Bio 4

General Anatomy and Physiology

Course Instructor: Virmalyn dela Cruz- Enobio
BS Biology Department
College of Arts and Science
Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology

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Chapter 2 Biomembranes and Membrane Potentials
All cells are generally separated from their surrounding environment by plasma membrane. In addition, the
eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized by intracellular membranes that form the boundaries and internal structures of
various organelles. These biological membranes are semi-permeable in nature that is their permeability properties ensure
that the specific molecules and ions readily enter the cell and the waste products leave the cell. These movements of
solutes into the cell are mediated through the action of specific transport proteins that are present on the cell membrane.
Such proteins are therefore required for movements of ions, such as Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ , and Cl- , as well as metabolites such
as pyruvate, amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides, and even water. Transport proteins are also responsible for biological
electrochemical phenomena such as neurotransmission.

Cell membrane architecture in transport across cell membrane: The cell membrane plays an important role in
transport of molecules. Because it acts as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing specific molecules to cross while fencing the
majority of organically produced chemicals inside the cell. Electron microscopic examinations of cell membranes reveal
the development of the lipid bilayer model (fluid-mosaic model). The model consists of phospholipid, which has a polar
(hydrophilic) head and two nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails. These phospholipids are aligned tail to tail so the non-polar areas
form a hydrophobic region between the hydrophilic heads on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.

Permeability of molecules across phospholipid bilayer: Most of the molecule will diffuse across a protein-free lipid
bilayer down its concentration gradient, if provided enough time. The diffusion rate is the function of the size of the
molecule and its relative solubility in oil. In general, the smaller the molecule and the more soluble in oil (the more
hydrophobic or non-polar), the more rapidly it will diffuse across a cell membrane. Small non-polar molecules, such as O2
and CO2, readily NPTEL – Biotechnology – Cell Biology Joint initiative of IITs and IISc – Funded by MHRD Page 2 of 120
dissolve in cell membrane and therefore diffuse rapidly across them whereas small uncharged polar molecules, such as
water or urea, also diffuse across a bilayer, but much more slowly but ethanol diffuses readily. Conclusively it can be said
that lipid bilayers are highly impermeable to charged molecules (ions) by considering its size also because the charge and
high degree of hydration of such molecules prevents them from entering the hydrocarbon phase of the bilayer. Thus,
these bilayers are 109 times more permeable to water than to even such small ions as Na+ or K+ (M. Lodish et al., 2003).

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Thermodynamics of transport :

The diffusion of a substance A, across the two sides of a membrane thermodynamically resembles a chemical
equilibration.

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 Types of transport process: Two types of transport process occur across the membrane.

1. Non-mediated transport

2. Mediated transport

Non-mediated transport occurs through the simple diffusion process and the driving force for the transport of a substance
through a medium depends on its chemical potential gradient. Whereas mediated transport requires specific carrier
proteins. Thus, the substance diffuses in the direction that eliminates its concentration gradient; at a rate proportional to
the magnitude of this gradient and also depends on its solubility in the membrane’s non-polar core.

Mediated transport is classified into two categories depending on the thermodynamics of the system:

1. Passive-mediated transport, or facilitated diffusion: In this type of process a specific molecule flows from high
concentration to low concentration.

2. Active transport: In this type of process a specific molecule is transported from low concentration to high concentration,
that is, against its concentration gradient. Such an endergonic process must be coupled to a sufficiently exergonic process
to make it favorable (ΔG <0).

Passive mediated transport:

Substances that are too large or polar diffuse across the lipid bilayer on their own through membrane proteins called
carriers, permeases, channels and transporters. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy. So
the passive mediated transport is totally dependent upon the permeability nature of cell membrane, which in turn, is
function of organization and characteristics of membrane lipids and proteins. Types of passive transport:

1. Diffusion: The process of the net movement of solutes from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration is known as diffusion. The differences of concentration between the two regions are termed as
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concentration gradient and the diffusion continues till the gradient has been vanished. Diffusion occurs down the
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concentration gradient.
2. Facilitated diffusion: The process of the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special transport
proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane is known as facilitated diffusion or called carrier-
mediated diffusion. Many large molecules, such as glucose, are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit into the
porins, therefore, it will bind with its specific carrier proteins, and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor
site and moved through the cellular membrane.

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3. Filtration: Filtration is the process of the movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due
to hydrostatic pressure generated by the system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of
a certain size may pass through it. The membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very small,
and only albumins (smallest of the proteins) can filter through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver
cells are extremely large, to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized.

4. 4. Osmosis: Osmosis is the type of diffusion of water molecules across a semi- permeable membrane, from a
solution of high water potential to a region of low water potential. A cell with a less negative water potential will
draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute
molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall).

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Active Transport:

Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient (i.e. from low to high concentration).
It is an endergonic process that, in most cases, is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP.

Types of active transport:

1. Primary active transport: Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses energy to
transport molecules across a membrane. Example: Sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell
potential.

2. Secondary active transport: Secondary active transport or co-transport, also uses energy to transport molecules across
a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead, the
electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is instrumental.

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The two main forms of active transport are antiport and symport.

(a) Antiport: I n antiport two species of ion or solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these
species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the
other solute from a low concentration region to a high one. Example: the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which
allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.

(b) Symport: Symport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another
molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its electrochemical gradient).

Example: glucose symporterSGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two
sodium ions it imports into the cell.

Examples:

(A)(Na+ –K+ )–ATPase (Na+ - K+ )–ATPaseactive transport system is commonly found in the plasma membranes of higher
eukaryotes, which was first characterized by Jens Skou. This transmembrane protein consists of two types of subunits: a
110-kD non-glycosylated α- subunit that contains the enzyme’s catalytic activity and ion-binding sites, and a 55-kD
glycoprotein β-subunit of unknown function. Sequence analysis suggests that the α- subunit has eight transmembrane α-
helical segments and two large cytoplasmic domains. The β- subunit has a single transmembrane helix and a large

extracellular domain. The protein may function as an (αβ)2 tetramer in vivo.

The (Na+ – K+ )–ATPase is also called as the (Na+ – K+ ) pumpbecause it pumps 3 Na+ out of and 2 K+ into the cell in
presence of hydrolysis of intracellular ATP. The overall stoichiometry of the reaction is: 3 Na+ (in) + 2 K+ (out) + ATP + H2O
→3 Na+ (out) + 2 K+ (in) + ADP + Pi
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(B) Ion Gradient–Driven Active Transport For example, cells of the intestinal epithelium take up dietary glucose by Na+ -
dependentsymport. This process is an example of secondary active transport because Na+ gradient in these cells is
maintained by the (Na+ –K+ )–ATPase.The Na+ –glucose transport system concentrates glucose inside the cell. Glucose is
then transported into the capillaries through a passive-mediated glucose uniport (which resembles GLUT1).

Differentiating mediated and non-mediated transport:

Glucose and many other compounds can enter cells by a non-mediated pathway; that is, they slowly diffuse into cells at
a rate proportional to their membrane solubility and their concentrations on either side of the membrane. The flux(rate
of transport per unit area) of asubstance across the membrane increases with the magnitude of its concentration gradient.
If glucose moves across a membrane by means of a transport protein, its flux is no longer linear.

This is one of four characteristics that distinguish mediated from non-mediated transport:

1. Speed and specificity-The solubilities of the chemically similar sugars D-glucose and D-mannitol in a synthetic lipid
bilayer are similar. However, the rate at which glucose moves through the erythrocyte membrane is four orders of
magnitude faster than that of D-mannitol. The erythrocyte membrane therefore contains a system that transports glucose
and that can distinguish D-glucose from D-mannitol.

2. Saturation-The rate of glucose transport into an erythrocyte does not increase infinitely as the external glucose
concentration increases. Such an observation is evidence that a specific number of sites on the membrane are involved in
the transport of glucose; which becomes saturated at high [glucose] and the plot of glucose flux versus [glucose] is
hyperbolic. The non-mediated glucose flux increases linearly with [glucose].

3.Competition-The curve is shifted to the right in the presence of a substance that competes with glucose for binding to
the transporter; for example, 6-Obenzyl-Dgalactose.Competition is not a feature of non-mediated transport, since no
transport protein is involved.

4.Inactivation-Reagents that chemically modify proteins and hence may affect their functions may inhibit the rapid,
saturatable flux of glucose into the erythrocyte.

Interesting facts:
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• The binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at certain synapses opens channels that admit Na+ and initiate a nerve
impulse or muscle contraction.

• Sound waves bending the cilia-like projections on the hair cells of the inner ear open up ion channels leading to the
creation of nerve impulses that the brain interprets as sound.

• Mechanical deformation of the cells of stretch receptors opens ion channels leading to the creation of nerve impulses.

• The crucial roles of the Na+/K+ ATPase are reflected in the fact that almost one-third of all the energy generated by the
mitochondria in animal cells is used just to run this pump.

• ABC transporters must have evolved early in the history of life. The ATP-binding domains in archaea, eubacteria, and
eukaryotes all share a homologous structure, the ATP-binding "cassette".

Questions:

1. Carrier molecules that bring materials into cells are

a. Lipids b. Proteins c. Glycogen d. Phospholipid

2. Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing membrane permeability: N2, water, glucose and RNA.

a. RNA>glucose>water>N2

b. N2>water>glucose>RNA

c. Water>N2>glucose>RNA

d. N2>water>RNA>glucose

3. The rate of diffusion across the cell membrane is affected by the

a. temperature and pinocytosis.

b. temperature and size of the molecule.

c. membrane structure and phagocytosis.

d. shape of glycolipids and glycoproteins

4. How many of the following factors would affect the permeability of the cell membrane? • Size of molecules • Lipid
solubility of molecules •Presence of transport channels • Presence of ATP inside the cell.

a. One. b. Two. c. Three. d. Four.

5. Which of the following aids the movement of glucose across a cell membrane?

a. Protein. b. Phosphate. c. Glycolipid. d. Cholesterol.

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6. In the parietal cells of the stomach, the uptake of chloride ions is coupled to the transport of bicarbonate ions out of
the cell. This type of active transport system is called,

a. Uniport b. Symport c. Antiport

7. Which of the following conditions is required for diffusion to occur?

a. ATP energy.

b. A living cell.

c. A concentration difference.

d. A selectively-permeable membrane.

8. Frog eggs placed in an isotonic solution will

a. burst. b. shrink. c. remain the same. d. increase in volume

9. When put in a hypotonic environment, an animal cell will

a. swell. b. shrink. c. secrete enzymes. d. remain unchanged.

10. Which of the following conditions would cause red blood cells to burst?

a. pH of 7.5.

b. Temperature of 3°C.

c. Being placed in distilled water.

d. Being placed in an 11% salt solution.

11. In an experiment, frog’s eggs were placed in a salt solution. After several hours their mass increased significantly. We
can therefore conclude that, compared to the frog’s eggs, the solution was

a. isotonic. b. saturated. c. hypotonic. d. hypertonic

12. Which of the following moves material against a concentration gradient?

a. osmosis b. diffusion c. active transport d. facilitated transport

13. . Which of the following processes moves molecules using cellular energy?
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a. Osmosis. b. Diffusion. c. Pinocytosis. d. Facilitated transport

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14. Which of the following processes would be directly affected by a lack of cellular ATP?

a. Osmosis. b. Diffusion. c. Active transport. d. Facilitated transport.

15. . Which of the following will be affected directly if the mitochondria in a cell are not functioning properly?

a. Absorption of alcohol by the cell.

b. The movement of water into and out of the cell.

c. The movement of oxygen across the cell membrane.

d. The movement of sugar from a low to a high concentration.

16. The cell process which uses ATP to bring substances into the cell is

a. Osmosis. b. Diffusion. c. Active transport. d. Facilitated transport.

17. A bacterium is living in a pond where the concentration of sodium ions is 0.005mM. This ion is found in the bacterial
cytoplasm at a concentration 0.10 microMol. Therefore the sodium ion is probably entering by:

a. Simple diffusion b. Facilitated diffusion c. Passive transport d. Active transport

18. What are the two factors that are responsible for diffusion rate?

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19. What are the membrane potentials of living cells?

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20. How does the opening and closing of ion channels occur in a cell?

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21. Explain glucose transporter or GLUT1 with a diagram.

22. What are the different types of mediated transport depending on the thermodynamics of the system?

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