CAMPBELL 0

BIOLOGY TENTH
EDITION

Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson

2
The Chemical
Context of Life

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 2: What is the Chemical Connection to Biology?

2.1 Matter = chemical elements make up all living organisms & the
environment
2.2 An element's properties depend on its atoms
2.3 The properties of molecules depend on chemical bonds
between atoms
- Ionic Bonds
- Covalent Bonds
Nonpolar
Polar
- Hydrogen Bonds

2.4 Chemical reactions

make and break bonds

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Compare: Elements vs. Compounds?
● Matter = made up of elements (one or more). Takes up mass and space.

● Atom = the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element
(Ex: Carbon, C, or Oxygen, O)

● Element = substance made entirely from one type of atom. See below

● Compound = substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

(CO2, NaCl). See below

● A compound has emergent properties different from its individual elements.

N
C
a
l
+
-
Sodi Chlor Sodium
um ine chloride
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. *
The properties of an element depend on the structure of its atoms:
Anatomy of a Helium (42He) atom
Electrons (-) charge
Electron Cloud (2 electrons)
Atomic Mass =
#P + #N
Nucleus

Protons
(+) charge
Neutrons
Atomic Number = (no charge)
#P

# of Protons (+) = Atomic Number; Element’s ‘identity’

# of Electrons (-) = Equal to protons if an atom (uncharged)
# of Neutrons = Often but not always equal to number of protons;
Isotopes differ by numbers of neutrons: For Carbon,
12C = 99%, 13C and 14C (radioactive; unstable) = 1%
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Electrons determine the chemical reactivity of an atom:
Electron-shell diagrams of the first 18 elements

Hydrogen Valence electrons (in outermost 2 Atomic Heliu

1H shell) - Chemical reactivity. H number m2 H
4.00 e
First e Element
3 symbol
shel Octet Rule: Atoms are most stable Electron
l when outermost electron shell has 8 Atomic mass distribution
electrons (or 2 for H and He) diagram

Lithium Berylliu Boro Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neo

3L m 4Be n 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F n1 N
i 0 e
Secon
d
shell

Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfu Chlorine Argo

11 N 1 Mg 1 AI 1 S 1 P r1 S 1 CI n1 A
a 2 3 4 I 5 6 7 8 r
Third
shell

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Concept 2.3: Form + Function =
Valence electrons determine bonding between atoms
Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or transfer valence
electrons with certain other atoms, creating chemical bonds

● Ionic Bond: Electrons transferred, not shared (NaCl)

● Cation: positively charged ion (loses an electron)

● Anion: negatively charged ion (gains an electron)

● Ionic bond = attraction between an anion and an cation (Salt)

● Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared (CO2)

● Non-polar covalent bond: Electrons shared equally (CH4)

● Polar Covalent Bond: Electrons shared unequally (H2O)

● Hydrogen Bond: (Between 2 molecules) H atom covalently bonded

to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative
atom. Individually weak, collectively strong.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
onic bond: When Atoms Transfer Electrons

1 Na = 1 lone valence electron 2 The result = Each ion has a complete

Cl= 7 valence electrons valence shell. An ionic bond can form
between the oppositely charged ions.

+ –

Na Cl Na Cl

Na+ Cl–
Sodium on Chloride ion
Na Cl
(a cation) (an anion)
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
(uncharged) (uncharged)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Note that this arrangement satisfies the Octet Rule for each

A special mention: What happens when Hydrogen loses an electron? (DRAW)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Covalent Bonds: When Atoms Share Electrons

Electron-shell Structural Space-filling

diagram formula model
Hydrogen (H2)
(H = 1 valence electron) H H H H Hint: A solid line
Atomic number 1
between atoms
Oxygen (O2) = covalent bond
(O = 6 valence electrons)
Atomic number 8 O O O O
Note that each
Water (H2O): arrangement satisfies
a special case – O H
the Octet Rule
O H
next slide!
(O = 6 valence electrons) H H Non-polar covalent
Atomic number 8
Bonds (H2 , O2 , CH4)
= electrons shared
H
Methane (CH4) H equally.
(C = 4 valence electrons)
Atomic number 6 H C H H C H
H
H

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Polar Covalent Bonds
● Not all electrons are shared equally

● Electronegativity is an atom’s attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond

● The more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it pulls on shared electrons.
WE WILL KEEP COMING BACK TO THIS IMPORTANT CONCEPT!

● Unequal sharing of electrons causes a partial positive or negative charge for each
atom or molecule = a Polar Covalent Bond
d-

Because Oxygen (8 protons) is more O

electronegative than H (1 proton), shared
electrons are pulled more toward oxygen.
This results in a polar covalent bond, creating H H
d d
a + H2 +
partial negative charge on the oxygen O
and a
© 2014partial positive
Pearson Education, Inc. charge on the hydrogens.
h 2 and 3: Polar covalent bonds in a water molecule:
Not all covalent bonds are shared equally!
Figure 3.2 The polar covalent
bonds within
water molecules result in
hydrogen bonding
between molecules
Q: Can you draw in the –
polar covalent bonds?
Unequal sharing
+
Hydrogen Individually weak
H bonds Collectively strong

– –
+ H
– +

+ –

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oncept 2.4: How to chemical reactions make and break
chemical bonds?
“Small but Mighty: The Molecule Called Water”!

Reactants Products O H

H H H

+ O O

H H
O H

2 H2 O2
H 2 H2O

The resulting molecule (H2O) displays a spectacular range of powers!!

-Natalie Angier “Small, Yes, but Mighty: The Molecule Called Water” NY Times July 10, 2007 (Look it up!)
See end of Ch 3 PPT for learning objectives
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.