CE 22

Geotechnical Engineering
Week 10 Lecture Notes

Compaction
Compaction is the process wherein soils are made denser through the removal of the air
component. This process increases the strength characteristics of soils as it decreases the
undesirable settlement of structures and increases the stability of slopes and embankments.

By principle, the degree of compaction is measured in terms of the soil’s dry unit weight. As
water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as the softening agent to the soil
particles. As a result, the soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position. As the moisture content increases due to the presence of water, there comes a
point wherein any further increase would only result in the decrease of dry unit weight and
eventually the strength of the soil. This is demonstrated by Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Principle of Compaction

Standard Proctor Test

The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and
the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test (Proctor, 1933). In this
test, the soil is first compacted into a mold (ASTM D698 or AASHTO T-99). As the test is
conducted, the mold is attached to a base plate at the bottom and to an extension at the top.
From there, the soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted into three
equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The set-up is as shown in
Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Set-up for Standard Proctor Test

For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ, is calculated as:

𝑊
γ = 𝑉(𝑚)

Where:

𝑉(𝑚) = volume of the mold

For every value of the moist unit weight, the moisture content should be obtained separately
through oven drying methods. With its value known, the dry unit weight can be calculated as:

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γ
γ𝑑 = 1+ω

From here, the values of γ𝑑 determined from the equation above can be plotted against its
corresponding moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight under compaction
and its optimum moisture content. An example of its output is shown in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Standard Proctor compaction test results

As we do the test, we recall as well that:

𝐺𝑠γ𝑤
γ𝑑 = 1+𝑒
and 𝑆𝑒 = ω𝐺𝑠

Combining these equations, we get:

𝐺𝑠γ𝑤
γ𝑑 = 𝐺𝑠ω
1+ 𝑆

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Theoretically, the maximum dry unit weight for a given moisture content is obtained when no
air is in the voids spaces, meaning the soil is fully saturated. With this interpretation, we
equate S = 1, and obtain γ𝑧𝑎𝑣to be:

𝐺𝑠γ𝑤 γ𝑤
γ𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 1 + ω𝐺𝑠
= 1
ω+ 𝐺𝑠

A Modified Proctor test is also available under ASTM D1557 or AASHTO T-180. The method
is basically similar to the standard method only that the soil is compacted into five layers with
3
a modified hammer, resulting to a compaction effort, 𝐸 = 2700 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚/𝑚 .

Example 1: (From Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition: Das, 2010)

The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table:

a. Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content.

b. Calculate and plot γ𝑑 versus the moisture content for degree of saturation, S = 80,
90, and 100% (i.e., γ𝑧𝑎𝑣). Given: 𝐺𝑠 = 2. 7.

Solution:

a. The following table can be prepared:

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The plot of γ𝑑 versus ωas shown indicates the maximum dry unit weight
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γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 109 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 and the optimum moisture content is 14.4%

b. Using the combined equation for γ𝑑, the following table can be prepared:

The plot of γ𝑑 versus ω(also used for part a) is shown below:

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Factors Affecting Compaction

While moisture content basically has the strongest influence on the degree of compaction,
there are two other important factors that affect it. They are:

1. Soil Type

The particle-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids,
and amount and type of clay minerals present has a great influence on the maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content obtained during compaction. Lee and
Suedkamp (1972) observed four types of compaction curves for various soil samples,
with summary of each shown in the table below. Figure 4 shows the different
description of curves.

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Figure 4. Description of curves

2. Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be
given as:

(𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟) × (𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠) × (𝑊𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟) × (𝐻𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟)
𝐸= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑑

3 3
Which means 𝐸 ≈ 600 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚/𝑚 or ≈ 12, 400 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡

If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, then the moisture-unit
weight curve also changes. With this, we can observe that:

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of

compaction is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is
decreased to some extent.

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Equipment for Compaction
Most of the compaction performed in the field is done with rollers. Examples of which are
smooth-wheel rollers, sheeps-foot rollers, rubber-tired rollers, and vibratory rollers. By
principle, a vibratory roller behaves as shown in Figure 5 below.

Figure 5. Principle of vibratory roller

Specifications of Compacted Soil

Most specifications for earthworks indicate the need to achieve a compacted field dry unit
weight of 90 - 95% of the maximum dry unit weight under compaction. This requirement is
basically a specification for the relative compaction, which is expressed as:

γ𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝑅(%) = γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑙𝑎𝑏)
× 100

For the compaction of granular soils, the specifications at times are written in terms of the
required relative density. It should be noted that it is different from the relative compaction,
and is written as:

γ𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) − γ𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

⎡
𝐷𝑟 = ⎢ γ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)− γ𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) ⎦⎣ γ𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) ⎦
Combining both equations for relative compaction and relative density, we get:

𝑅0
𝑅 = 1−𝐷𝑟 1−𝑅0( )
Where:

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γ𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑅0 = γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

From this definition, one should achieve an 𝑅 = 95 − 100% by using the following methods:

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

There are three standard procedures used in determining the field unit weight of compaction:

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1. Sand cone method

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at
its top. The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand. The combined weight of the jar,
( )
the cone, and the sand filling the jar is determined 𝑊1 .In the field, a small hole is
excavated in the area where the soil has been compacted. If the weight of the moist
( )
soil excavated from the hole 𝑊2 is determined and the moisture content of the
excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil can be obtained as:

𝑊2
𝑊3 = 1+ω

After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted
and placed over the hole (see Figure 6) Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the
hole and the cone. After that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the
( )
remaining sand in the jar is determined 𝑊4 , so:

𝑊5 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊4

Where:

𝑊5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone

The volume of the excavated hole can then be determined as:

𝑊5 − 𝑊𝑐
𝑉 = γ𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑)

Where:

𝑊𝑐 = weight of sand to fill the cone only

Once the values of 𝑊𝑐and γ𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑)are determined from the calibration in the
laboratory, the dry unit weight of compaction made in the field can be determined as:

𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑊3

γ𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
= 𝑉

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Figure 6. Field unit weight determination using sand cone method

2. Rubber balloon method

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone
method; a test hole is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and
its moisture content are determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined
by introducing into it a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from
which the volume can be read directly. The dry unit weight of the compaction can be
determined by using the same equation for γ𝑑 in the sand cone method. Figure 7
shows a calibrated vessel that would be used with a rubber balloon.

Figure 7. Field unit weight determination using rubber balloon method

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3. Nuclear method

Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight
of soil. The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface.
It uses a radioactive isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that radiate
back to the meter’s detector. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil. The
instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water
present in a unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be
determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil.
Figure 8 shows a photograph of a nuclear density meter.

Figure 8. Field unit weight determination using nuclear method

Example 2: (From Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition: Das, 2010)

Laboratory compaction test results for a clayey silt are given in the following table:

Following are the results of a field unit-weight determination test performed on the same soil
by means of the sand cone method:

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• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0. 545 𝑘𝑔

• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7. 59 𝑘𝑔

• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4. 78 𝑘𝑔

• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3. 007 𝑘𝑔

• Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2%

Determine:

a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field

b. Relative compaction in the field

Solution:

a. In the field:

Mass of sand used to fill the hole and the cone =7. 59 𝑘𝑔 − 4. 78 𝑘𝑔 = 2. 81 𝑘𝑔

Mass of sand used to fill the hole =

2. 81𝑘𝑔 − 0. 545 𝑘𝑔 = 2. 265 𝑘𝑔

2.265 𝑘𝑔 3
Volume of the hole,𝑉 = 3 = 0. 0014426 𝑚
1570 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

3.007 3
Moist density of compacted soil = = 2084. 4 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
0.0014426

(2084.4)(9.81) 3
Moist unit weight of compacted soil = = 20. 45 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
1000

Hence:

γ 20.45 3
γ𝑑 = 1+ω
= 1 + 0.102
= 18. 56 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

b. The results of the laboratory compaction test are plotted below. From the plot, we see
3
γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 19 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

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Thus:

γ𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) 18.56
𝑅 = γ𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
= 19
= 97. 7%

Laboratory Work #7
Following the compaction topic, we will perform a standard Proctor test and follow the
instructions indicated in the notes.

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