Design & Analysis of Algorithms Unit I

SRES’s
SHREE RAMCHANDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Lonikand, Pune – 412216
Department of Computer Engineering

Class:BE A.Y.2024-25
Sem :I Subject: Design & Analysis of Algorithm
Unit I
Q. Why correctness of the algorithm is important? Define loop invariant
property and prove the correctness of finding summation of n numbers
using loop invariant property. [Oct 2022 8M]

The correctness of an algorithm is crucial because it ensures that the algorithm produces the
correct output for all possible inputs within its specified domain. A correct algorithm meets its
intended purpose without error or unintended behavior. Without correctness, the algorithm may
produce incorrect results, leading to unreliable outcomes and potentially disastrous
consequences, especially in critical systems.

Loop invariants play a significant role in proving the correctness of algorithms, especially those
involving loops. A loop invariant is a property that holds true before and after each iteration of a
loop. It serves as a formal way to reason about the behavior of a loop and helps in proving the
correctness of algorithms that involve loops.

To prove the correctness of finding the summation of nnn numbers using loop invariants, we can
follow these steps:

1. Define the Loop Invariant: We need to identify a property that holds true before and
after each iteration of the loop. In this case, a suitable loop invariant could be that at the
beginning of each iteration of the loop, the variable holding the sum contains the sum of
the first iii numbers.
2. Initialization: We need to prove that the loop invariant holds true before the first
iteration of the loop. In this case, before the loop starts, the sum variable should be
initialized to 0, which satisfies the loop invariant because the sum of the first 0 numbers
is indeed 0.
3. Maintenance: We need to prove that if the loop invariant is true before an iteration of the
loop, it remains true after the iteration. In this case, during each iteration, we add the next
number to the sum. Therefore, after each iteration, the sum variable contains the sum of
the first iii numbers, satisfying the loop invariant.
4. Termination: We need to prove that when the loop terminates, the loop invariant implies
the correctness of the algorithm. In this case, when the loop terminates after processing
all nnn numbers, the sum variable contains the sum of all nnn numbers, which is the
desired result.

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By establishing these steps, we can formally prove the correctness of finding the summation of
nnn numbers using loop invariants, ensuring that the algorithm produces the correct result for
any input.

Q. What is iterative algorithm? Explain iteractive algorithm design issues

using examples. [Oct 2022 7M]

An iterative algorithm is a type of algorithm that uses iteration (repetition) to solve a problem. In
iterative algorithms, a set of instructions is repeated in a loop until a specific condition is met,
typically until the desired solution is found or a termination criterion is satisfied. Iterative
algorithms are contrasted with recursive algorithms, which call themselves to solve smaller
instances of the same problem.

Here are some key points and design issues associated with iterative algorithm design, illustrated
with examples:

1. Termination Condition: One crucial aspect of iterative algorithms is defining a

termination condition that determines when the iteration should stop. This condition
ensures that the algorithm does not run indefinitely. Without a proper termination
condition, the algorithm may either terminate prematurely or enter an infinite loop.

Example: In a binary search algorithm, the iteration stops when the search space is
narrowed down to a single element or when the target element is found.

2. Initialization: Iterative algorithms often require initialization of variables or data

structures before entering the iteration loop. Proper initialization ensures that the
algorithm starts with the correct state.

Example: In iterative sorting algorithms like bubble sort or selection sort, the initial state
involves setting up the variables or data structures to represent the initial unsorted array.

3. Updating State: Iterative algorithms need to update their state in each iteration to make
progress toward the solution. This may involve modifying variables, updating data
structures, or adjusting loop conditions.

Example: In an iterative factorial calculation algorithm, the state is updated in each

iteration by multiplying the current result by the next integer until reaching the desired
factorial value.

4. Efficiency and Optimization: Designing iterative algorithms often involves

considerations of efficiency and optimization to improve performance in terms of time
complexity, space complexity, or both.

Example: In iterative dynamic programming algorithms like the iterative version of the
Fibonacci sequence calculation, optimizing space usage by storing only the necessary

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intermediate results can significantly improve performance compared to a naive recursive

approach.

5. Handling Edge Cases: Iterative algorithms should be designed to handle edge cases and
boundary conditions gracefully to ensure correct behavior across all possible inputs.

Example: In iterative graph traversal algorithms like breadth-first search (BFS) or depth-
first search (DFS), handling disconnected graphs or graphs with cycles requires careful
consideration to avoid infinite loops or missing nodes.

Overall, iterative algorithm design involves addressing these issues to create efficient, correct,
and robust algorithms for solving various computational problems.

Q. How to prove that an algorithm is correct? How to prove the correctness

of an algorithm using counter example? Give suitable example. [Oct 2022 7M]

Proving the correctness of an algorithm involves demonstrating that it always produces the
correct output for all possible inputs within its specified domain. There are various techniques to
prove algorithm correctness, including mathematical induction, loop invariants, and proof by
contradiction. Here, I'll focus on using counterexamples to prove the correctness of an algorithm.

Using counterexamples to prove correctness involves finding specific inputs for which the
algorithm produces incorrect results. If such inputs exist, it indicates a flaw in the algorithm's
logic or implementation. Here's a general approach:

1. Understand the Algorithm: First, thoroughly understand the algorithm's logic, including
its inputs, outputs, and expected behavior for different scenarios.
2. Identify Potential Issues: Analyze the algorithm to identify potential edge cases,
boundary conditions, or scenarios where it might fail to produce the correct output.
3. Construct Counterexamples: Based on the identified potential issues, construct specific
input cases that exploit these weaknesses to produce incorrect results.
4. Verify Results: Execute the algorithm with the constructed counterexamples to confirm
that it indeed produces incorrect outputs for those inputs.
5. Analyze and Refine: Analyze why the algorithm failed for the counterexamples and
refine its logic or implementation to address the identified issues.

Here's a simple example demonstrating the use of counterexamples to prove the correctness of an
algorithm:

Algorithm: Square Function

1. Input: An integer n
2. Output: The square of n
3. Algorithm:

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a. If n is negative, return an error

b. Otherwise, return n * n

Potential Issue: The algorithm may not handle negative inputs correctly.

Counterexample: Consider the input n=−3n = -3n=−3.

Expected Output: The square of −3-3−3 should be 999.

Actual Output (Faulty Algorithm): The algorithm returns an error instead of 999.

Conclusion: The algorithm fails to produce the correct output for the counterexample n=−3n = -
3n=−3, indicating a flaw in its logic for handling negative inputs.

In this example, the counterexample n=−3n = -3n=−3 demonstrates that the algorithm is
incorrect for handling negative inputs. By identifying and presenting such counterexamples, we
can prove that the algorithm is not correct for all possible inputs and needs refinement.

Q. Write a short note on any 4 problem solving strategies. [Oct 2022 8M]

1. Divide and Conquer:

o Approach: Break the problem into smaller subproblems, solve them
independently, and then combine their solutions to solve the original problem.
o Example: Merge Sort divides the array into two halves, recursively sorts each
half, and then merges the sorted halves.
o Advantages: Efficient for solving complex problems by simplifying them into
manageable parts. Can be parallelized for improved performance.
2. Dynamic Programming:
o Approach: Break the problem into overlapping subproblems and solve each
subproblem only once, storing the solutions in a table to avoid redundant
computations.
o Example: Fibonacci sequence calculation using memoization to store
intermediate results to avoid recalculations.
o Advantages: Efficiently solves problems with overlapping subproblems by
eliminating redundant computations. Suitable for optimization problems.
3. Greedy Algorithms:
o Approach: Make a series of locally optimal choices at each step with the hope of
finding a global optimum solution.
o Example: Dijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path in a graph makes
locally optimal choices at each step.
o Advantages: Simple to implement and efficient for solving problems with
optimal substructure. Often yields good approximate solutions.
4. Backtracking:

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o Approach: Systematically search through all possible solutions to find the correct
one, abandoning partial solutions as soon as they cannot lead to a valid solution.
o Example: N-Queens problem, where the algorithm recursively tries different
arrangements of queens on a chessboard and backtracks when it reaches an
invalid arrangement.
o Advantages: Guarantees finding all possible solutions to a problem. Suitable for
problems with a finite number of potential solutions.

These problem-solving strategies provide different approaches to tackle a wide range of

computational problems, each with its strengths and weaknesses. The choice of strategy depends
on the nature of the problem, the available resources, and the desired solution characteristics.

Q. Given the fastest computer and hypothetically infinite memory, do we

still need to study algorithms? Justify. [Sept 2023 2M]

Even with the fastest computer and hypothetically infinite memory, the need to study algorithms
remains crucial. Here's why:

1. Optimization of Resources: Algorithms are not only about computational speed but also
about resource utilization. Even with infinite memory, inefficient algorithms can waste
computational resources such as CPU time and energy. Studying algorithms helps
optimize resource usage, leading to more efficient and sustainable computing.
2. Scalability: While a fast computer can handle large-scale computations more quickly,
poorly designed algorithms can still become impractical as the problem size increases.
Understanding algorithms enables us to develop solutions that scale efficiently, ensuring
that computational tasks remain feasible even for massive datasets or complex problems.
3. Complexity Management: Algorithms help manage the complexity of problem-solving.
Many real-world problems are inherently complex, and algorithms provide systematic
approaches to tackle them. Even with unlimited computational power, complex problems
require structured problem-solving strategies provided by algorithms.
4. Robustness and Reliability: Efficient algorithms are not only about speed but also about
reliability and robustness. They should produce correct results under all possible
conditions. Studying algorithms helps in developing robust solutions that handle edge
cases, errors, and unexpected inputs gracefully, ensuring the reliability of computational
systems.
5. Innovation and Creativity: Algorithmic thinking fosters innovation and creativity in
problem-solving. By studying algorithms, researchers and developers can explore new
ideas, invent novel approaches, and push the boundaries of what is computationally
possible. This creativity drives technological advancement, leading to new discoveries
and applications.
6. Understanding Limitations: Even with unlimited computational resources, certain
problems remain inherently difficult or unsolvable. Studying algorithms helps in
understanding the theoretical limits of computation, including problems that are
computationally intractable or undecidable. This knowledge guides researchers in
identifying areas for further exploration and developing alternative problem-solving
strategies.

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In summary, studying algorithms goes beyond merely achieving faster computation. It

encompasses efficient resource utilization, scalability, complexity management, reliability,
innovation, and understanding computational limitations. Regardless of the computational power
available, algorithms play a fundamental role in shaping how we approach and solve problems in
computer science and beyond.

Q. How can we related algorithms to technology? Briefly explain. [Sept 2023

8M]

1. Software Development: Algorithms form the backbone of software development. They

are the building blocks used to design and implement software systems across a wide
range of applications, including operating systems, databases, web applications, and
mobile apps. From sorting and searching algorithms to machine learning algorithms, they
power the functionality of software products.
2. Data Processing and Analysis: In the era of big data, algorithms are crucial for
processing, analyzing, and extracting insights from large datasets. Data mining
algorithms, statistical algorithms, and machine learning algorithms enable organizations
to make data-driven decisions, identify patterns, and predict future trends.
3. Networking and Communication: Algorithms play a vital role in networking and
communication technologies. Routing algorithms determine the most efficient paths for
data packets to travel across networks, while encryption algorithms ensure secure
communication and data transmission over the internet.
4. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Algorithms are at the heart of artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) systems. ML algorithms, such as neural
networks, decision trees, and support vector machines, enable computers to learn from
data, recognize patterns, and make predictions without being explicitly programmed.
5. Optimization and Efficiency: Algorithms are essential for optimizing and improving the
efficiency of various technological systems. Optimization algorithms, such as genetic
algorithms and simulated annealing, help find the best solutions to complex optimization
problems in fields like logistics, scheduling, and resource allocation.
6. Hardware Design: Algorithms also influence hardware design, particularly in the field
of computer architecture and digital circuit design. Algorithms for optimizing processor
performance, memory management, and power consumption contribute to the
development of faster, more efficient computing devices.

In essence, algorithms are the underlying principles that drive technological innovation and
advancement across diverse domains. They enable the creation of efficient, reliable, and
intelligent systems that power the modern world.

Q. Consider an array A of n integers which are already in sorted order. Let x

be the number being searched in the array A in a liner fashion. The code
fragment performing this task is given below: [Sept 2023 7M]
int lin _ search (int A [])

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{
i=0; flag=0;
do { if (x = = A [i]) then
return (1); // Number found
else
i++;
} while (i<n);
return (0); // Number not found.
}
i) Is this code fragment efficient? (We wish to use linear search only).
Justify your answer.
ii) Does it attribute to any design issue with respect to iterative algorithm?
Briefly explain.

i) Efficiency of the Code Fragment:

No, this code fragment is not efficient. The efficiency of linear search depends on the size of the
input array and the position of the target element within the array. In the worst-case scenario,
where the target element is not present in the array or is located at the last position, the algorithm
will have to traverse the entire array, resulting in a time complexity of O(n), where n is the size
of the array.

However, the code lacks an optimization that could potentially make it more efficient. Since the
array is already sorted, we can stop the search as soon as we encounter an element greater than
the target element. This optimization would lead to early termination of the search in many
cases, reducing the average-case time complexity to O(n/2) or approximately O(n), but the
worst-case complexity remains O(n).

ii) Design Issue with Respect to Iterative Algorithm:

Yes, this code fragment exhibits a design issue with respect to iterative algorithm design. The
issue lies in the absence of a loop termination condition based on the sorted property of the array.
Since the array is sorted, once we encounter an element greater than the target element, we can
safely conclude that the target element is not present in the array. By incorporating this
knowledge into the termination condition of the loop, we can potentially improve the efficiency
of the algorithm.

Therefore, the design issue is the failure to take advantage of the sorted nature of the array to
optimize the search process. Incorporating this optimization would enhance the efficiency of the
algorithm by reducing unnecessary iterations, especially in cases where the target element is not
present in the array or is located towards the end of the array.

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Q. What is iterative algorithm? Explain interative algorithm design issues

using
suitable examples. [Sept 2023 8M]

An iterative algorithm is a type of algorithm that uses iteration (repetition) to solve a problem. In
iterative algorithms, a set of instructions is repeated in a loop until a specific condition is met,
typically until the desired solution is found or a termination criterion is satisfied. Iterative
algorithms are contrasted with recursive algorithms, which call themselves to solve smaller
instances of the same problem.

Iterative algorithm design involves addressing several key issues to ensure efficiency,
correctness, and robustness. Here are some common iterative algorithm design issues explained
with suitable examples:

1. Termination Condition:
o Issue: Determining the appropriate termination condition is crucial to ensure that
the algorithm stops iterating when it has achieved its objective or when further
iteration is unnecessary.
o Example: In a binary search algorithm, the termination condition is typically
based on narrowing down the search space to a single element or until the target
element is found.
2. Initialization:
o Issue: Proper initialization of variables or data structures before entering the
iteration loop is essential to ensure that the algorithm starts with the correct state.
o Example: In iterative sorting algorithms like bubble sort or selection sort,
initializing variables to represent the initial unsorted array is necessary before
starting the sorting process.
3. Updating State:
o Issue: Iterative algorithms must update their state in each iteration to make
progress toward the solution or termination.
o Example: In an iterative factorial calculation algorithm, the state is updated in
each iteration by multiplying the current result by the next integer until reaching
the desired factorial value.
4. Efficiency and Optimization:
o Issue: Designing iterative algorithms involves considerations of efficiency and
optimization to improve performance in terms of time complexity, space
complexity, or both.
o Example: In iterative dynamic programming algorithms like the iterative version
of the Fibonacci sequence calculation, optimizing space usage by storing only the
necessary intermediate results can significantly improve performance compared to
a naive recursive approach.
5. Handling Edge Cases:
o Issue: Iterative algorithms should be designed to handle edge cases and boundary
conditions gracefully to ensure correct behavior across all possible inputs.

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o Example: In iterative graph traversal algorithms like breadth-first search (BFS) or

depth-first search (DFS), handling disconnected graphs or graphs with cycles
requires careful consideration to avoid infinite loops or missing nodes.

Addressing these iterative algorithm design issues ensures that the algorithm is efficient, correct,
and robust, enabling it to solve computational problems effectively.

Q. Consider the following algorithm to find the square of a number:

int sqr(int n)
{
if (n= = 0)
return 0;
else
return (2n+sqr(n-1)-1)
Prove the correctness of this algorithm using principle of mathematical
induction or otherwise.[Sept 2023 7M]

To prove the correctness of the given algorithm, let's use mathematical induction. The goal is to
show that the algorithm correctly computes the square of a number nnn.

1. Base Case: First, we verify that the algorithm works correctly for the base case n=0n =
0n=0.
o For n=0n = 0n=0, the algorithm correctly returns 0, which is the square of 0. So,
the base case holds true.
2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume that the algorithm correctly computes the square of kkk
for some arbitrary positive integer kkk, where k>0k > 0k>0.
o Let's assume that sqr(k)=k2\text{sqr}(k) = k^2sqr(k)=k2 is true.
3. Inductive Step: We need to prove that if the algorithm correctly computes the square of
kkk, then it also computes the square of k+1k+1k+1.
o We have: sqr(k+1)=2(k+1)+sqr(k)−1\text{sqr}(k+1) = 2(k+1) + \text{sqr}(k) -
1sqr(k+1)=2(k+1)+sqr(k)−1
o Using the inductive hypothesis (sqr(k)=k2\text{sqr}(k) = k^2sqr(k)=k2), we can
substitute: sqr(k+1)=2(k+1)+k2−1\text{sqr}(k+1) = 2(k+1) + k^2 -
1sqr(k+1)=2(k+1)+k2−1
o Simplifying: sqr(k+1)=2k+2+k2−1=k2+2k+1=(k+1)2\begin{align*}
\text{sqr}(k+1) &= 2k + 2 + k^2 - 1 \\ &= k^2 + 2k + 1 \\ &= (k+1)^2
\end{align*}sqr(k+1)=2k+2+k2−1=k2+2k+1=(k+1)2
o This matches the definition of (k+1)2(k+1)^2(k+1)2, so the inductive step holds
true.
4. Conclusion: By mathematical induction, we have shown that the algorithm correctly
computes the square of any non-negative integer nnn.

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Therefore, the given algorithm is correct for finding the square of a number, as it follows the
mathematical definition of squaring integers.

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