between bridge and router which are given below:

S.N
O Bridge Router

1. Bridge works in data link layer. While Router works in network layer.

Through bridge, data or information While through router, data or

2. is not store and sent in the form of information is store and sent in the form
packet. of packet.

While there are more than two ports in

3. There are only two ports in bridge.
router.

While router is used by LAN as well

4. Bridge connects two different LANs.
as MAN for connection.

5. In bridge, routing table is not used. While in routers, routing table is used.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

S.N
O Bridge Router

Bridge works on single broadcast While router works on more than single
6.
domain. broadcast domain.

While Routers are difficult to setup and

7. Bridges are easy to configure.
configure.

While Router focuses on protocol

8. Bridge focuses on MAC address .
address.

While Router is relatively expensive

9. Bridge is comparatively inexpensive.
device.

Bridges are good for segment

While Routers are good for joining
10. network and extends the existing
remote networks.
network.

Q.7 ). Gateway protocols…?

Ans - Gateway protocols are essential in networking, acting as intermediaries to facilitate
communication between different networks or devices. These protocols enable the
translation, routing, and transmission of data across networks that may use different
technologies or protocols. Here are some of the most common gateway protocols:
1. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 Purpose:- BGP is a standardized exterior gateway protocol (EGP) that exchanges
routing information between autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet.
 Key Features:-
o BGP is crucial for determining the best paths for data to travel across the
complex and vast network of the internet.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

o It is a path vector protocol, using attributes like AS path, next-hop, and more
to make routing decisions.
 Use Case: BGP is widely used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and large
organizations to manage and control the routing of internet traffic.
2. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Purpose: - OSPF is an interior gateway protocol (IGP) used within an autonomous
system to route IP packets.
 Key Features:-
o OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that uses the Shortest Path First (SPF)
algorithm to determine the most efficient path.
o It quickly adapts to network changes and converges faster than other
protocols.
 Use Case:- OSPF is commonly used in enterprise networks to route data within a
single AS.
3. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
 Purpose:- EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol developed by
Cisco, functioning as an IGP.
 Key Features:-
o EIGRP uses a composite metric based on bandwidth, delay, load, and
reliability.
o It supports fast convergence and has features like unequal-cost load
balancing.
 Use Case:- EIGRP is used in large enterprise networks, primarily in Cisco
environments, to optimize routing within an AS.
4. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Gateway Protocol
 Purpose:- ICMP is used by network devices to send error messages and operational
information.
 Key Features:-
o ICMP supports diagnostics (e.g., ping, traceroute) and error reporting for
issues like unreachable destinations or time exceeded in transit.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

 Use Case:- It’s utilized in network troubleshooting and management rather than
routing.
5. Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)
 Purpose:- IGP is used for exchanging routing information within a single
autonomous system.
 Types of IGP:-
o RIP (Routing Information Protocol):- A distance-vector protocol that uses hop
count as a routing metric.
o IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System):- A link-state protocol
similar to OSPF, often used in large ISP networks.
 Use Case:- IGPs are used in large internal networks to route traffic efficiently.
6. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
 Purpose:- MPLS is a technique that directs data from one network node to the next
based on short path labels rather than long network addresses.
 Key Features:-
o MPLS improves the speed and efficiency of network traffic flow.
o It supports traffic engineering and can create end-to-end circuits across any
type of transport medium.
 Use Case:- MPLS is used by ISPs to deliver high-performance, scalable networks,
often in conjunction with BGP.
These protocols are fundamental for the functioning of modern networks, ensuring data
can be efficiently routed and managed across different systems and environments.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

Q.8). routing daemons…?

Ans => Routing daemons are specialized software programs that run on network devices
(like routers or computers) and manage the routing of network traffic. These daemons
help determine the best path for data to travel across a network, often dynamically
adjusting routes in response to changes in the network's topology.
Here are some common routing daemons:
1. Quagga: A popular open-source routing software suite that supports a wide range
of routing protocols, including OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), BGP (Border
Gateway Protocol), RIP (Routing Information Protocol), and others. It's used in both
academic research and production environments.
2. FRRouting (FRR): A fork of Quagga, FRRouting is an advanced routing software that
offers more features, better performance, and a larger community. It supports
protocols like OSPF, BGP, and others, and is used in many modern network
infrastructures.
3. Bird: An open-source routing daemon for Unix-like systems. Bird is known for its
high performance and scalability, and it supports IPv4 and IPv6, as well as a variety
of routing protocols like BGP and OSPF.
4. OpenBGPD: Part of the OpenBSD project, OpenBGPD is a lightweight BGP daemon
designed for simplicity, security, and ease of use. It's typically used in scenarios
where BGP is required but where performance and simplicity are prioritized.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

5. OSPFd: Specifically focused on OSPF, this daemon handles the OSPF routing
protocol, which is widely used in large enterprise networks.
6. XORP: The eXtensible Open Router Platform, XORP is a flexible open-source routing
software that supports various protocols like OSPF, BGP, RIP, and PIM (Protocol
Independent Multicast).
7. Babel: A distance-vector routing protocol daemon designed for networks with
complex or dynamic topologies. Babel is known for its robustness and ability to
handle network changes quickly.
These daemons allow network administrators to set up complex routing environments
and are essential for managing traffic in both small and large-scale networks.

Q.9 ) what is Ethernet …?

Ans => A local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various
terminals or computers within a building or limited geographical area. The connection
between the devices could be wired or wireless. Ethernet, Token rings, and Wireless
LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of standard LAN technologies.

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards
802.3. The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand,
implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation.
Key Features of Ethernet
1. Speed:- Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current
Ethernet standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.
2. Flexibility:- Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range of
devices and operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a
growing number of users and devices.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕

3. Reliability:- Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction techniques

to ensure that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness:- Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely available
and easy to implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring minimal
ongoing support.
5. Interoperability:- Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices from
different manufacturers to communicate with each other seamlessly.
6. Security: - Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and
authentication, to protect data from unauthorized access.
7. Manageability:- Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools available
to help network administrators monitor and control network traffic.
8. Compatibility:- Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking
technologies, making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.
9. Availability:- Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in almost
any setting, from homes and small offices to large data centers and enterprise-level
networks.
10.Simplicity:- Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It
does not require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and configure,
making it accessible to a wide range of users.
11.Standardization:- Ethernet is a standardized technology, which means that all
Ethernet devices and systems are designed to work together seamlessly. This
makes it easier for network administrators to manage and troubleshoot Ethernet
networks.
12.Scalability:- Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily accommodate
the addition of new devices, users, and applications without sacrificing
performance or reliability.
13.Broad compatibility: - Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of protocols and
technologies, including TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others. This makes it a versatile
technology that can be used in a variety of settings and applications.
14.Ease of integration:- Ethernet can be easily integrated with other networking
technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, to create a seamless and integrated
network environment.
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15.Ease of troubleshooting:- Ethernet networks are easy to troubleshoot and

diagnose, thanks to a range of built-in diagnostic and monitoring tools. This makes
it easier for network administrators to identify and resolve issues quickly and
efficiently.
16.Support for multimedia: - Ethernet supports multimedia applications, such as video
and audio streaming, making it ideal for use in settings where multimedia content
is a key part of the user experience.

Q.10). The Internet: The structure of the Internet, the internet layers, Internetwork
problems. Internet Standards…?
Ans => The internet is the largest structure of interconnected networks set up to allow
computers to communicate with each other globally using standardized communication
protocols.
The Internet is a vast and complex network of networks that enables communication and
data exchange across the globe. Here's an overview of its structure, layers, common
problems in internetworking, and the standards that govern its operation:
1. Structure of the Internet:-
The Internet is essentially a collection of interconnected networks that use standardized
communication protocols to link devices worldwide. The primary components of the
Internet's structure include:
 End Systems (Hosts):- These are the devices connected to the Internet, such as
computers, smartphones, and servers. They generate, receive, and process data.
 Routers and Switches:- Routers are networking devices that forward data packets
between networks, determining the best path for data to travel. Switches connect
devices within a single network and manage data traffic to ensure efficient
communication.
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs):- ISPs provide access to the Internet. They are
categorized into Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 providers, depending on their size and
scope. Tier 1 ISPs have the most extensive networks and do not pay for access to
any other ISP.
 Backbone Networks:- These are high-capacity networks that form the core of the
Internet, connecting major ISPs and handling vast amounts of data traffic. They use
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high-speed fiber optic cables and are the primary channels for long-distance data
transmission.
 Domain Name System (DNS):- The DNS is a hierarchical naming system that
translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP
addresses that computers can use to identify each other on the network.

2. Internet Layers :-
The Internet operates on a layered architecture known as the Internet Protocol Suite
(TCP/IP). This model is similar to the OSI model but has fewer layers. The main layers are:
 Application Layer: - This is the topmost layer where applications interact with the
network. Protocols in this layer include HTTP (for web browsing), FTP (for file
transfer), SMTP (for email), and DNS (for domain name resolution).
 Transport Layer:- This layer provides end-to-end communication between devices.
The main protocols are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol). TCP is connection-oriented, ensuring reliable data
transmission, while UDP is connectionless and faster but less reliable.
 Internet Layer:- This layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and packaging data
packets. The primary protocol is IP (Internet Protocol), which assigns IP addresses
to devices and routes packets to their destination. Other protocols include ICMP
(used for error messages and operational information) and ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol, which maps IP addresses to MAC addresses).

 Link Layer (Network Interface Layer):- This is the lowest layer, dealing with the
physical transmission of data over a network. It includes protocols and hardware
for Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other network technologies. It handles MAC (Media Access
Control) addressing and the physical transmission of data over various media.

3. Internetwork Problems:-
Internetworking, or the interconnection of different networks, can encounter several
challenges:
 Scalability:- As the Internet grows, ensuring that routers can handle an increasing
number of devices and data traffic is challenging. Solutions like CIDR (Classless
Inter-Domain Routing) and IPv6 have been developed to address this.
 Security:- Protecting data and networks from unauthorized access, attacks (e.g.,
DDoS), and data breaches is a significant concern. Security protocols like SSL/TLS
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and IPsec, along with firewalls and intrusion detection systems, are used to
mitigate these risks.
 Address Exhaustion: - The original IPv4 protocol, with its 32-bit addressing, allows
for approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses, which is insufficient for the modern
Internet. IPv6, with its 128-bit addressing, has been introduced to overcome this
limitation.
 Interoperability:- Different networks may use different hardware, software, and
protocols, making seamless communication difficult. Standardization and
adherence to protocols like TCP/IP help ensure interoperability.
 Latency and Congestion:- Data packets can be delayed or lost due to network
congestion, resulting in poor performance. Techniques like QoS (Quality of Service)
and congestion control algorithms are used to manage traffic and reduce latency.

4. Internet Standards:-

Internet standards are crucial for ensuring interoperability and consistent operation
across the global network. These standards are developed and maintained by
organizations such as:
 IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force):- The IETF is responsible for developing and
promoting voluntary Internet standards, particularly the standards related to the
TCP/IP protocol suite. It produces documents known as RFCs (Requests for
Comments), which specify protocols, procedures, and best practices for the
Internet.
 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers): - ICANN manages
the global Domain Name System (DNS), including IP address allocation and the
assignment of domain names.
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): - IEEE develops standards for
networking hardware and protocols, including the 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi.
 W3C (World Wide Web Consortium):- W3C is responsible for developing web
standards, including HTML, CSS, and XML, to ensure the long-term growth and
interoperability of the web.
These organizations work together to ensure that the Internet remains a robust, scalable,
and interoperable system that continues to meet the evolving needs of its users.
Uses of the Internet:-
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 E-mail:- E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one computer
user to one or more recipients. It refers to the internet services in which messages
are sent from and received by servers.
 Web Chat:- Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive
messages in real-time with others. By using Internet chat software, the user can log
on to specific websites and talk with a variety of other users online. Chat software
is interactive software that allows users to enter comments in one window and
receive responses from others who are using the same software in another
window.
 World Wide Web:- The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular information
exchange service. It provides users with access to a large number of documents
that are linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks.
 E-commerce:- E-commerce refers to electronic business transactions made over
the Internet. It encompasses a wide range of product and service-related online
business activities.
 Internet telephony: - The technique that converts analog speech impulses into
digital signals and routes them through packet-switched networks of the internet is
known as internet telephony.
 Video conferencing: - The term “video conferencing” refers to the use of voice and
images to communicate amongst users.
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FINALLY…

THE - END 😎
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK NOTES created by – Vivek agrawal😎💕