Torres Orozco Et Al BV 2017

Bull Volcanol (2017) 79:3
DOI 10.1007/s00445-016-1085-5
RESEARCH ARTICLE
New insights into Holocene eruption episodes from proximal

deposit sequences at Mt. Taranaki (Egmont), New Zealand
Rafael Torres-Orozco 1 & Shane J. Cronin 1,2 & Natalia Pardo 3 & Alan S. Palmer 1
Received: 12 July 2016 / Accepted: 17 November 2016

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Abstract Upper stratovolcano flanks contain the most nu- extrusion, blasts and partial collapse of unstable eruption col-
anced depositional record of long eruption episodes, but steep, umns at Mt. Taranaki’s summit. The centemetre-scale proxi-
irregular terrain makes these sequences difficult to correlate mal deposit descriptions were used to identify several previ-
and interpret. This necessitates development of a detailed and ously unknown, smaller eruption events. These details are
systematic approach to describing localized depositional fa- indispensable for building a comprehensive probabilistic
cies and relating these to eruptive processes. In this work, the event record and in the development of realistic eruptive sce-
late-Holocene eruption history of Mt. Taranaki/Egmont, New narios for complex eruption episodes prior to re-awakening of
Zealand, was re-assessed based on a study of proximal de- a volcano.
posits spanning the 14C-dated age range of ~5.0–0.3 cal ka
B.P. Mt. Taranaki is a textbook-example stratovolcano, with Keywords Andesitic volcanoes . Explosive volcanism .
geological evidence pointing to sudden switches in scale, type Proximal lithostratigraphy . Eruption history . Volcanic
and frequency of eruptions over its ~130 ka history. The prox- hazards
imal stratigraphy presented here almost doubles the number of
eruptions recognized from previous soil-stratigraphy studies.
A total of 53 lithostratigraphic bed-sets record eruptions of the Introduction
summit crater and parasitic vents like Fanthams Peak (the
latter between ~3.0 and 1.5 cal ka B.P.). At least 12 of the Andesitic stratovolcanoes have generated some of the most
eruptions represented by these bed-sets comprise deposits disruptive and deadliest Plinian and sub-Plinian historical
comparable with or thicker than those of the latest sub- eruptions (e.g. Bourdier et al. 1997; Coltelli et al. 1998;
Plinian eruption of AD 1655. The largest eruption episode Cioni et al. 2000; Carn et al. 2009; Saucedo et al. 2010;
represented is the 4.6–4.7-cal ka B.P. Kokowai. Contrasting Surono et al. 2012; Cronin et al. 2013). Ongoing population
eruption styles were identified, from stable basaltic-andesite growth on the fertile ring plains and debris fans surrounding
eruption columns at Fanthams Peak, to andesitic lava-dome active volcanoes constantly exacerbates vulnerability to vol-
canic activity (e.g. Alberico et al. 2011; Cronin et al. 2013).
Editorial responsibility: L. Capra Within increasing populations at risk, there is a need to devel-
op the most comprehensive eruptive frameworks possible pri-
* Rafael Torres-Orozco or to re-awakening of andesitic volcanoes, in order to develop
[email protected] high-precision hazard assessments and scenarios that encom-
pass diverse paths of progression that an eruption sequence
1
Volcanic Risk Solutions, Massey University, Private Bag, Palmerston might follow.
North 11 222, New Zealand In many past studies, eruption histories have been inferred
2
School of Environment, University of Auckland, Private Bag, from investigations of medial and distal deposits in locations
Auckland 92 019, New Zealand where undisturbed deposits in low-relief depositional environ-
3
Department of Geoscience, University of los Andes, Cr 1 #18A, ments allow accurate sedimentological determinations (e.g.
-12 Bogotá, Colombia Pardo et al. 2012a, b) and regional tephrostratigraphic
3 Page 2 of 25 Bull Volcanol (2017) 79:3
reconstructions (e.g. Neall 1972; Alloway et al. 1995; parallel set of studies has focussed on the radiocarbon dating
Andreastuti et al. 2000). There are, however, limitations of of volcanic deposits (mainly fall deposits) in swamp and lake
medial-distal volcanic records, particularly in humid tropical sediments. This provided the event data for forecasting erup-
or temperate environments where rapid weathering and soil tion frequencies and magmatic evolution paths, suggesting a
formation, along with vegetation, obscures and modifies pri- probability of 0.52 for an eruption over the next 50 years from
mary deposits, hindering detailed volcanological interpreta- Mt. Taranaki (Turner et al. 2008a, 2009, 2011a).
tion (e.g. Alloway et al. 1995; Espindola et al. 2010; In this work, we aim to refine and expand knowledge of the
Saucedo et al. 2010; Avellan et al. 2014). Moreover, the me- late-Holocene eruption history of Mt. Taranaki/Egmont, New
dial pyroclastic/volcaniclastic data sets could be biased to- Zealand, based on detailed analysis of proximal pyroclastic
wards events that produce widely dispersed fallouts, i.e. main- sequences, particularly concentrating on bed, contact and sed-
ly large-volume and highly explosive events. Also, medial imentological features (cf. Arce et al. 2003, 2005; Cronin et al.
deposits usually provide little detail of the progression of 2013; Kim et al. 2014). We use these data to fill the gaps
any eruption (i.e. opening, pre-, syn- and post-climactic between the distal lake- and swamp-core deposits and the
phases), and they certainly do not represent all eruptions sparse tephras within medial soils, and to build a strong geo-
(e.g. lavas do not reach the medial environment). For this logical framework for understanding the opening and closing
reason, it is often difficult to develop detailed eruption scenar- phases of typical explosive andesitic eruptions. The complex
ios, of a clear understanding of the physical processes in- suite of deposits necessitated development of a hierarchical
volved (cf. Houghton et al. 2004; Platz et al. 2007; Cioni framework for description of the deposits and of the parental
et al. 2008). eruptions and processes that generated them. This approach
Proximal pyroclastic sequences, while challenging to ac- can be broadly applied to any pyroclastic sequence but is
cess, may contain a more complete and less-modified record especially valuable in proximal deposit sequences where a
of eruptive episodes than do more-distal sites. Their main wide variety of deposits may represent emplacement periods
limitation is that they normally preserve only the youngest from seconds to a few years.
part of the geological record due to remobilization and bury-
ing of older deposits by, e.g. repeated cone collapse and lava
flow deposition, in addition to other erosive processes (e.g. Geological setting and previous work
fluvial, mass-movement and eolian). Despite this, many inter-
fluve and ridge areas contain well-preserved deposit se- The North Island of New Zealand lies along the convergent
quences that may represent most, or even all, of the phases boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates, with the
of an ancient eruption (e.g. Macias et al. 1997; Houghton et al. latter being subducted along the Hikurangi Trough (HT;
2004; Arce et al. 2003, 2005; Platz et al. 2007, 2012; Cronin Henrys et al. 2003; Fig. 1). This subduction system is associ-
et al. 2013; Avellan et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2014) and conse- ated not only with the NNE-SSE-aligned Taupo Volcanic
quently may provide the foundation for understanding the Zone (TVZ; Wilson et al. 1995), located ~280 km to the west
potential pre-eruptive, opening, syn- and post-eruptive phases of the HT and dominated by rhyolitic volcanoes in the central
of a future eruption episode (e.g. Cioni et al. 2008). portion (Fig. 1) but also with the andesitic volcanism pro-
The andesitic stratovolcano Mt. Taranaki (in the western duced at the northern and southern extremities of the TVZ
part of the North Island of New Zealand) has produced several (e.g. Mt. Ruapehu) and with the most westerly andesitic vol-
large, explosive eruptions and frequent mildly explosive ac- canism in the North Island (e.g. Mt. Taranaki; Price et al.
tivity since 5 ka, as seen primarily from ring-plain records and 2005; Fig. 1).
studies of isolated deposits from single events in proximal About 400 km to the west of the HT, 130 km from the TVZ,
sites (Alloway et al. 1995; Platz et al. 2007; Turner et al. lies the Quaternary and NNW-SSE trending Taranaki Volcanic
2008a, b). Past studies of ring-plain deposits included lapilli Lineament (TVL; Neall 1979; Fig. 1) over the eastern side of
fall beds contained within soils, together with interbedded the mid-Cretaceous to present-day extensional and NE-SW
debris-flow and debris-avalanche deposits (e.g. Zernack trending Cape Egmont Fault Zone (King and Thrasher
et al. 2009, 2011). These were used to set up a Tephra 1996). The TVL is made up of four high-K hornblende-rich
Formation-based stratigraphic framework (Neall 1972; andesitic volcanoes, <1750 ka B.P. and younging to the south
Alloway et al. 1995), and an understanding of major periods (i.e. Paritutu, Kaitake, Pouakai and Mt. Taranaki; Price et al.
of cone growth and cone collapse. Apart from good informa- 2005 Fig. 1), which contrast in mineralogy with the two-
tion about fall-deposit distribution, the available stratigraphic pyroxene andesitic products being produced concurrently in
data lack the detail needed for precise volcanological assess- the southern TVZ. Volcanic products of the TVL cover the
ment, and many of the lateral correlations are tentative be- entire ~1500 km2 Taranaki Peninsula and cap mid-Paleozoic
cause they are based primarily on stratigraphic proximity to mid-Cretaceous plutonic rocks of the Median Tectonic
and similar lapilli features (colour, grain size, shape etc.). A Zone (Mortimer et al. 1997) and a 6–9-km-thick early to
Bull Volcanol (2017) 79:3 Page 3 of 25 3
5680 000m. S
a 174°E 178°E
NI
Australian
New Plymouth
38°S
Plate
Z
Paritutu
TV
Taranaki Fault
t
el
39°5'S 75
Tasman Sea rB
a
FZ
S he
CE
gh
TVL R
es
rou
b
ng
T
70
Ra
40°S
ngi
Oakura
ura
ial
Ax
Hik
Kaitake 100km
SI
65
45
Pacific Plate
SH
d
nR
d Korito road oo X W T
Okato gto ew ult
t
ul
rrin g l S
Ca
Fa
In Fa R
60
rfolk
Y
Pouakai No V QN
UO P M
SH
L
J
3
K
55
AS
F I
E GH
Mt Taranaki C D
Midhirst
c
50
Lower B A
Pembroke
Fanthams Peak road
ult
r
k
Fa
Pa
Stratford
ui
c
al
on
45
SH43
io n
Oa
at
N
Huts nt
Mountain House mo
Holly Eg
Kahui DOC
Lake Dive Fault line
39°25'S 40
Maketawa Roads d
eR 10 km
Pouakai nak
Syme Residential area Opu
Waiaua Gorge Key sections
Waingongoro Eltham
Kaponga b
1675 000m. E 80 85 174°E 90 95 1700 05 174°15'E 10 15
Fig. 1 a Tectonic setting of the North Island (NI) of New Zealand volcanic edifice remnants: Paritutu, Kaitake, Pouakai and Mt. Taranaki
(modified from King and Thrasher 1996; Henrys et al. 2003; Price et al. (along with the parasitic cone of Fanthams Peak). AS Ahukawakawa
2005; Platz et al. 2007). CEFZ Cape Egmont Fault Zone, R Mount swamp, DOC Department of Conservation Visitor Centre, SH principal
Ruapehu, SI South Island, TVL Taranaki Volcanic Lineament (yellow state highways and other roads connecting residential areas. c Zoomed
line), TVZ Taupo Volcanic Zone. b Zoomed area of the Taranaki area of the proximal eastern flanks of Mt. Taranaki and the studied key
Volcanic Lineament (Neall 1979), which comprises four Pleistocene- sections. Coordinate system: NZGD 2000 New Zealand Transverse
Holocene, southwards-younging andesitic volcanoes or their eroded Mercator
mid-Cretaceous sequence of oil- and gas-rich sediments of the volcano, lava flows of the ~8-ka B.P. Warwicks Castle
Taranaki Basin (King and Thrasher 1996). Group (Neall 1979; Stewart et al. 1996) constitute the core
Mt. Taranaki/Egmont is the youngest volcano in the of the present-day volcanic edifice. The western side of the
extreme south of the TVL with a known eruption record crater rim likely collapsed in a series of eruptions over the
spanning ~130 ka B.P. to AD 1800 (Alloway et al. 2005; last 800 years (Procter et al. 2010), and remnants of the AD
Zernack et al. 2011; Platz et al. 2012; Fig. 1). It comprises 1800 Sisters dome make up the present summit inside the
a 2518-m-high upper cone with a basal area of 25 km2 and crater (Platz et al. 2012). The symmetry of the volcano is
~12 km3 in volume, surrounded by a 1000-km2 ring plain broken in the southeast by the 1962-m-high basaltic and
of volcaniclastic debris, which is up to 150 km3 in volume basalt-andesitic parasitic cone of Fanthams Peak (Stewart
(Neall et al. 1986; Zernack et al. 2011). The edifice above et al. 1996; Fig. 1). Due to the splitting of the Opua Debris-
~1400 m is considerably younger than the ring plain, with avalanche deposit, Fanthams Peak is postulated to have
past cones having been repeatedly destroyed by at least 12 existed before 7 ka B.P. (Neall 1979), but only eruptions
massive debris avalanches since ~130 ka. The latest, and since ~3.3 ka B.P., continuing until ~1.8 ka B.P. from this
one of the smallest, collapses was at ~7.5 ka B.P. (i.e. Opua vent have been confirmed (Whitehead 1976; Turner et al.
Formation; Neall 1979; Zernack et al. 2011). On the 2008b).
The volcanic history of Mt. Taranaki is characterized by overlie 12–20-m-thick stacks of coarse lithic-rich breccias and
cycles of cone growth to a critical height/size, followed by a volcaniclastic sands and gravels. On the southern, southeast-
catastrophic edifice collapse (Neall et al. 1986; Zernack et al. ern and northern volcano flanks, the uppermost pyroclastic
2009, 2011). Cone growth includes effusive, lava and dome- deposits expand to 12–15 m thickness and cap thinner mas-
forming volcanism, intercalated with periods of highly explosive ash deposits, along with ubiquitous volcaniclastic gravel-
sive, Plinian to sub-Plinian eruptions on average 300–500- ly sands. These uppermost pyroclastic deposits preserve an
year intervals, and smaller, strombolian or vulcanian-style eruptive record of up to ~10 ka B.P. (Turner et al. 2011a);
eruptions on intervals of ~50–80 years (Alloway et al. 1995; however, at the majority of sites, <5 ka B.P. deposits are best
Platz et al. 2007; Turner et al. 2011a). Many of the pyroclastic preserved. By contrast, the western flanks are covered by thick
fall deposits over the last ~30 ka B.P. were mapped northeast post-AD 1000 lithic breccias interpreted as BAFs and associ-
and southeast of the volcano within 20 ‘Tephra Formations’ ated downslope lahar deposits (Platz et al. 2012), which over-
(Neall 1972; Alloway et al. 1995, 2005). Some of the largest lie a thick paleosol formed within a sequence of deeply weath-
known explosive eruptions in Mt. Taranaki’s history are re- ered medial ash (Neall 1972).
corded by fall deposits dated to within the last 5 ka B.P. and Some distinctive fall deposits are useful marker hori-
distributed generally east of the volcano, including: the ~5– zons in the studied stratigraphic profiles, defined earlier as
4.5-ka B.P. Tariki, ~4.1-ka B.P. Korito, ~3.6-ka B.P. the Maketawa and Kaupokonui Tephra Formations
Inglewood and ~3.3–2.9-ka B.P. Manganui tephras (Whitehead 1976; Franks 1984; Fig. 2). Medial ring-
(Whitehead 1976; Alloway et al. 1995). Some of the youngest plain deposits and distal lake sediment profiles (Neall
fall deposits, e.g. the ~1.5–1.3-ka B.P. Kaupokonui Tephra 1972; Alloway et al. 1995, Turner et al. 2008a, 2009)
(Neall and Jansen 1984), were deposited concurrently with were used to aid overall correlation; however, the proxi-
~1.6–1.3 ka B.P. lava flows (Stewart et al. 1996; Neall mal stratigraphy is much more intricate, such that close
2003). In addition to such explosive vents, lava domes also hand-over-hand mapping was needed to reconstruct com-
erupted on the northern and southern volcano flanks during plex pyroclastic lithofacies architecture.
the last ~7 ka (Neall et al. 1986; Platz et al. 2012). At each flank exposure, field sedimentary logs were re-
The most recent volcanism includes the 0.8–0.4-ka B.P. corded, including data of bed thickness, geometry, contacts,
summit lavas (Downey et al. 1994) that shape most of the sedimentary structures, sorting (using 1st-order field sorting
present-day upper cone and, at least, six dome-growth and classes of Cas et al. 2008), framework, grain size (using
collapse phases recorded by block-and-ash flows (BAFs) terminology of White and Houghton 2006), grading and
and related surge units. These PDC deposits are exposed in syn-depositional deformational structures, clast texture (e.g.
proximal areas, mostly on the western flanks (Platz et al. colour, shape, crystallinity and vesicularity), and lithology/
2012), associated with the Newall, Waiweranui and Puniho componentry (vesicular and dense-lithic juveniles and altered
ash deposits (Druce 1966; Neall 1972). or accidental lithics), following schemes applied in similar
The most recent sub-Plinian eruption produced the AD types of deposits (e.g. Macias et al. 1997; Arce et al. 2003,
1655 Burrell Lapilli (Druce 1966; Neall 1972; Topping, 2005; Cioni et al. 2000, 2008; Cronin et al. 2013; Kim et al.
1971), 3 × 106 m3 of pyroclastic density current deposits and 2014). Detailed descriptions were combined into a composite
3.2 × 108 m3 of fall deposits from a ~14-km-high eruption stratigraphic column (Fig. 3) which approximates a theoretical
column (Platz et al. 2007). It was followed by AD 1800– maximum thickness for the whole pyroclastic, epiclastic (i.e.
1755 effusive and small explosive events producing the sediments produced from syn- and post-eruptive remobiliza-
Tahurangi Ash (Druce 1966; Neall 1972), then finally the tion-erosion, resedimentation and/or reworking-of pyroclastic
Sisters dome (Platz et al. 2012). deposits; Cas et al. 2008) and soil deposits studied, combining
field thicknesses of the most representative exposures.
Methodology
Mapping criteria
Field methodology
Deposits mappable at 1:25,000 scale with clear recogniz-
Twenty-five proximal exposures (~900–1350-m-high) were able lithology, lithofacies variations and basal-and-
studied around Mt. Taranaki, inside the Egmont National capping boundaries were formally classified into
Park and within ~1–4 km of the summit (Figs. 1 and 2). Formations, subdivided in Members, according to the
Some of these sections were examined by Turner et al. rules of the International Stratigraphic Guide (Salvador
(2008b, 2011a). On the central eastern flanks of Mt. 1994). Member is the formal name for a bed-set within
Taranaki, 3–8-m-thick pyroclastic deposits generally cap a defined Formation. However, in most cases, the criteria
flat-topped ridges and interfluves between >100-m-deep, for defining Formations was not achieved, and deposits
steep-sided valleys. The pumice-dominated deposits generally were only referred as individual bed-sets constituted by
Southeast Northeast U
Ctop E F N Q W X
Kp Bu Bu North
South Bu
Bu Y
B Bu
CR G Kp
Bu
A East M Tp
MF Tp
GIII H MkII
MkII J Tp
Kp GIII 1.0 Bu
MkII GIII
GII ^
Kp 1.2 ? ME Korito
MF
Bull Volcanol (2017) 79:3
CR MD MD Rd
MkII GI Tp
GI
3rd ord U
GII nconf
GIII GI 3.3 Uig
C D Uig
MD MG I MF
1.0 MkI T Lig
CR MD *
MC GI ^
1.8 Lower MF 2.2 P
MB GI 1.6 ME Ko
MD MD ^ Pm Rd * R
Ms1 MD
^1.9
Uig
2.6
* ^ MD MF KB
MD MC GI MC ^
MkI MD 2.2
MB MD MB
Tp Kw
MB
MA MD MB MA
Uig S 3.5
Uig MA 0.7 MA
3.0 ^
MF
^Kp
O Ko
MD Uig MkII ME Uig
* # KB
Uig MD
MC
Ko
FA B ME Lig
MC
MC
MB Kw
Lig MD
MB Lig
Other Fall / PDC KB
Lava flow MA
MA MB
Kw
BAF
Uig Ko GI
Ko
Lig? Uig
Bed-sets or Members (Mbs)
KA KB *
Burrell (Bu)
* 4.6-4.7
Te Popo (Tp)
M05 -65
Grey PDC-III (GIII) 0
Uig
-66 KB?
Kaupokonui (Kp) #
KB Lig
Grey PDC-II (GII)
-67
meters
Curtis Ridge (CR) Kw

3.4
Maketawa II (MkII) # KA? * 1
KA
#
Grey PDC-I (GI)
Maketawa I (MkI)
-68
Manganui Mbs Kw?
(MA-MG) Modified from Turner (2008) -69 2
Kw #
Upper Inglewood (Uig) 3rd ord. Unconformity
14C Dating: cal ka BP
Kw Surface of erosion
Lower Inglewood (Lig) (Table 1)
Soil / Medial Material -70
Korito (Ko) This work
Lahar deposit
Kapuni bed-sets Boulders
*
# ^ Previous works
(KA,KB) Reworked deposit # # Degraded material
Tariki-Waipuku Tephras? (Alloway et al. 1995)
Kokowai (Kw)
Page 5 of 25 3
Fig. 2 Stratigraphic correlation of the late-Holocene pyroclastic sequence studied in proximal sections on the eastern flanks of Mt. Taranaki
cal ka BP
Soil Sorting Bedding, C-shape
Bed-set
Epiclastic Observations Interpretation
wr
Layer
structures
vs
rd
ws
ms
Juveniles >Dense
sr
ms
& others
psr
sa
cs
(main comp) >Vesicular
a
0 3 Layer 1 consists of white, pumiceous ash and free crystals. C-PDC
n
Layer 2 comprises very vesicular (~57-77 vol.%; Platz et
Burrell
al. 2007), moderately crystalline (~26-30 vol.%) pumice
0.3
2 m Fallout
lapilli; dense, porphyritic grey-bluish and few orange-altered
lithic lapilli. Layer 3 is similar to Layer 1
1 r BAF
Waingongoro-Puniho m Four Members: Waingongoro, Newall, Waiweranui, Puniho BAF

(Platz 2007); separated by paleosols or weathered ash. They
avg. 0.45
comprise often lensing deposits of light grey or brown-altered

n lithic and few pumiceous ash, supporting grey to dark-grey BAF
1
dense lithics, pumice lapilli and few altered-lithic lapilli.
m firm Desposits become finer and faint-parallel to -cross-stratified BAF
downslope. They may also thicken laterally, westwards.
m PDC
6 r Fallout
5 m
n
m Fallout
4
r Layer 1: pinching, dense lithic ash and free crystals
2 m,n firm with few lineaments of lithic lapilli. Layers 2, 4 and 6
3c consist of vesicular (~42-46 vol.%), moderately crystalline
(~15-18 vol.%) pumice lapilli and bombs (60-87 vol.%); and
m firm dense and/or poorly vesicular (<15 vol.%), grey-bluish juveniles C-PDC
3b and altered-red or -orange porphyritic lithics (12-33 vol.%).
Lithics mainly concentrate in base and top levels of layers 2,
Te Popo
r firm
3a m 4 and 6. Layer 5 is a fine pumiceous ash separating layers
4 and 6. Layers 3a and 3c consist mostly of lithic (~45 vol.%)
n and pumice (~43 vol.%) lapilli, in a matrix of whitish
pumiceous ash (~30-34 vol.%). Layer 3b is clast-rich,
having ~60 vol.% lithic and 30 vol.% pumice lapilli,
3 a n d o n l y ~1 0 v o l . % o f a c r y s t a l l i n e a s h m a t r i x .
L a t e r a l l y, layers 3a-3c become a single
2 m fbl pinching bed ( Layer 3 ) of withish fine ash in different Fallout
proportions, supporting fine pumice and lithic lapilli.
r
x,p ch
1.2 1.0 0.7
BAF
1
Pinching grey lithic ash, supporting free crystals and diffuse
MrP-I Kp G-III
4 r,x ch fine pumice and lithic lapilli on top. BAF
r Very vesicular (~58-64 vol.%), crystal-rich (~25-30 vol.%) Fallout

brownish pumice lapilli and scarce dark-grey lithic lapilli.
m Diffuse bed of ash, supporting pumice and lithic lapilli, often PDC
scattered within soil.
Layer 1 : Pinching deposit of pink and grey-bluish, dense,
lithic ash and free crystals. Layer 2 : Grey, fine to coarse BAF
3 lithic and free crystals-rich ash; supporting dark grey, dense,
n fbl porphyritic, andesitic lithic lapilli and blocks of up to 1 m in
Grey PDC-II
diameter. Layer 3 consists of the same lithic components

5 of layer 2 , but lacking lapilli and block-size clasts, which
m makes an abrupt contact in between both layers. BAF
Laterally and downslope, layers 2- 3 pinch out, become fine-
2 grained and strongly parallel- and cross-stratified with
im charcoal-bearing, reverse graded, fine lithic lapilli lenses.
r Major
x,p ch Weathered medium sands and heterolithic fine-coarse pebble gravels.
1 Time-break
m firm Diffuse bed of poorly vesicular (~18-22 vol.%) porphyritic, dark
MG m grey/black lithic and scoria lapilli (Unit-2 of Turner et al. 2008b) Fallout
2
Unconformity
CR m Layer 1 : Purplish-grey lithic and pumiceous ash. Layer 2 : Fallout

3rd Order
Dense, grey andesite lithic lapilli (60 vol.%) and grey-brownish

6 1 m fp sg pumice lapilli (40 vol.%; CR-Unit 1 of Turner et al., 2008b). PDC
n Dark-grey and brown, vesicular and dense-microvesicular

fbl (~22-27 vol.%), moderately crystalline (~19-24 vol.%), scoria and Fallout
MF r pumice lapilli, and scarlet-red, dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli.
MkP-IV,-V
n Two bed-sets separated by weathered ash; consisting of grey

r ch ps dense lithic ash and free crystals supporting charcoal-bearing, BAF
top and middle pinching beds of dense, porphyritic lithic and
n
r ch ps scarce pumice lapilli. BAF
5 r Layer 1 : Yellowish, pumiceous ash supporting few free Fallout
4 m crystals and pumice and lithic lapilli. Layer 2 : Poorly vesicular, C-PDC
(~35 vol.%), crystalline (~28 vol.%) pumice lapilli and grey/dark-
7
Maketawa II
grey lithic lapilli. Layer 3 : Low-erosive, grey , lithic and less

1.6
3 x,m lns pumiceous ash, supporting grey lithic and pumice lapilli and C-PDC
im clast-supported pumice lapilli lenses. Layer 4: Similar to
lns Layer 1 but fine - grained. Layer 5: Similar to Layer 2 .
Laterally , layer 2 merges with lenses of layer 3
2 m to become a single clast-supported bed; layer 3 pinches out Fallout
1 m until disappear and layer 4 expands. C-PDC
Layer 1 : Grey, dense lithic ash supporting grey, dark-grey,
fbl grey-bluish, altered-orange and -whitish, dense lithic lapilli.
x,m BAF
Layer 1 in-fills shallow erosive channels.
im
Grey PDC-I
1.9
2 p Layer 2 : A yellow-altered lensing ash, supporting aligned,

8 r very fine lithic lapilli, underlies layer 2; which consists of grey,
dense lithic ash, supporting lineaments of grey and dark-grey
meters
fbl -black lithic lapilli that make most of the layer.Laterally, layers BAF
m
1-2 pinch-out and become strongly parallel-/ cross-stratified,
1 but the difference in grain-size in between both layers
makes the contact very distinctive.
FA FL B
CA CL
c al ka BP
Soil Sorting C-shape
Maketawa I Bed-set
Epiclastic
Bedding, Observations Interpretation
wr
Layer
structures
vs
rd
ms
ws
Juveniles >Dense
ms
sr
& others
psr
sa
cs
a
Layer 1 : Yellowish pumice ash, supporting pumice and grey
4 m,fx ch /black lithic lapilli. Layer 2: Yellow , vesicular (~40 vol.%), BAF
r crystalline (24-27 vol%), pumice lapilli and dark lithics.
2 .2
3 p ch firm PDC
n Layer 3: Pink-orange pumice ash, supporting aligned
2 Fallout
1 m firm free crystals and pumice and lithic coarse ash. Layer 4:
m Grey lithic ash, supporting grey and dark grey dense lithics C-PDC
9 n
r and less pumice lapilli.
ME
n Dense/poorly vesicular (25-28 vol.%), moderately crystalline DF
r (18-20 vol. %), dark-grey and brown scoria/pumice lapilli and Fallout
n orange-, brown- and red-altered lithics (~15 vol.%).
m firm
Layers 1, 2 and 3 consist mostly of vesicular/micro-vesicu DF-HF
r
r lar (~25-30 vol. %), moderately crystalline (~16-19 vol.%),
r dense scoria/pumice lapilli and coarse ash (~80-94 vol.%).
3 Juveniles are less vesicular in the uppermost layer 3 (10- Fallout
r 14 vol.%). Violet and orange altered lithics are common in
r layer 1 (~20 vol.%), in contrast to layer 2 (<5 vol.%).
10 Concentrations of orange, red and white-bleached altered
n
MD
2 fbl and black-grey, porphyritic and phaneritic accidentals are

m high in middle beds of layer 3 (~48-52 vol.%), producing Fallout
r colourful deposits. Layer 3 grades into a single massive
n deposit of mixed juveniles and lithics with distance.
1 fbl Firm diamicton deposits, dominated by reworked pumice/ Fallout
r scoria lapilli are interstratified with layer 1 in southern
firm locations. Similar deposits in-fill erosion channels on top of DF-HF
m layer 3 in eastern sites. Fallout
firm DF-HF
MkP-III p Pinching grey, andesitic lithic ash and free crystals. BAF
11 r Vesicular (22 - 28 vol.%), moderately crystalline (18-22
r-n
MC
fbl vol. %), dark-grey, black/brown scoria/pumice lapilli and Fallout

r-n ash. Altered and/or accidental lithics are <5 vol.%.
r-n
MkP-II
2.6
p ch Two pinching beds of grey, andesitic lithic ash and crystals. 2 BAFs
MkP-I
fp Layer 1 includes dense, dark-grey/black scoria/pumice lapilli, PDC
2 n cauliflower and breadcrusted bombs, and white-bleached and
MB
m fbl red-oxidized lithics. Layer 2 is a dark grey-bluish lithic ash,

1 Fallout
r sg topped by scoria-rich (45-60 vol.%) firm deposits.
3 p,x ch Layers 1-2 comprise vesicular ( 43-45 vol.%), crystal-rich PDC
(20-22 vol.%) dark and orange-coated pumice, scoria lapilli
MA
2 n and ash (>70 vol.%); and altered or accidental lithics (<10

12 r fbl Fallout
1 vol. %) . The vesicularity decreases in juveniles of the top
n most layer 2 (~38 vol.%). Layer 3 . consists ofdark grey
r and bluish lithic ash.
IgP-II
fp,fx ch ps Dark grey, dense, andesitic lithic ash; supporting charcoal- DF

3.0
r wd bearing, pinching, dark-grey/black, dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli. BAF

m firm IgP-II grades irregularly upwards into weathered lithic ash.
fn DF
Layers 1 and 2 consist of ~80 vol.% non-vesicular or
very poorly vesicular (<20 vol.%), porphyritic, grey to
7 m reddish-grey and purplish dense andesitic lithic lapilli, Fallout
blocks and ash. Weak and/or superficial hydrothermal
13 alteration, including partial bleaching and change in
clast’s surface colour are common. Layer 2 beds are
fr lithic ash and lapilli dominated. Scarce <5 vol.% pumice
p,x d,ad
3.3
6 ch lapilli may be present. PDC

m ps Layer 3 comprises grey lithic ash and lapilli (~65 vol.%)
PDC
5 fr im with textures similar to lithics of layers 1 - 2, but with
4 p pumice lapilli concentrations of ~20-40 vol.%. PDC
d,ad
Upper Inglewood
Layers 4 to 6 consist of vesicular (~35 - 45 vol. %),

3 p,x, ps
m crystal - rich (35 - 40 vol. %), yellowish pumice lapilli and PDC
lns grey ash (~52 - 57 vol. %) ; and dense grey , dark - grey ,
2 fp, im and orange-altered/-coated porphyritic lithic lapilli and
14 fx ash, along with minor accidentals (~30-40 vol.%).
firm Layer 6 comprises the highest pumice lapilli and ash BAF
p concentrations (~56-57 vol.%) besides multi-lithics.
r Layer 7 consists of vesicular and poorly
vesicular (~22-40 vol.%), very crystal rich (~55-60 vol.%),
n,fp yellowish pumice lapilli and few bombs (~63-67vol.%); and
dense grey, dark-grey and orange-altered or -coated porphyritic
fbl lithic lapilli. Occasionally, pumice bombs and dense lithic
1 blocks form impact sags into layer 6. A diffuse, pinching BAF
bed (~3-5 cm thick) of light grey, fine pumiceous ash
m ( Layer 7a ), of a restricted southeastern distribution,
divides layer 7 into two clast-supported beds. Firm diamicton
15 deposits, dominated by reworked pumice and lithic lapilli,
partially in-fill erosion channels on top of layer 7.
r fbl
Layer 1 : G re y, yellow and pinkish, charcoal-bearing,
n
pinching beds of fine pumiceous ash, supporting few
Lower Inglewood
coarse pumice and lithic ash. Layer 2 : W hite, fine pumice

m ash, supporting free crystals, fine-coarse pumice lapilli and Fallout
3 few grey, dense, andesitic lithics. Layer 3 : V esicular (~53-
58 vol.%), crystal-rich (~47-52 vol.%), white pumice lapilli and
few bombs (~64-66 vol.%); grey, dense, porphyritic lithics
fr (~23-26 vol.%); and orange-, red-altered, dense lithics
16 2 m firm (~10-15 vol.%), which concentrate mostly on top. Light grey, C-PDC
ch
3.4
1 p,x d,ad fine-coarse pumice and lithic ash capes layer 3. PDC
IgF-I IgP-I
p,x Dark grey-purplish, dense, andesitic fine lithic ash, supporting

dark-grey/black, dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli and coarse ash. BAF
r
2 p,m Layer 1 : Vesicular (~60 - 63 vol.%), crystal-rich (~35-40 C-PDC
1 m firm vol.%), orange colour-coated pumice lapilli (~40 vol.%); grey Fallout
and dark grey/black, dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli (~50 vol.%)
meters
and few red-altered and bleached dense lithic lapilli (<10

vol.%). Layer 2 : Orangish and grey pumiceous ash,
supporting pumice and lithic lapilli similar to layer 1.
17
FA FL B
CA CL
Fig. 3 (continued)
cal ka BP
Soil C-shape
B e d -se t
Sorting Bedding,
Epiclastic Observations Interpretation
L a yer
wr
structures
vs
ws
rd
Juveniles >Dense
ms
ms
sr
& others
p sr
sa
cs
a
17 Layer 1 is a lithic-dominated (45 vol.%) and free crystal-rich
m ash (40 vol.%). Layer 2 comprises pumice ash and lapilli C-PDC
8 r (~58 vol.%), free crystals (~23 vol.%) and few grey andesitic
and accidental lithics. Layer 3 comprises crystals (25-35
m vol.%), orange-coated, poorly to moderately vesicular (30-40
7 x,m ch vol.%), crystal-rich (25-28 vol.%) pumice lapilli (55-60 vol.%);
m and grey, porphyritic, dense lithic lapilli (10-15 vol.%). Juvenile, C-PDC
x,m d,ad hydrothermally altered and accidental lithics concentrate on
ps
m top of the layer. In proximal sites, layer 3 is interstratified
firm
with layer 3a , which consists of pumice ash and lapilli
3 .5
6 d,ad
p,x, (~55 vol.%), free crystals (30-35 vol.%) and few andesitic and
K o rit o
C-PDC
18 m psfirm accidental lithics. Layer 4 consists of pumice ash and lapilli
5 p acc firm (~45 vol.%) and abundant grey and altered lithics (40 vol.%). PDC
wd Layer 5 is composed of free crystals and ash clusters
4 m ch (40 vol.%), lithic ash (45 vol.%), and rare crystal-rich pumice C-PDC
3 n ash (~15 vol.%). Layers 6- 8 comprise very poorly to poorly
vesicular (15-30 vol.%), crystal-rich (35-38 vol.%) pumice ash Fallout
m
and lapilli (35-65 vol.%), free crystals (11-30 vol.%) and
3a m ch firm porphyritic dense lithic ash and lapilli (24-37 vol.%). Pumice C-PDC
3 m increases from bottom to top layers (35 - 50 vol. %) and
Fallout
sg contents are high in layer 8 ( 60 - 65 vol.%). Pumice is
2 m also more vesicular in upper layers. C-PDC
19 1 p ch BAF
KkP-IV,F-III
Diffuse bed of scattered fine pumice and lithic lapilli within ash-
m Fallout
rich soil.
x,p Pinching, light grey lithic ash, supporting lenses and lineaments BAF
of dark-grey, coarse lithic ash and scarce fine lapilli.
m
4 C-PDC
fn Layers 1 and 3 consist of vesicular (42-46 vol.%), crystal-
3 m rich (44-49 vol.%) pumice lapilli (~70-75 vol.%), and grey,
dense, andesitic lithic lapilli (6-15 vol.%) which mainly Fallout
r concentrates in the base and top parts of each layer.
K a p u n i- B
Altered and/or accidental lithics are very scarce (<5 vol.%).

20 2 fn Layer 2 consists of very poorly vesicular (<15 vol.%), Fallout
porphyritic, dense, andesitic lithic lapilli (~80 vol.%) and
fn minor pumice lapilli (~14 vol.%). In few sections, layer 2a
m substitutes layer 2, and consists of interstratified
deposits of coarse lithic ash supporting few dense lithic lapilli,
1 r and beds of clast-supported pumice lapilli. Layer 4 contains Fallout
pumice ash (~30 vol.%) supporting free crystals (~30 vol.%),
m pumice lapilli (~26 vol.%) and andesitic lithic lapilli (12 vol.%).
r
Grey-purplish lithic ash supporting a middle waving bed of dark
K k P -III
acc -grey, dense, porphyritic, coarse lithic ash, free crystals, and fine
21 r,fx ch lithic and scarce pumice lapilli. BAF
Diffuse, firm deposits of pumice and lithic lapilli within dark
m firm brown, greasy, porous clay. DF
n Layer 1 consists of dense, andesitic-fresh and altered lithic
Kap u n i-A
ash and lapilli (45-50 vol.%); and pumice lapilli and ash (35
2 m vol.%). Layer 2 comprises vesicular (39-44 vol.%), crystal- Fallout
fr sg rich (47-50 vol.%) pumice lapilli and few bombs (75 vol.%);
r,p ch and dense, andesitic lithic lapilli (8-14 vol.%) less abundant PDC
1
m on top of the layer.
K k F -I , - I I
Two bed-sets comprising diffuse beds of fine pumice and lithic Fallout
m lapilli within weathered ash. Bed-sets have transitional contacts
22 m Fallout
with the overall brown paleosol.
fx Layer 1 : Pink, fine lithic ash and free crystals. Layer 2: BAF
3 r
KkP-II
Light grey lithic ash, supporting grey and dark grey, dense,
m ch porphyritic lithic lapilli. Layer 3 : comprises a matrix of ash
2 BAF
m like layer 2, but supporting faintly aligned, fine
1 lithic lapilli and coarse lithic ash.
m
C-PDC
m
8 Layer 3 consists of pumice ash and lapilli (~74-80 vol.%),
23 r
n free crystals (10 vol.%) and few grey, dense, andesitic lithic Fallout
7 m lapilli (~10 vol.%). Layer 4 comprises very vesicular (67-71
r vol.%), crystal-rich (45-49 vol.%), pumice lapilli and bombs
n (77-85 vol.%); and dark grey, dense, andesitic lithic lapilli and
4.7 - 4.6
6 blocks along with very few orange-altered lithics (11-13 vol.%).

m Layer 4 is capped by a bed of reversely graded, dark grey, C-PDC
5 ch
r,p, acc dense, andesitic lithic lapilli (~56 vol.%) and orange-altered
fx ch lithics (~24 vol.%), and few normally graded pumice lapilli BAF
(~20 vol.%). Layer 5 consists of dense, andesitic lithic ash
m firm
r (~80-84 vol.%); free crystals (~10 vol.%) and very scarce
K o ko wa i
n pumiceous ash (<6 vol.%). Layer 6 is rich in pumice ash

24 and lapilli (~75 vol.%), but also includes free crystals (11-13
vol.%), and grey and orange-altered dense lithic lapilli
(~12 vol.%). Layer 7 consists of two major beds separated
by a pumiceous ash. Both beds include pumice lapilli (62-70
vol.%), dense andesitic lithic lapilli (11-20 vol.%), and
orange-altered lithics (4-10 vol.%), of characteristics
4 analogous to layer 4. Lithics are less concentrated in the Fallout
m
lowermost bed (~15 vol.%); whilst in the upper bed, lithics
concentrate in the base and top of the deposit (~30 vol.%).
Layer 8 comprises pumice ash and lapilli (~68-70 vol.%),
dark grey and black dense andesitic lithic lapilli (~12 vol.%),
free crystals (~10 vol.%) and orange-altered lithics (~ 8 vol.%).
25
meters
4 .7 - 4 .6
r
3 m ch C-PDC
FA FL B
CA CL
Fig. 3 (continued)
4.7 - 4.6 cal ka BP

Soil Sorting C-shape
Bed-set
Epiclastic
Bedding, Observations Interpretation
wr
Layer
structures
vs
ws
rd
Juveniles >Dense
ms
ms
sr
& others
psr
sa
cs
a
m
2 r fbl BAF
n
Layers 1 and 2 are composed, each, of reversely graded
dense or very poorly vesicular (<20 vol.%), porphyritic,
26 hb-andesitic lithic ash-lapilli-blocks of up to 1 m
Kokowai
diameter (~70 vol.%); free crystals (20-24 vol.%), and few
m fbl brownish-altered dense lithics (<10 vol.%).
BAF
1 Pinching, brownish-pink fine lithic ash, supporting few fine
lithic and scarce pumice lapilli underlies layer 1.
r ch
m
KkP-I
m ch wd Grey, coarse lithic ash and very fine grey lithic lapilli. BAF
27 Two apparently close - deposited bed-sets, separated by
weathered ash. Bed-set Tw-I comprises grey lithic ash (~10-
Tw-X,-XI
m ch 15 vol.%), supporting grey, dark grey, black and red-altered, PDC

dense lithic lapilli (~70 vol.%) and few white pumice lapilli Fallout
m
(~10-15 vol.%). Bed-set Tw-XI consists of clast-supported
pumice lapilli (~55 vol.%) and light grey, dark red- and orange
altered dense lithic lapilli (~45 vol.%). The lower and upper
contacts of both bed-sets grade into medial ash or paleosol.
Layer 1: Charcoal-bearing, pinching, grey lithic ash and free
2 r crystals. Layer 2: Two beds of white pumice lapilli (60 vol.%) Fallout
Tw-IX
r and grey lithic lapilli (40 vol.%) divided by a pinching bed of

28 1 m ch coarse ash. BAF
3 m Two layers of fine ash supporting grey and dark red, dense, 2 PDCs
Tw-VIII
2 m firm porphyritic lithic lapilli (~70 vol.%) and white pumice lapilli (~30
1 m 1 DF
vol.%); separated by firm, pinching deposits of brown-clayish
material supporting abundant (~70-75 vol. %) lithic and pumice
lapilli.
Layer 1: Grey fine ash supporting dark grey lithic and white
m ch
pumice lapilli. Layer 2: Dark grey to brown, firm, clay-rich or
Tw-VII
3 r,p,x weathered ash, supporting coarse lithic ash. Layer 3 : PDCs

m Pinching beds of reddish, grey, pink and yellow fine ash;
2 m firm intercalated with grey and pink fine ash (~25vol.%) supporting DF
29 1 m abundant ( ~75 vol.%) pumice and lithic lapilli. PDC
m
Tw-II to -VI
r,m Five bed-sets separated by paleosols and/or weathered ash Fallout

m Tw-III and VI consist of lineaments of pumice and lithic BAF
m lapilli within soil. Tw- II and V comprise pinching, grey fine silicic ash?
n ash, supporting fine to coarse lithic and few pumice lapilli. Fallout
m ch Tw -IV comprises outstanding white very fine ash. BAF
3 m
±5.0
Layer 1 : Grey, fine-coarse lithic ash supporting dense, Fallout

n ch
meters
2
porphyritic lithic blocks of up to 32 cm diameter and lapilli . BAF
Tw-I
1 m im Layer 2 : Pinching bed of grey, fine-coarse lithic ash and few

pumice lapilli. Layer 3 : Pale yellow pumice lapilli (~85 vol.% ) BAF
30 and few grey lithic lapilli (~15 vol.%)
FA FL B n :normal grading, r :reverse grading, fn/fr :faint normal/reverse grading, m :massive, ps :pinching-and-swelling,
CA CL p :parallel-stratified, x :cross-stratified, fp/fx :faint parallel-/cross-stratified, fbl :very friable, im :imbrication,
d :dunes, a d :antidunes, lns :clast-lenses, sg :impact sags, acc :accretionary lapilli, wd :wood, ch :charcoal.
Other proximal Proximal Lithostratigraphy

Ring-plain Tephrostratigraphy
a
Maketawa I
E02-100 -E02-102
Layer 2
Mak.
Upper
Inglewood
Layer 7
Other proximal
d
Manganui
Manganui-D
E02-92 -E02-97
? c
b
Turner et al. a
(2011a)
b
Inglewood
Manganui-C
a
Franks
(1984) Proximal Lithostratigraphy Turner et al.
Alloway et al. (2011a)
(1995)
Lower
Inglewood
Layer 3
Vertical
scale bar
= 20 cm
Fig. 3 (continued)
R Fig. 3 Composite stratigraphic log of the late-Holocene proximal multiple-eruption units will be referred as an eruption
pyroclastic sequence of Mt. Taranaki. Members of the Manganui
episode. In this latter case, each of the composing erup-
Formation (i.e. Manganui A to G) are abbreviated MA…MG. CR Curtis
Ridge Lapilli bed-set (Turner et al. 2008b). Main juvenile pyroclasts are tion units could be interpreted as the accumulation of an
indicated (dense-vesicular). Solid lines indicate sharp contacts; bold solid eruption phase.
lines indicate sharp erosive (often angular) contacts; dashed lines indicate
transitional contacts. Grain size simplified from White and Houghton
Radiocarbon dating
(2006): FA fine ash, CA coarse ash, FL fine lapilli, CL coarse lapilli, B
blocks/bombs. Sorting: poor (psr), moderate (ms), well (ws) and very well
sorting (vs) from Cas et al. (2008). Clast (cs) and matrix-support (ms) Samples of charcoal from distinct bed-sets were collected for
framework and angular (a), sub-angular (sa), sub-rounded (sr), rounded radiocarbon (14C) dating, and sites of earlier 14C dates (e.g.
(rd) and well-rounded (wr) clast-shape are indicated. DF debris flow, C-
PDC column-collapse pyroclastic density current, BAF block-and-ash
Turner et al. 2008b, 2011a) were reviewed where sampling
flow, PDC undefined pyroclastic density current. a Comparison of a sites were clearly known. Six new dates were obtained using
segment from the previous ring plain and distal tephrostratigraphy with the accelerator mass spectrometer technique at the
the equivalent proximal lithostratigraphy of this work and a few earlier Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of Waikato University, New
studies. See text and Table 1 for 14C age references
Zealand (Table 1). Results were determined following Stuiver
and Polach (1977), based on the Libby half-life of 5568 years
single or multiple layers. The term Tephra Formation is with correction for isotopic fractionation. All ages were cali-
here only referred for citation of deposits previously brated using OxCal 4.2 (Bronk-Ramsey 2009). The southern
named and described in that way. We prefer not to use a hemisphere atmospheric curve was employed (Hogg et al.
genetic terminology for the lithostratigraphic nomencla- 2013). The 14C dates from previous works were also calibrat-
ture, considering potential lithofacies variations with dis- ed in the same manner for consistency.
tance and following the recommendations of Salvador
(1994). The late-Holocene eruption records of Mt. Taranaki
The upper and lower contacts of a bed-set are given by the
embedding fine-ash-dominated paleosols, thick medial ash In the proximal exposures on Mt. Taranaki, 53 bed-sets were
deposits (mostly centimetres to tens of centemetre-thick de- identified (Fig. 3), each one capped by 10–20-cm-thick ash-
posits of moderately weathered, massive fine-medium ash), rich paleosols or weathered ash deposits. Among these 53
and the base and top, respectively, of deep-erosion surfaces bed-sets, 36 underlie a 3rd-order unconformity which is trace-
(including paleochannels). All these features suggest quies- able over the eastern flank of the volcano. Based on the nearest
cence periods in the eruptive deposition. stratigraphically underlying 7.5-cal ka B.P. debris-avalanche
Fine-grained, mud- and sand-dominated hypercon deposits (Neall 1979; Zernack et al. 2011), these 36 bed-sets
centrated flow deposits (mostly tens of centemetre thick) could be considered part of the Opua Formation defined by
may represent time breaks in the volcanic activity when they Neall and Alloway (2004). Nevertheless, it was not possible to
show signs of weathering and paleosol development. By con- corroborate this stratigraphic position, because the base of the
trast, debris- and hyperconcentrated flow deposits containing stratigraphic sequence studied here remains unknown, and
abundant juvenile clasts from the underlying pyroclastic de- there are not enough outcrops to construct mappable units.
posit indicate only short intervals or may represent deposits of In contrast, the uppermost ~3- to >1.2-cal ka B.P. bed-sets
syn-eruptive events. In addition, one 3rd-order unconformity are interdigitated with the well-recognized and mappable
was identified (Fig. 2), demarking a significant repose period, Manganui Formation (Whitehead 1976; Alloway et al.
which can be traced in a ~10–15-km arc around the eastern 1995), which includes seven bed-sets sourced at Fanthams
volcano flanks. Peak, as we demonstrate below. Another ten pyroclastic bed-
Following the terminology of Fisher and Schmincke sets (~1.2 cal ka B.P. to AD 1655) overlying the 3rd-order
(1984), each of the lithostratigraphic bed-sets analysed unconformity are Mt. Taranaki sourced and, given their better
could be products of a definable eruption bounded by exposure, could be grouped and mapped as part of the Maero
paleosols that suggest a significant period without erup- Formation (cf. Neall 1979; Neall et al. 1986; Cronin et al.
tive activity. Thereafter, each of the layers within a bed- 2003; Platz 2007).
set, separated by sharp, gradational and/or locally mildly A significant feature within the reconstructed stratigraphic
erosive boundaries that suggest no evident pause in depo- sequence is a 3rd-order unconformity (i.e. a surface of erosion
sition (e.g. contacts given by sharp differences in grain- that is extended over a specific sector of the volcano; Lucchi
size, clast framework and/or bed structure), represents an et al. 2013), which consists of an irregular disconformity ly-
eruption unit deposited from an individual fallout, pyro- ing, with a sharp-erosive contact, on top of <1.6 cal ka B.P.
clastic density current (PDC) or a lava flow. An eruption deposits of the Manganui-G Member (q.v. Manganui
consisting of a single eruption unit will be referred as an Formation) and the Curtis Ridge bed-set (cf. Turner et al.
eruption event; whereas an eruption consisting of 2008b) in southeastern sections (e.g. sections F–G; Figs. 1
Table 1 Radiocarbon dating of material from proximal sections of Mt. Taranaki
Lab code Location Section Material a BP 1s cal a BP 2s Bed-set/member
This work
Wk-39445 Maketawa Hut N Charcoal –a 2223 25 2210 60 Maketawa I
Wk-19168 York track A Log –a 2277 39 2240 55 Maketawa I
Wk-19169 Kaupokonui stm B Punga log –a 2515 38 2560 100 MkP-I
Wk-39446 Maketawa Hut N Charcoal –a 2946 25 3040 55 IgP-II
Wk-39436 Holly Hut 1 X Charcoal –a 3115 25 3280 50 Upper Inglewood
Wk-39437 Camphouse S Charcoal –a 3180 29 3350 55 Lower Inglewood
Wk-39439 Kokowai W Charcoal –a 4140 25 4630 90 Kokowai
Wk-39440 Kokowai W Charcoal –a 4213 25 4710 70 Kokowai
Calibrated from previous works
Wk-11586 Maero stream – Flakes Cronin et al. (2003) 878 39 745 40 Te Popo
Wk-16391 Little Maketawa M Charcoal Turner (2008) 1130 34 995 40 Grey PDC-III
Wk-16390 Little Maketawa M Charcoal Turner (2008) 1739 35 1615 50 Maketawa II
Wk-16392 Little Maketawa M Charcoal Turner (2008) 1989 45 1900 60 Grey PDC-I
NZ-3886C Stratford Plateau H Charcoal Neall and Alloway 1934 70 1830 90 Grey PDC-I
(1986)
Wk-16397 North Egmont Rd T Charcoal Turner (2008) 2217 36 2200 70 Maketawa I
Wk-16393 Holly Hut 1 X Charcoal Turner (2008) 3102 37 3270 60 Upper Inglewood
Wk-16395 Okahu stream – Charcoal Turner (2008) 3362 37 3545 55 Korito
Wk-16396 Okahu stream – Charcoal Turner (2008) 4429 45 4980 100 Undefined PDC
Original age of 1990 ± 70 a BP (Neall and Alloway 1986) was recalculated for the Libby half-life of 5568 years. All ages were calibrated using OxCal 4.2
of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (Bronk-Ramsey 2009). The Southern hemisphere atmospheric curve (SHCal13) of Hogg et al. (2013) was
employed
a
Uncalibrated radiocarbon ages in this work (and Lab codes Wk-) were determined by the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of the University of Waikato,
New Zealand, using the accelerator mass spectrometer technique. Results correspond to a conventional age or percent modern carbon (pMC) following
Stuiver and Polach (1977). This is based on the Libby half-life of 5568 years with correction for isotopic fractionation applied
and 2), and most commonly on top of deposits of the (53.5–60 wt.% SiO2; e.g. Neall et al. 1986; Price et al. 1992;
Manganui F Member in the northeast (of the Manganui Stewart et al. 1996; Turner et al. 2011b; Platz et al. 2007,
Formation). In few northeastern locations (e.g. sections Q 2012). In contrast, the basaltic and few basaltic-andesitic de-
and R; Figs. 1 and 2), the unconformity cuts as a ~30° angular posits of the Manganui Formation (48–53 wt.% SiO2; Price
contact down into >2.2 cal ka B.P. deposits of the Maganui E et al. 1992; Stewart et al. 1996; May 2003; Turner et al.
Member (q.v. Manganui Formation). 2011b) comprise mostly grey and dark-grey porphyritic juve-
Deposits associated with the unconformity consist of up to nile lithics, few dark-grey scoria and dark-brown pumice,
70-cm-thick, massive, poorly sorted, fine to medium sands bearing ortho and clinopyroxene, hornblende, Fe–Ti oxides
supporting heterolithic fine to coarse pebbles (Fig. 3), capping and olivine crystals.
and in-filling erosion surfaces (e.g. paleochannels). These de- Below, we describe the thickest and most readily followed
posits generally exhibit a flat top, grading into ~10-cm-thick deposits of the stratigraphic sequence in depositional order
paleosols, or a sharp contact with capping lithic breccias and (Figs. 2 and 3), separately grouping bed-sets identified from
fine lithic ash deposits (i.e. the Grey PDC-II Member, Fig. 3). the Mt. Taranaki summit vent, versus those from Fanthams
Applying 14C dating of bed-sets below and above indicates Peak.
that the unconformity occupied an interval between ~1.6 and
1.2 cal ka B.P. (calibrated from Neall and Jansen 1984 and The Mt. Taranaki Lithosome
Turner 2008).
In general, deposits of the different bed-sets of Mt. The oldest deposits studied in this work include 11 bed-sets
Taranaki comprise white-yellow pumice, grey porphyritic ju- recognized on the northern flanks of Mt. Taranaki. Bed-sets
venile lithics, altered lithics and accidental clasts, containing Tw-I, Tw-VII and Tw-IX to Tw-XI contain the thickest de-
crystals of plagioclase, hornblende, Fe–Ti oxides, ortho and posits of the suite (Fig. 3) and are likely associated to fall
clinopyroxene and minor biotite consistent with basaltic- deposits within the Tariki and Waipuku Tephra Formations
andesitic and andesitic compositions reported elsewhere mapped by Alloway et al. (1995) on the ring plain. They are
Fig. 4 (continued)
R Fig. 4 Photographs showing the deposit features of representative late- Each of the Tw-II to Tw-VII bed-sets comprises de-
Holocene bed-sets/members exposed at different eastern-flank sections of
posits with transitional or diffuse contacts within encap-
Mt. Taranaki. Bed-sets/members are Tw-I to Tw-XI, Kw Kokowai, KA
and KB Kapuni A and B, Ko Korito, Lig Lower Inglewood, Uig Upper sulating lower and upper paleosols (Fig. 3). Tw-II and
Inglewood, MA to MF Manganui A to F, MkI and MkII Maketawa I and Tw-V comprise massive, moderately to poorly sorted
II, CR Curtis Ridge, Kp Kaupokonui, GI to GIII Grey PDC-I to PDC-III, pinching beds of ash supporting lithic lapilli. Tw-IV com-
Tp Te Popo, Bu Burrell. a Deposits of the ~5-ka bed-sets and stratigraphic
prises diffuse, massive and well-sorted very fine white
relationships with younger 4.7–3.3 cal ka B.P. deposits. b Complete Kw
bed-set. Radiocarbon (14C) dating of charcoal from layers 3 and 5–6 is ash. Tw-III and Tw-VI consist of diffuse and often
indicated. c Northern stratigraphic relationships between different 4.7– lensing, massive, moderately sorted beds of pumice and
3.3 cal ka B.P. and younger ~2.6–0.7 cal ka B.P. bed-sets. 14C-dated lithic ash or lapilli. Bed-set Tw-VII consists of two very
layers from bed-sets Ko and Uig are indicated. d Zoom of the Ko. e
Impact sags produced by pumice bombs of different 4.7–3.3 cal ka B.P.
similar layers (layers 1 and 3) comprising several parallel,
bed-sets. f Fall deposits of the Kw layer 4. Bombs and blocks are sig- cross-stratified and massive, moderately sorted pinching
nalled. g Fall deposits of bed-sets KA and KB separated by weathered beds of ash supporting pumice and lithic lapilli; divided
ash. h Block-and-ash flow and fall deposits of the Kw constitute the base by layer 2, which is a massive firm brown ash supporting
of the exposed section. Lava flows (MD 2b) from Fanthams Peak erode
abundant coarse ash and few lithic lapilli.
fall deposits of the MD. i Stratigraphic relationships and 14C-dated de-
posits of 3.4–0.3 cal ka B.P. bed-sets. Block-and-ash flow deposits un-
derlying layer 2 of the Lig bed-set make the base of the exposed section. Bed-sets Tw-VIII and Tw-IX
Notice block-and-ash flow deposits of the Uig (layer 1). j–l Deposit
features of the Uig in southeastern-northeastern locations. Notice
lithofacies transitions of layer 6 and 14C dating of charcoal from Bed-sets Tw-VIII and Tw-IX lie over ~30-cm-thick paleosols
bracketing bed-sets. m Deposits of the <3.0–2.2-cal ka B.P. MA to MD and weathered ash developed on top of bed-set Tw-VII and are
Members and other bracketing and/or younger deposits. n Zoom of the separated by transitional contacts with ~15-cm-thick weath-
MC-MD Members and bracketing debris-flow deposits. o Zoom of the
MA-MC members. Notice the cauliflower bomb of the MB member ered ash deposits. At its maximum thickness, bed-set Tw-VIII
deforming deposits of the MA. Notice grey-lithic ash deposits of bed- comprises two layers of massive, moderately sorted pumice
sets MkP-I and MkP-II (not labelled), which pass laterally into 14C-dated and lithic lapilli within an ash matrix, divided by a layer of
2.6 cal ka B.P. lithic breccias. p–t Deposit features and lithofacies transi- firm, massive and poorly sorted pinching clay-rich ash
tions of the Mk II. s Notice the commonly overlying deposits of the MF
and their distinctive scarlet-red lithics. t Notice deposits of the GI bed-set. (Fig. 3). These three layers merge rapidly into a single bedded
u–w Deposit features of the Tp. Notice ash deposits of layer 1 (Tp1), deposit, which is the most common appearance. Bed-set Tw-
which correlate with western 0.7 cal ka B.P. lithic breccias. Cross- (x), IX consists of two layers (Fig. 3). Layer 1 is a charcoal-rich,
parallel- (p) or faint parallel/cross-stratified (fp/fx) and massive (m) de- massive, well-sorted pinching lithic ash, and layer 2 consists
posits. Spade is 70.5-cm long, large scraper is 32.5-cm long and small
scraper is 20-cm long. See text and Table 1 for 14C age references of two reverse-graded, well-sorted and clast-supported man-
tling beds of distinctive white pumice lapilli, divided by a
pinching bed of pumice ash.
poorly exposed in only two adjacent sections: W and X
(Figs. 1 and 2) and charcoal fragments were too small or
degraded to perform 14C dating, thus their estimated age is Bed-sets Tw-X and Tw-XI
~5 ka, based on the 14C age of the closest overlying bed-set
(i.e. ~4.7–4.6 cal ka B.P. Kokowai, Table 1), and on their Bed-sets Tw-X and Tw-XI overlie ~50-cm-thick paleosols and
approximate correlation with western ~5 cal ka B.P. lithic weathered ash developed on top of Tw-IX (Fig. 3) and are
breccias (Turner 2008; Figs. 2 and 3). separated by <10-cm-thick weathered ash deposits with sharp
contacts in between. Tw-X comprises massive, moderately to
Bed-sets Tw-I to Tw-VII well-sorted, clast-supported, mantling pumice and lithic lapilli
deposits. Tw-XI consists of a massive, moderately sorted,
The oldest Tw-I bed-set comprises three layers (Figs. 3 pinching-swelling bed of lithic-rich lapilli with an interstitial
and 4). The basal contact of the lowermost layer (layer lithic ash matrix, bearing rare charcoal twigs.
1) is exposed within an inaccessible ~100-m vertical val-
ley wall. The accessible part of this layer is a massive, The Kokowai bed-set
poorly sorted lithic breccia, tens of metres thick and dom-
inated by dense, porphyritic andesitic blocks and lapilli The Kokowai bed-set (Kw) contains the thickest and coarsest
(at times imbricated) within an ash matrix. This deposit pyroclastic deposits studied in this work. A sharp contact with
is capped by layer 2, which comprises normal-graded, up to 30-cm-thick paleosols developed on top of weathered
poorly sorted lithic ash of similar composition to the un- ash deposits separate the Kw from older bed-sets (Fig. 3). The
derlying deposit. The uppermost layer 3 is a distinctive Kw comprises eight layers (Fig. 3) exposed in sections along
mantling bed of massive, well-sorted, clast-supported the eastern flank of the volcano, which are best seen at the
pumice lapilli (Figs. 3 and 4). Kokowai section (section W; Figs. 1 and 2).
The most distinctive deposits of the Kw correspond to ash deposits (i.e. bed-set KkP-III; Fig. 3) and onto the KA
layers 1, 4 and 7 (Figs. 3 and 4). Layer 1 consists of up to bed-set (section D, Figs. 1 and 2). The KB bed-set consists
10-m-thick, reverse-graded, poorly to moderately sorted lithic of at least four layers (Fig. 3) exposed on the volcano’s south-
breccias on the volcano southeast flanks, containing porphy- eastern, northeastern and northern flanks, best observed at
ritic andesitic blocks of up to 1-m-diameter through to coarse section C (Figs. 1 and 2). Layers 1 and 3 are the most distinc-
lapilli. Layers 4 and 7 contain almost exclusively massive or tive as near-identical reverse-graded to massive, well- to very
stratified, well- and very well-sorted, clast-supported, crystal- well-sorted, clast-supported beds (Fig. 4), comprising mostly
rich pumice lapilli beds. Layer 4 reaches up to 1.7-m thick at crystal-rich pumice lapilli and also lithic lapilli. The latter
northeast exposures (Fig. 4), where it is capped by a bed of mainly concentrate at the base and top levels of each layer.
dense-lithic lapilli. The remaining layers comprise poorly to Layer 2 separates the pumice layers 1 and 3 and consists of a
moderately sorted, matrix-supported pinching beds of ash, reverse to normal-graded, well-sorted and clast-supported
rich in either pumice lapilli or andesitic lithic ash and lapilli. bed, dominated by dense, porphyritic hornblende-rich andes-
14
C dating of charcoal fragments within layers 3 and 6 at itic lithic lapilli (Fig. 3). In northeastern sections, layer 2 is
section W indicates an age of 4.7–4.6 cal ka B.P. for the Kw replaced by multiple reverse-graded and clast-supported beds
(Table 1), which approximately correlates with deposits de- of pumice ash and lapilli, interstratified with massive beds of
scribed by Turner (2008) at Waipuku Stream and Wilkies ash supporting pumice and andesitic lithic lapilli.
Pools sections (i.e. deposits M05-69 and M06-54, respective- Based on its stratigraphic position, the KB correlates with
ly; sections J and ~D, Figs. 1 and 2). These ages suggest that one or more <3.8 ka B.P. unnamed pumice beds described by
the Kw lies stratigraphically above ~5 ka B.P. ring-plain de- Turner (2008) on the eastern flanks at section J (i.e. M05-66
posits of the Tariki Tephra Formation mapped within soils east and M05-67; Figs. 1 and 2).
and south of Mt. Taranaki by Alloway et al. (1995).
Bed-sets KkF-I and KkF-II The Korito bed-set
Two bed-sets (i.e. KkF-I and KkF-II) are separated in between The Korito bed-set (Ko) lies with a transitional contact over
by an intervening ~5–8-cm-thick paleosol with diffuse con- ~10–30-cm-thick paleosols developed on weathered ash
tacts (Fig. 3). In southeastern locations, they lie over ~15-cm- (Fig. 3) on top of different deposits depending on the location
thick paleosols developed on top of weathered ash from older (Fig. 2). The Ko deposits are unique in Taranaki’s studied
deposits (e.g. sections C and D, Figs. 2 and 3). Each bed-set <5 ka sequence due to their varied lithologies and very dis-
consists of a single massive, moderately sorted and very thin tinctive yellow- to red-orange-coloured pumice. This bed-set
bed of fine pumice and lithic lapilli; which might is a useful marker horizon in proximal exposures.
stratigraphically correlate with the Mangatoki Tephra The Ko comprises nine layers (1–8 and 3a; Fig. 3), best
(~4.4 ka B.P.) mapped by Alloway et al. (1995) in ring-plain observed at Kokowai and Holly Hut 1 sections (sections W
locations. and X, Figs. 1 and 2). Layer 3 contains two massive, well-
sorted and clast-supported pumice-dominated lapilli beds,
The Kapuni A bed-set which are separated by matrix-supported deposits (layer 3a)
in northern exposures (Figs. 3 and 4). Hydrothermally altered
The Kapuni A bed-set (KA) lies with a gradational contact and accidental dense lithics are common at the normal-graded
over ~10–40-cm-thick weathered ash deposits on top of bed- top part of layer 3 (Fig. 3). In southern sites, only a single
sets KkF-I, KkF-II or KkP-II at southeast sections (Figs. 2 and lapilli bed is seen.
3). The KA includes two layers (Fig. 3), with the best expo- Layer 5 is an unusual orange to pink-coloured, parallel-
sure near Hooker Shelter (section C, Figs. 1 and 2). Layer 2 is stratified, pinching and fine-grained deposit, useful to corre-
the thickest (Figs. 3 and 4) and comprises a massive, well- late the Ko (Figs. 3 and 4). This layer is firm, appears
sorted and clast-supported bed of mostly crystal-rich pumice cemented and is composed of particle clusters (in some cases
lapilli, which correlates with >3.8 ka B.P. pumice beds (i.e. accretionary lapilli) of highly angular, dense-lithic and loose-
between M05-67 and M05-68) described by Turner (2008) at crystal ash and rare crystal-rich pumice ash, bearing common
Waipuku stream (section J, Figs. 1 and 2). wood fragments. Layers 6–8 are the most widely distributed
and thickest deposits of the overall bed-set. They comprise
The Kapuni B bed-set intercalated cross-, parallel-stratified and massive, poorly to
moderately sorted, pinching-swelling beds of ash and lapilli
The Kapuni B bed-set (KB) lies with either sharp or grada- (Figs. 3 and 4), made up of very poorly to poorly vesicular,
tional contact above a well-developed ~15-cm-thick paleosol, crystal-rich pumice and porphyritic lithics. Charcoal twigs are
or at Wilkies Pools section, directly over ~20-cm-thick lithic common in layers 7–8.
Some of these layers are traceable ~8 km northwards, The Upper Inglewood bed-set
across the neighbouring Pouakai volcano and down to
Korito road (Figs. 1 and 2). With distance, layers 5–7 The Upper Inglewood bed-set (Uig) lies with sharp and ero-
merge, become finer grained, and together with lensing sive contacts directly upon deposits of the Lig in most north-
or scattered pumice lapilli of layers 3 and 8 correlate with eastern areas (Fig. 3); whereas in southern and northern loca-
the Korito Tephra mapped by Neall (1972). On the ring tions, transitional and sharp contacts separate the Uig from 10-
plain, Alloway et al. (1995) assigned maximum and min- to 20-cm-thick paleosols developed on top of bed-sets Lig,
imum 14C ages of 4.1 and 3.5 ka B.P. for the Korito IgP-I, IgF-I or Ko (Fig. 2). The Uig is one of the most complex
Tephra from coastal cliff exposures, ~42 km northeast of deposits seen during this study, with seven layers (Fig. 3)
Mt. Taranaki and suggested that the silicic ~3.9 ka B.P. recording one of the largest explosive eruptions in Mt.
Stent Tephra (sourced from the TVZ; Alloway et al. 1994) Taranaki’s history. Most layers are exposed across the entire
should overlie the Korito Tephra. By contrast, Turner eastern flank and, with its distinctive field appearance, form an
(2008) obtained an 14C age of 3.5 cal ka B.P. (Table 1) ideal proximal stratigraphic marker (Fig. 2).
for charcoal within a cross-stratified and lithic-rich ‘surge’ Layer 1 is a reverse-graded to massive and poorly sorted
deposit at Okahu Stream, northwest of Mt. Taranaki, lithic breccia, containing dense grey and few hydrothermally
which correlates with layer 6. Ages of underlying altered porphyritic lithic blocks and coarse lapilli (Figs. 3 and
Kokowai and overlying Upper Inglewood bed-sets 4). This layer laterally passes into massive, parallel- or cross-
(Table 1; Figs. 2 and 3) support the Turner (2008) age stratified pinching thin beds of ash and lapilli. Layers 2 and 3
estimate of 3.5 cal ka B.P. for the Ko. are reverse-graded, parallel- and cross-stratified and poorly to
moderately sorted lithic-dominated ash beds; that cap inter-
fluves in a similar way to the lateral parts of layer 1; however,
The Lower Inglewood bed-set layer 3 additionally contains pumice lapilli in some areas.
Layers 4–6 comprise overall poorly to moderately sorted
The Lower Inglewood bed-set (Lig) consists of three layers and pinching-swelling, matrix-supported beds of multiple
(Fig. 3) restricted to the east and north flanks of Mt. lithics and crystal-rich pumice (Figs. 3 and 4). They graduate
Taranaki, which are best seen at Waipuku stream, Little vertically from basal, parallel-stratified, very thin beds of ash
Maketawa and Camphouse sections (J, M and S, Figs. 1 and lapilli (layer 4), into clast-rich massive beds of lapilli
and 2). In northern flank locations (e.g. section W, Fig. 2), (layer 5), and finally, into upper parallel- and cross-stratified
sharp contacts with ~90- and 15-cm-thick deposits of weath- thin beds of ash showing occasional dune structures (layer 6).
ered ash and paleosols separate the Lig from the Korito bed- The uppermost layer 7 comprises a massive, well-sorted and
set below and from the Upper Inglewood bed-set above, clast-supported bed (Figs. 3 and 4) of crystal-rich pumice
respectively (Figs. 2 and 4). On the northeast flanks of Mt. lapilli and dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli (Fig. 3).
Taranaki (e.g. section S, Fig. 2), transitional contacts with From Holly Hut 1 section (section X, Fig. 1), layer 7 was
similar weathered ash separate the Lig from bed-sets IgFC-I traced northwards, down to Maude, Kent and Korito roads,
and IgPC-I below (Fig. 3). where it correlates with the Inglewood Tephra mapped by
Layers 2–3 comprise the most distinctive deposits. Layer 2 Neall (1972). To the east flanks of Mt. Taranaki (e.g. sections
is a firm, massive, moderately to well-sorted pinching deposit F-I, Figs. 1 and 2), layer 7 correlates with the Inglewood B bed
of ash supporting white pumice and rare lithic lapilli. Layer 3 of the Inglewood Tephra defined by Alloway et al. (1995). In
consists of mostly massive, well- to very well-sorted and clast- the present study, 14C dating of ~30-cm-long charcoal logs
supported deposits, dominated by crystal-rich pumice lapilli within layer 6 at section X (Fig. 4) indicates an age of 3.3 cal ka
with andesitic and altered lithics in upper deposit levels B.P. for the Uig (Table 1), which is near identical to the 14C
(Fig. 3). date obtained by Turner (2008) in a correlative deposit. 14C
At eastern-flank locations (e.g. section J and Lower dating of charcoal within immediate over- and under-lying
Pembroke road, Figs. 1 and 2), layer 3 correlates with the deposits at Maketawa Hut and Camphouse sections (N and
Inglewood A bed of the Inglewood Tephra mapped by S, Figs. 1 and 2) confirms maximum and minimum ages of 3.4
Alloway et al. (1995). An age of 3.6 ka B.P. was proposed and 3.0 cal ka B.P., respectively (Table 1).
by Alloway et al. (1995) for the Inglewood Tephra based on
14
C dating of peat and wood from encapsulating ring-plain The Maketawa I bed-set
and distal deposits. In this work, 14C dating of charcoal within
layer 1 at section S provides an age of 3.4 cal ka B.P. for the The Maketawa I bed-set (MkI) lies with sharp and parallel
Lig (Table 1), which is consistent with under- and overlying contact on top of ~10–15-cm-thick deposits of massive, poor-
bracketing bed-sets of 3.5 and 3.3 cal ka B.P., respectively ly sorted and firm conglomerates (Fig. 3), which in southeast-
(Table 1). ern locations consist of fine to coarse pebble gravels within a
clay-rich matrix. In other locations, the MkI rests with sharp supported and up to 75–80-cm-thick pumice-rich bed (Fig. 4).
contact upon ~5–10-cm-thick paleosols developed on top of Layer 4 thickens to ~25 cm. Frequent, sharp-erosive angular
other Members of the Manganui Formation. contacts between layer 4 and several overriding lithic breccias
The MkI includes four layers (Fig. 3) mainly exposed along occur where layer 5 has been completely eroded. These rapid
southeastern and eastern flanks (Fig. 2). It is best seen at Curtis transitions occur along sections spaced at ~50 m apart near the
Ridge (Fig. 4) and Maketawa Hut sections (F and N, Figs. 1 North Summit Track (e.g. sections P–Q and S, Figs. 1 and 2).
and 2). Deposits of layers 2 and 3 are the most frequently In several locations (e.g. section M; Figs. 1 and 2), the MkII
exposed. Layer 2 comprises a normal-graded, well-sorted is bracketed between deposits 14C dated at 1.9 and 1.6 cal ka
and clast-supported bed of yellow and crystalline pumice la- B.P. by Turner (2008; Table 1). This is consistent with the age
pilli and dark-grey-lithic lapilli. Layer 3 comprises a charac- of 1.8 cal ka B.P. of the underlying GI bed-set (e.g. section H;
teristic set of pink and orange coloured, parallel-stratified, Figs. 1 and 2) calibrated from Neall and Alloway (1986).
moderately sorted and occasionally pinching firm beds of
pumice ash supporting aligned pumice and lithic lapilli and The Maero Formation
rare 1–5 cm-long charcoal twigs. Layers 2–3 are frequently
deformed by blocks produced during deposition of the over- The Maero Formation lies above the 3rd-order unconformity,
riding lithic breccia of layer 4. and comprises deposits of the last ~850 years of volcanic
Layer 2 correlates with the Maketawa Tephra Formation activity of Mt. Taranaki (Druce 1966; Neall 1972, 1979;
mapped by Franks (1984) and dated at 2.9 ka B.P. by Neall et al. 1986; Cronin et al. 2003; Platz et al. 2012), repre-
McGlone et al. (1988). Here, 14C dating of charcoal within sented by a minimum of 19 Members (Platz 2007). The most
layers 3–4 at sections N and York track (Figs. 1 and 2) indi- prominent deposits from oldest to youngest correspond to
cates an age of 2.2 cal ka B.P. for the MkI (Table 1), which is Members Te Popo Breccia and Te Popo Ash, Waingongoro
consistent with the 14C age of 2.2 cal ka B.P. obtained by Ash, Newall Ash, Waiweranui Ash, Puniho Ash and Burrell
Turner (2008) for correlated deposits at section T (Fig. 1). Lapilli. The most recent deposits of the Maero Formation
correspond to three different post-AD 1755 Members (Platz
The Maketawa II bed-set 2007).
Based on the identification and correlation of the basal 3rd-
In most locations, the Maketawa II bed-set (MkII) lies with order unconformity, the Maero Formation was here redefined
sharp contact over massive lithic breccias passing laterally to comprise a total of 23 Members, which includes older
into cross-stratified coarse lithic ash deposits (i.e. Grey >1.0 ka deposits of Members Grey PDC-II, MrP-I,
PDC-I bed-set, Figs. 2 and 3). The latter are rarely separated Kaupokonui and Grey PDC-III (Fig. 3). The Kaupokonui
with sharp contacts from a ~5–6-cm-thick paleosol developed Member correlates with the ~1.2-cal ka B.P. Kaupokonui
on top of the MkI (Fig. 3). In a few sections, transitional Tephra mapped by Whitehead (1976) and calibrated from
contacts with weathered ash separate the MkII from the Neall and Jansen (1984). 14C dating of charcoal within de-
Grey PDC-I bed-set. posits of the Grey PDC-III indicates an age of 1.0 cal ka
The MkII comprises five layers (Figs. 3 and 4) best seen at B.P. (calibrated from Turner 2008).
northeast locations (e.g. sections P–Q, Figs. 1 and 2). The Te Popo Member (Tp) contains some of the thickest
Although the MkII is traceable all along the eastern flanks of deposits of the Maero Formation, representing the Te Popo
the volcano, its correlation is complex in proximal locations. Episode recorded by Platz (2007). These deposits lie with
Layers 1 and 4 consist of massive, moderately sorted, sharp contacts on top of 10–15-cm-thick paleosols developed
pinching beds of yellow pumice lapilli and dark-grey andesitic over Members Grey PDC-III or Kaupokonui (Fig. 3) or above
lithic lapilli supported by a matrix of pumice ash. Layers 2 and of up to 100-cm-thick weathered ash deposits (section Q,
5 comprise massive or reverse-graded, well-sorted and clast- Fig. 2). Paleosols and massive coarse-fine-ash deposits of
supported beds of poorly vesicular and crystalline yellow the Newall, Waiweranui, Puniho and Burrell Lapilli
pumice and andesitic lithic lapilli. Layer 3 comprises cross- Members overlie the Tp in few sections (Figs. 2 and 3).
stratified and massive, poorly to moderately sorted pinching The Tp comprises six layers exposed mainly on the north-
beds of grey-lithic ash supporting imbricated lithic and pum- eastern volcano flanks (Figs. 3 and 4) and best preserved at the
ice lapilli, interstratified with massive, clast-supported lenses Veronica Slip and North Summit Track sections (U and Q,
of yellow pumice lapilli (Figs. 3 and 4). Figs. 1 and 2). Layers 2, 4 and 6 consist of mostly massive,
In rare exposures (e.g. section P, Figs. 1 and 2), layer 3 thins well- and very well-sorted, clast-supported beds, composed of
to ~2–5 cm and becomes a distinctive grey, lithic-rich bed that crystalline pumice lapilli and grey, bluish and altered-red
contrasts with the bracketing yellow-white pumice deposits dense or poorly vesicular porphyritic lithic lapilli (Fig. 3).
(Fig. 4). In addition, layer 2 and the pumice-rich lenses of These layers are interbedded with massive or parallel-strati-
layer 3 merge and expand to form a single, stratified, clast- fied, poorly to well-sorted, matrix-supported deposits of layers
1 and 3 (Figs. 3 and 4). Layer 3 consists of three beds of lithic Alloway et al. (1995) dated Members Manganui A to D
and pumice lapilli, at times reverse- or normal-graded (i.e. 3a between 3.3 and 2.9 ka B.P. Here, 14C dating of charcoal
to 3c; Figs. 3 and 4). Beds 3a and 3c are firm and the matrix within deposits of bed-sets IgP-II and Maketawa I (e.g.
includes a large fraction of white pumice ash, similar to the section N, Figs. 1 and 2) bracket Members Manganui A to E
massive ash of layer 5. Bed 3b is clast rich but contains inter- between 3.0 and 2.2 cal ka B.P. (Table 1). 14C dating of a log
stitial ash matrix. within lithic breccias of bed-sets MkP-I and -II (section B,
Deposits of layer 1 (Figs. 3 and 4) correlate with westward- Figs. 1 and 2) indicates that Members Manganui A and B
distributed 0.7-cal ka B.P. BAF deposits (14C age calibrated are >2.6 cal ka B.P. in age (Table 1). 14C dating of charcoal
from Cronin et al. 2003) of the Te Popo Breccia (Platz 2007), within deposits of the encapsulating bed-sets Maketawa II and
consistent with the ages of underlying 1.2–1.0 cal ka B.P. Grey PDC-III (section M, Figs. 1 and 2) indicate that
deposits at northeastern locations. The Te Popo Member en- Members Manganui F and G are <1.6 to >1.0 cal ka B.P.
compasses both the Te Popo Breccia and likely the Te Popo (calibrated from Turner 2008).
Ash Members of Platz (2007). The Manganui A Member (MA) comprises at least three
layers (Fig. 3) resting with a sharp lower contact above ~6-cm-
thick paleosols and up to 10-cm-thick weathered ash, best
The Fanthams Peak Lithosome seen at Curtis Ridge and Veronica track sections (F and R,
Fig. 1). Layers 1–2 are reverse to normally graded, very
The Manganui Formation well-sorted, clast-supported and often firm deposits of crys-
tal-rich, dark-brown pumice and dark-grey scoria lapilli and
At least four Members of the Manganui Formation, sourced at ash. Layer 3 consists of distinctive parallel- and cross-strati-
Fanthams Peak, were earlier mapped as the ‘Manganui Tephra fied, moderately sorted and pinching-swelling beds of dark
Formation’ along the eastern area of Mt. Taranaki, up to ~20– bluish-grey-lithic ash (Fig. 3). The MA contains the most
25 km from the summit crater (Whitehead 1976; Alloway vesicular pyroclasts of the Manganui Formation.
et al. 1995). In this work, the Manganui Formation encom- The Manganui B Member (MB) lies above ~5–6-cm-thick
passes a series of seven Members (Manganui A (MA) to edafized and firm deposits of fine-sand capping the MA
Manganui G (MG), Fig. 3) with a characteristically basaltic (Fig. 3). The MB comprises a very distinctive reverse-
composition (average 50.6 wt.% SiO2; Price et al. 1992; graded and occasionally massive, moderately to well-sorted,
Stewart et al. 1996; May 2003; Turner et al. 2011b) which clast-supported and rarely matrix-supported bed of heteroge-
contrasts with the typical average 57 wt.% SiO2 for bed-sets neous lithic lapilli, rich in cauliflower and bread-crust bombs.
above and below (Neall et al. 1986; Price et al. 1992; Stewart The Manganui C Member (MC) is separated from the under-
et al. 1996; Turner et al. 2011b; Platz et al. 2007, 2012) and lying MB by bed-sets MkP-I and MkP-II (Fig. 3), ~5-cm-thick
sourced from the summit vent of Mt. Taranaki. The basal edafized ash deposits and occasional firm deposits of coarse
contact of the Manganui Formation is a sharp surface between sand. The MC is made up of very friable, reverse to normal-
a ~10-cm-thick paleosol developed on top of the 3.0 cal ka graded, well- to very well-sorted and clast-supported thin beds
B.P. IgP-II bed-set and the lowermost Manganui A Member of moderately crystalline dark-grey-lithic lapilli, dark-brown
(Fig. 3; Table 1). The top of the Formation corresponds to a pumice and black scoria lapilli and ash.
sharp, conformable contact between the uppermost <1.6 cal ka The Manganui D Member (MD) contains the thickest de-
B.P. Manganui G Member and the Taranaki-sourced Curtis posits of the Manganui Formation (Fig. 3). The MD rests with
Ridge bed-set (cf. Turner et al. 2008b), both underlying the sharp contact on top of edafized firm deposits of coarse sand,
3rd-order unconformity (Figs. 2 and 3). rich in dark juvenile clasts from the underlying Manganui
Members Manganui A to D correlate with Manganui teph- Members. These same types of sand deposits are also inter-
ra beds a–d of Alloway et al. (1995). The Manganui G stratified with basal beds of the MD (Fig. 3).
Member was previously included by Turner et al. (2008b) as The MD comprises at least three pyroclastic layers, ex-
part of the ‘Curtis Ridge Lapilli’ (CR Unit-1, Fig. 3), but at posed in most sections (Fig. 2), and a lava flow (layer 2b,
that time, Members Manganui E and F had not been identi- Fig. 4). Layers 1 and 2 comprise reverse to normal-graded,
fied. In southern flanks, Members Manganui B, C and D are well- and very well-sorted and clast-supported beds, made up
interdigitated with at least three bed-sets sourced at Mt. of dense dark lithic lapilli and moderately crystalline pumice
Taranaki and consisting of pinching beds of light-grey andes- and scoria lapilli and ash. Violet-red and orange-altered lithics
itic lithic ash (i.e. MkP-I, MkP-II and MkP-III, Fig. 3) that are common in layer 1 but rare in layer 2. Layer 3 is a very
pass laterally into lithic breccias. Similarly, Members distinctive deposit of four reverse to normal-graded, well-
Manganui E, F and G are intercalated with deposits of other sorted and clast-supported lapilli beds (Fig. 3) made up of
six Mt. Taranaki-sourced bed-sets (e.g. Maketawa I, juvenile clasts similar to layers 1–2 but with higher altered
Maketawa II and Curtis Ridge; Fig. 3). and accidental lithic concentrations in middle beds (i.e.
orange, red and white-bleached altered angular lithics; and local blocks and bombs (the latter being mainly ballistically
black-grey dioritic accidentals). emplaced).
With distance, layer 3 passes into a single stratified deposit Single fallout units are up to 2 m thick, such as from the
of evenly mixed juveniles and altered and accidental lithics. In Kokowai and Te Popo eruptions (Fig. 5). Fallout-generated
eastern and southeastern locations, layer 3 is partially or fully deposits are associated with 28 of the 53 eruptions and 45%
replaced by firm sand deposits rich in juvenile clasts from the of the total thickness of the studied pyroclastic succession.
MD (Figs. 3 and 4); whereas in few southeastern sections (e.g. Around 57% of the fall deposits are widespread, significantly
sections C and D; Figs. 1 and 2), layers 1–3 are capped and coarse grained and thick enough to be representative of the
partially or fully eroded by lava flows sourced at Fanthams maximum eruption column heights produced at Mt. Taranaki
Peak (Fig. 4). over the Holocene (cf. ~14-km-height column of the AD 1655
The Manganui E Member (ME) is found in only few loca- Burrell eruption, Platz et al. 2007).
tions (e.g. sections N and R, Figs. 1 and 3), lies above ~2–6- Pyroclastic debris dispersed by clouds or plumes is an ex-
cm-thick paleosols developed on top of lapilli-rich breccias pected hazard from large eruptions at andesitic volcanoes. Ash
and is often partially eroded or fully replaced by overriding has impacts in the air (including air-transport routes), on land
breccias rich in ME-lapilli. The ME consists of reverse to (agriculture), and in water environments and may severely
normally graded, well- and very well-sorted and clast- damage infrastructure due to its abrasive, corrosive, acidic
supported beds of poorly vesicular, dark-grey-lithic lapilli, and conductive properties (Cronin et al. 1998, 2003; Wilson
scoria lapilli and brown pumice lapilli. Orange-reddish scori- et al. 2011). Ash from Mt. Taranaki plumes was distributed
aceous fragments give ME a distinctive appearance compared dominantly across the northeastern and east-southeastern
with earlier Manganui Members. flanks (Fig. 2) due to New Zealand’s North Island’s prevailing
The Manganui F Member (MF) comprises a rarely pre- winds, covering currently populated areas of ~1600 km2
served deposit exposed in northeastern locations (e.g. section (Neall 1972; Topping 1972; Whitehead 1976; Alloway et al.
Q, Figs. 2 and 4). The MF rests with a gradational contact 1995). Distal fall deposits from Mt. Taranaki have also been
upon weathered massive fine-ash deposits, and consists of identified in maar-crater sediments in Auckland, 280 km away
reverse to normally graded, well-sorted and clast-supported from the volcano (Shane 2005).
beds of moderately crystalline, dark-brown and grey lithics,
pumice and scoria lapilli, and the Member’s most distinctive Pyroclastic density currents
poorly vesicular, scarlet-red lithic lapilli (Figs. 3 and 4).
PDC units in Mt. Taranaki include both pumice and lithic-rich
proximal deposits, with a common pinching and pinching-
Interpretation of deposits and associated volcanic hazard
and-swelling geometry, which drape ridges and thicken in
paleovalleys. The diagnostic features of PDC deposits are
The lithofacies associations of the different bed-sets that com-
their generally poor sorting and matrix support; they vary
prise the late-Holocene Members deposited on Mt. Taranaki
from massive to parallel- and cross-stratified and contain a
(Fig. 3) allow them to be classified within three categories: (a)
mixture of ash, lapilli and blocks, with common charcoal
fall deposits from a sustained, convective eruption column (cf.
fragments.
Cioni et al. 2000, 2008; Arce et al. 2003, 2005; Pardo et al.
The stratigraphic succession suggests that PDCs were the
2012a, b); (b) PDC deposits, including column-collapse and
most frequent proximal volcano-sedimentary process during
dome-collapse sourced currents (cf. Brown and Branney
Holocene Mt. Taranaki eruptions, generating deposits during
2004; Lube et al. 2011; Cronin et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2014);
38 of the 53 eruption events/episodes studied, and producing
and (c) lahar deposits from syn- and post-eruptive debris flows
55 vol.% of the total composite pyroclastic deposit thickness
and hyperconcentrated flows.
(Fig. 5). PDC units can be up to 2 m thick on ridges, and much
thicker in valleys. In this proximal area, the PDC deposits may
Pyroclastic fall deposits constitute up to ~80 vol.% of the record of an eruption episode
(e.g. Upper Inglewood and Korito eruptions; Fig. 5), and
The diagnostic features of fall deposits in the proximal areas could be deposited both by one-off flows, or from a sequence
are mantling of paleotopography, even thickness, good- of events (e.g. Grey PDC-I and -II eruptions, Fig. 3). PDC
sorting (according to 1st-order visual classes of Cas et al. units almost universally accompanied eruptions that produced
2008) and clast-supported framework. Beds range from mas- thick fall deposits during complex eruption episodes (e.g.
sive to graded (both reverse and normal) and/or have ‘shower- Kokowai eruption, Fig. 3).
bedded’ stratification, reflecting vertical grain-size or compo- Pumice-dominated PDC deposits, commonly associated
sitional changes. The deposits are generally friable and dom- with pumice-rich fall deposits, are interpreted as resulting
inated by pumice clasts, which are normally lapilli-grade with from column collapse under open-conduit conditions. In
ka Bdst Falls / PDCs x Bdst 0 4 8

0.3 Bu 75-25 ka
0.45 W-P 5.0 Tw(nd)
0.7 Tp 70-30 b Kw
1.0 GIII 4.5
1.2 Kp Maero Formation
MrP-I 4.0
GII ~80 cm pl/wa Ko
3rd order unconf 3.5 Lig
MG
CR
* 83-17 IgP-II
Uig
3.0
MF
MkP-V
* Total thickness (m)
MkP-I
0 5 10 15 2.5
MkP-IV
1.6 MkII 28-72 73 PDCs 55 vol.% MkI
37 Fallouts 45 vol.% 2.0
1.9 GI GI 14C Dating
2.2 MkI 31-69 MkII
1.5 cal ka B.P.
ME
*
MD
MkP-III
* 1.0
Tp
GIII This work
Calibrated from previous works
0.5
MC
MkP-II * * Manganui
Formation
2.6 MkP-I
73-27
MB
*
MA
3.0 IgP-II
70-30 * Silica change
3.3 Uig 24-76
3.4 Lig 71-29
IgP-I
IgF-I 56-44
~80 cm pl/wa
3.5 Ko 21-79
KkF-III
KkP-IV
KB 91-9
KkP-III
KA 69-31
KkF-II
KkF-I
KkP-II 57-43
4.7 Kw
KkP-I
~30-50 cm pl/wa
Tw-XI
Tw-X ~50 cm pl/wa
Tw-IX 57-43
Tw-VIII ~35 cm pl/wa
Tw-VII
Tw-VI
Tw-V
Tw-IV
Tw-III
Tw-II a
~5.0 Tw-I 9-91
0 100 200 300 400
Accumulated thickness (cm)
Fig. 5 a Total accumulated thickness of fall and pyroclastic density intervening paleosol and/or weathered ash deposits in centimetres thick.
current (PDC) deposits per bed-set (Bdst) in centimetres, and total Refer to text and Fig. 3 for bed-set abbreviations. b Calibrated 14C ages
thickness per pyroclastic deposit type in metres (see inset). Numbers from this work and previous works. The size of each circle is proportional
accompanying bars (e.g. 71–29) indicate volume percentages of fall- with the corresponding dating error (see Table 1 for complete data and
PDC deposits. The line diagram indicates number of layers of fall and references)
PDC deposits (units) per bed-set. Unconf unconformity, pl/wa
contrast, lithic-dominated PDC deposits are interpreted as The run-out of PDCs is commonly influenced by their vol-
resulting from lava-dome collapse, under initially closed- umes. Previous studies indicated that low-volume PDCs at
conduit conditions. The massive to stratified lithofacies is at- Mt. Taranaki commonly reached 10–15 km from the crater
tributed to concentrated to dilute PDCs, respectively. Both (Procter et al. 2010; Platz et al. 2007, 2012). However, longer
types of PDCs have been observed in recent historical erup- run outs could be expected during extended eruption episodes,
tions of similar composition, type and scale (e.g. Saucedo because deep valleys become in-filled and smoothed by earlier
et al. 2010; Lube et al. 2011; Cronin et al. 2013). deposits (e.g. Lube et al. 2011; Cronin et al. 2013).
Field evidence for the distribution of PDC deposits of Mt. We estimated a total of 37 pyroclastic fall deposits and 73
Taranaki from multiple past studies suggests that any of the individual PDC units formed during 53 different eruptions
volcanic flanks could be impacted, with arguably the north- (events or episodes), in the period between 5 and 0.3 cal ka
western sector being at present most susceptible due to the B.P. (Fig. 5). Previous studies recognized only ten fall deposits
collapsed northwestern crater margin (Procter et al. 2010; as being related to PDCs (Turner et al. 2008b; Platz et al.
Platz et al. 2007, 2012). During future eruptions, PDCs would 2007, 2012). This poor representation of PDC deposits in
pose a very high threat to all the forested areas of the Egmont ring-plain areas was also noted in high-resolution distal
National Park and the adjacent inhabited farmland (Figs. 1 and swamp- and lake-core sediment pyroclastic fallout records
2). Given the high abundance of PDC units within the deposits surrounding Mt. Taranaki (Turner et al. 2008b, 2009, 2011a).
studied, it must be assumed by hazard managers that almost Despite the improved resolution obtained in the present
every eruption of Mt. Taranaki will produce at least one PDC research, the new proximal record still does not represent all
of some type. eruptions with deposits known from distal swamp- and lake-
core sediment records over the same time period (e.g. up to 62
Revised eruption history in Green et al. 2016).
Comparison with previous work Late-Holocene eruptions of Mt. Taranaki
The example of Fig. 3a demonstrates that the volcanic pro- For simplicity, we have organized the 53 late-Holocene erup-
cesses during the <5-ka eruption events and episodes at this tions, sourced from the summit of Mt. Taranaki and Fanthams
volcano are far more complex than those interpreted from Peak, according to peaks in pyroclastic and epiclastic (in this
previous ring-plain and distal deposits. Previous studies of case only for sediments clearly produced from post-eruptive
ring-plain deposits at Mt. Taranaki estimated 27 tephra beds pyroclast-remobilization during inferred periods of volcanic
within 12 Tephra Formations (cf. Neall 1972; Franks 1984; quiescence; Fisher and Schmincke 1984) bed-set deposition
Alloway et al. 1995). However, according to the International and soil formation, interpreted from maximum deposit thick-
Stratigraphic Code (Salvador 1994), genetic terms should be ness through time (Fig. 5). Similarly, the peaks in pyroclastic
avoided when naming lithostratigraphic units. In addition, the deposition associated with the largest eruption episodes dur-
significance of each lithostratigraphic unit defined in previous ing the last 5 ka, were compared with the maximum thickness
works, in terms of eruption activity and source, remains un- produced by the 3.2 × 108 m3 fall deposits generated by a ~14-
clear. Each of the defined ‘Tephra Formations’ could either be km-high column during the eruption of the sub-Plinian Burrell
(a) deposits produced by only one fallout/PDC during a single episode (Bu; Platz et al. 2007; Fig. 5).
eruption event (e.g. The Kaupokonui Member), (b) deposits At least 11 different eruption events/episodes, separated by
produced by one or more fall/PDCs within a multiple-eruption periods of quiescence of different length, occurred between ~5
episode (e.g. The Maketawa I bed-set) or (c) deposits pro- and 4.7 cal ka B.P. (Fig. 5), producing five pyroclastic fall
duced during several different eruption events or episodes deposits and ten PDC units localized down the north and
(e.g. The Manganui Formation). In this respect, some of the northeast volcano flanks (Fig. 2). The largest eruption during
‘Formations’ defined might provide information about layers this period (Tw-I bed-set, Fig. 3) began with BAFs in-filling
(e.g. a flow), but do not contain details about distinct eruption the Kokowai Stream valley, which was followed by a short-
events/episodes. Furthermore, using Tephra Formations to de- lived eruption column that produced pumice-rich deposits.
fine volcanic units excludes any potential syn-eruptive Subsequent events produced sequences of hot column-
lithofacies variation with distance, from a proximal pyroclas- collapse PDCs from brief, short-lived eruption columns, sim-
tic deposit to a distal volcaniclastic and/or epiclastic deposit ilar or smaller than the Tw-I eruption based on the thinner
(e.g. syn-eruptive lahars). deposits generated (Fig. 5).
In the present study, we therefore propose abandonment of Following a period of quiescence, the largest late-Holocene
the previously defined Tephra Formations, as has been done in eruption episode of Mt. Taranaki produced the thickest de-
schemes earlier applied by Cronin et al. (2003) and Platz posits of the 4.7–4.6-cal ka B.P. Kokowai bed-set (Figs. 3
(2007) to redefine the uppermost Maero Formation following and 5). The Kokowai eruption started with BAFs in-filling
the international rules for the definition of lithostratigraphic the southeastern valleys of the Kaupokonui Stream. Two erup-
units. There is only one more Formation that is mappable, tion columns accompanied by column-collapse PDCs pro-
distinctive in the field and with clear basal-and-top contacts, duced thick and widespread fall deposits blanketing the north
which is the Manganui Formation. For the rest of the stratig- and east Taranaki Peninsula.
raphy, we redefined units bounded by erosive surfaces or Subsequently, ten eruptions produced eight fallouts and 16
paleosols, suggesting time breaks in eruptive activity, as PDCs between 4.7 and 3.5 cal ka B.P., many of which pro-
bed-sets. duced only ~5–15-cm-thick deposits (Fig. 5). The Kapuni B
episode produced a particularly thick, southeast-dispersed crystalline composition of the Fantham’s eruptive products
fallout succession, without any large PDC deposits (Fig. 5). suggest lower viscosity magmas and rapid transit through
The Korito bed-set was deposited from the last large eruption the upper conduit system. Some of the most mafic eruptions
episode during this time period; but, in contrast to the others, it of the period were also located from subsidiary vents just
was dominated by production of a succession of column- below and north of the Fanthams Peak area, in the Rangitoto
collapse PDCs (Fig. 5) with minor fall units (Fig. 3). flat (noted by Turner et al. 2008a, b).
The next major eruptions occurred after a period during Despite the basaltic compositions (Price et al. 1992;
which up to 80-cm-thick weathered fine ash accumulated at Stewart et al. 1996; May 2003; Turner et al. 2011b), the largest
many sites, either due to very small eruptions or by wind- eruption of the Fanthams Peak area produced the east and
remobilised ash. Five eruption episodes produced three fall- northeast-dispersed Manganui D fall succession (Figs. 2 and
outs and ten PDCs between 3.4 and 3.3 cal ka B.P. (Fig. 5). 3), which is similar in thickness to the fall deposits of the
The earliest, Lower Inglewood eruption produced pumice-rich Kapuni B bed-set, and thicker than the 3.2 × 108 m3 fall
PDC and fall deposits similar in thickness to the sub-Plinian deposits produced by the ~14-km-high column of the sub-
Burrell eruption (Platz et al. 2007; Figs. 3 and 5). Following a Plinian Burrell eruption (Platz et al. 2007; Fig. 5). Many of
brief interval of quiescence, the Upper Inglewood eruption other Mt. Taranaki’s summit eruptions, contemporaneous with
produced the thickest PDC succession in the late-Holocene the activity of Fanthams Peak, generated thick BAFs and
history of Mt. Taranaki, having northeast-dispersed pumice column-collapse PDCs but comparatively thin pumice fall de-
fallout (Figs. 3 and 5). posits (e.g. Maketawa I and II bed-sets; Figs. 3 and 5).
A brief quiescence, during which ~20 cm thick of weath- Most deposits of the Manganui Formation appear sim-
ered massive fine-ash accumulated, preceded a sudden shift to ilar to the deposits produced during the eruptions of
paired eruption of basaltic (average 50.6 wt.% SiO2) and an- monogenetic basaltic volcanoes (e.g. Rowland et al.
desitic (average 57 wt.% SiO2) variants (Price et al. 1992; 2009) but, in contrast, the former span ~1500 years and
Stewart et al. 1996; May 2003; Turner et al. 2011b) from so are much longer than the eruption of a single monoge-
two centres, the parasitic Fanthams Peak (1952 m-elevation) netic volcano. In addition, the relatively thin (~1–6 cm)
and the summit crater (2518 m), respectively. From these two paleosols and weathered massive fine-ash deposits that
centres, 17 eruptions occurred between ~3 and 1.5 cal ka B.P., separate some of the Manganui Members (e.g. MA-MB,
producing 14 fall and 17 PDC units (Fig. 5). Seven of these MB-MC and MD-ME; Fig. 3) represent longer intervals
eruptions were sourced at Fantham’s Peak and produced eight of quiescence than were observed during, e.g. the 10–
fallouts and two PDC units that deposited seven bed-sets (i.e. 15 years eruption episodes of Paricutin and Jorullo
The Manganui Formation) encompassing ten layers formed (Rowland et al. 2009), even if we assume that other inter-
by distinctive basaltic, dark-grey and black lithics, dark-grey vening pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits were pro-
scoria (i.e. approximately dense clasts of thick-walled vesi- duced by syn-eruptive units, e.g. BAFs and lahars.
cles) and brown pumice (i.e. approximately fragile clasts of First-order estimates considering segments of 120- and
thin-walled vesicles). The other ten eruptions deposited 19 250-cm-thick pyroclastic, epiclastic and paleosol deposits
layers of andesitic pumice and lithic compositions, corre- bracketing 3.0–2.6 and 2.6–2.2 cal ka B.P., respectively, and
sponding with four fallouts and 15 PDC units (Fig. 5). comprising Members MA-ME (Fig. 3), suggest the accumu-
The contrast between fall-dominated eruptions of basaltic lation of 1 cm of soil or weathered massive ash in 16 to
composition and prevalent PDCs from the andesitic eruptions 27 years. In this hypothetic rapid soil-forming environment
of this period (Fig. 3) is noteworthy, and potentially reflects of Mt. Taranaki, and considering 14C dating errors of maxi-
differing conduit conditions, magma supply rates and volatile mum 100 years (Table 1), Members MA-ME were likely de-
contents; this needs to be further investigated. Preliminarily, posited during a single yet very long ~190–320 years episode
the key feature of the summit crater appears to be choked at ~2.6 ka, separated by quiescence intervals of ~400 years
conduits, with crystalline mush within the conduit and/or cap- from deposition of the under- and overlying bed-sets (i.e. from
ping lava domes (cf. Platz et al. 2007, 2012 and data presented ~3–2.6 and ~2.6–2.2 ka, respectively, Fig. 3). By contrast,
above). This means that eruption events/episodes are more Members MF-MG rest on top of Taranaki-sourced deposits
complex, involving a range of BAFs, vulcanian blasts with of <1.6 cal ka B.P., suggesting that at least 600–1000 years
unstable columns producing further column-collapse PDCs separate the youngest from the oldest Manganui Members.
and eventually sustained columns, only when the conduit By this means, the Manganui Formation was produced
has been cleared. By contrast, the Fanthams Peak eruptions from relatively frequent and multi-episodic eruptions.
appear to be characterized by more open-vent conditions, pro- Fanthams Peak must be considered a potential future
ducing fall deposits from stable eruption columns. Occasional eruptive vent together with the summit crater of Mt.
lava flows interspersed within the eruption sequence (e.g. Taranaki, able to produce large-volume basaltic eruption
Manganui D bed-set; Figs. 2 and 4) and the basaltic and less episodes (cf. Coltelli et al. 1998) as have other multi-vent
basaltic to andesitic volcanoes (e.g. Tongariro Volcanic 2016), but the proximal record gives greater detail about erup-
Complex, Nairn et al. 1998). tion processes (e.g. Fig. 3a). This additional information is
The stratigraphic sequence indicates that Fantham’s vent particularly important for developing an understanding of
became quiescent at ~1.6–1.4 ka, but the Summit vent the volcanic hazards, including the style and sequence of
remained active, producing at least nine <1.5 ka eruptions that events, as well as realistic eruption scenarios for hazard man-
generated five fall deposits and at least 14 PDC units (Fig. 5). agement planning.
Some of the eruptions produced thick fall deposits that corre- From these new proximal details it is clear that pyroclastic
spond to the 1.2 cal ka B.P. Kaupokonui Member (calibrated density currents (block-and-ash flows and column-collapse
from Neall and Jansen 1984) and the ~AD 1655 Burrell PDCs) are the most common hazards at Mt. Taranaki, in spite
Lapilli (Druce 1966; Topping, 1971; Platz et al. 2007). Also, of the fact that they have been poorly recognized from past
many eruptions of this period produced thin fine-ash layers on studies. Furthermore, it is clear that many eruptions are com-
the proximal eastern volcanic flanks, but emplaced valley- plex, with multiple phases, including dome growth and col-
filling BAF layers on the northwestern flanks (Druce 1966; lapse, and the repeated production of eruption columns which
Neall 1972; Platz 2007; Platz et al. 2012). often collapse (e.g. Fig. 3a). The new data also shows the great
The thickest deposit, suggesting the largest eruption of the diversity of eruptive styles of largest eruption episodes. We
last ~1000 years at Mt. Taranaki, corresponds to the ~0.7- infer tentatively that diversity might be controlled by magma
cal ka B.P. Te Popo Member, involving three fallouts and three composition and conduit conditions (e.g. Kokowai versus
PDC units that formed deposit sequences distributed to the Upper Inglewood versus Manganui D eruptions; Fig .3). In
northeast and west (Fig. 3). The episode started with the em- the period between ~3 and 1.5 cal ka B.P., two vents were
placement of hot BAFs within the western valleys of the vol- erupting and displayed a contrast in composition and eruptive
cano (Platz et al. 2012), with correlative ash blankets on the style. Fanthams peak produced basaltic magmas with steady
northeastern side (Fig. 2). The following three eruption col- eruptive columns and dominantly fallouts, while the andesitic
umns covered the east of Mt. Taranaki under ash and pumice summit vent produced many domes, short-lived dense vulca-
fall, with one collapsing to produce a PDC. The eruption col- nian eruption columns and dominantly PDCs. The hazard
umn(s) generated fall deposits intermediate in thickness be- profiles of these two, potentially simultaneous eruption
tween those of the Burrell and the Kokowai bed-sets (Figs. 3 sources must be carefully considered in future hazard studies.
and 5). In addition, we have revised fall deposit correlations drawn
Within this context, it remains clear that proximal data are between northeast-distributed and east to southeast-distributed
essential for increasing the precision of eruptive frequency fallout lobes of apparently similar relative stratigraphic posi-
records. Where these are missing, tephrochronological and tion surrounding Mt. Taranaki. At this and other similar vol-
hazard-related studies should specify and document the limi- canoes around the world, medial soil stratigraphies without
tations of their interpretations based on incomplete datasets. precise chronology do not provide ideal conditions to relate
Statistical models accounting for missing proximal data need similar-appearing fall deposits at different sectors around a
to be established in order to assess eruption frequencies and volcano. By showing more precisely breaks between eruption
repose-time periods. events/episodes and the strong-sector based variations in stra-
Interpretations based only on intermediate-to-distal re- tigraphy, proximal studies can provide a more realistic number
cords could also oversimplify the eruption dynamics, par- of eruptions and a more reliable expectation for eruptions. It
ticularly when short run-out depositional events are not remains to be seen whether the large pre-5 ka B.P. tephras in
represented in medial or distal sites. Hence, we suggest the Taranaki record, which are also depicted with a bilobate
conservative documentation when reporting, for example, form (e.g. Alloway et al. 1995), represent single or multiple-
sustained eruption columns based on intermediate-to- eruption events or episodes.
distal tephra records could be miss-inferred when the This work shows the importance of recording, where
proximal PDC deposits are not included. possible, detailed lithostratigraphic data for the nearest-
vent sites possible on stratovolcanoes. This approach pro-
vides unique insights into the eruptive record. Not only
Conclusions are some eruptions newly recorded but also the depth of
understanding about the diversity and style of eruption
A detailed new stratigraphy of proximal volcanic deposits on processes can be evaluated, along with the range of erup-
Mt. Taranaki provides stratigraphical and volcanological data tion sequences that may help develop realistic scenarios
for analysis of 53 eruption events and episodes in the period for emergency managers.
from ~5 to 0.3 ka. The proximal deposits record nine fewer
eruptions than does the highest-resolution compilation of me- Acknowledgements We thank G. Kereszturi, G. Gomez and E.
dial fall deposits in swamp and lake sequences (Green et al. Sandoval for their support in the field; M. Damaschke and V. Neall for
discussion and comments; and K. Arentsen for assistance with logistics. Cronin SJ, Hedley MJ, Neall VE, Smith G (1998) Agronomic impact of
Constructive comments of Lucia Capra, two anonymous reviewers and tephra fallout from 1995 and 1996 Ruapehu volcano eruptions, New
James White improved this article. We thank the Department of Zealand. Environ Geol 34:21–30
Conservation in Taranaki for their support with permits. SJC is supported Cronin SJ, Stewart RB, Neall VE et al (2003) The AD1040 to present
by the ‘Quantifying exposure to specific and multiple volcanic hazards’ Maero eruptive period of Egmont Volcano, Taranaki, New Zealand.
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Bull Volcanol (2017) 79:3

New insights into Holocene eruption episodes from proximal

Received: 12 July 2016 / Accepted: 17 November 2016

Curtis Ridge (CR) Kw

Waingongoro-Puniho m Four Members: Waingongoro, Newall, Waiweranui, Puniho BAF

comprise often lensing deposits of light grey or brown-altered

4 r,x ch fine pumice and lithic lapilli on top. BAF

r Very vesicular (~58-64 vol.%), crystal-rich (~25-30 vol.%) Fallout

diameter. Layer 3 consists of the same lithic components

CR m Layer 1 : Purplish-grey lithic and pumiceous ash. Layer 2 : Fallout

Dense, grey andesite lithic lapilli (60 vol.%) and grey-brownish

n Dark-grey and brown, vesicular and dense-microvesicular

n Two bed-sets separated by weathered ash; consisting of grey

grey lithic lapilli. Layer 3 : Low-erosive, grey , lithic and less

2 p Layer 2 : A yellow-altered lensing ash, supporting aligned,

2 fbl and black-grey, porphyritic and phaneritic accidentals are

fbl vol. %), dark-grey, black/brown scoria/pumice lapilli and Fallout

m fbl red-oxidized lithics. Layer 2 is a dark grey-bluish lithic ash,

2 n and ash (>70 vol.%); and altered or accidental lithics (<10

fp,fx ch ps Dark grey, dense, andesitic lithic ash; supporting charcoal- DF

r wd bearing, pinching, dark-grey/black, dense, porphyritic lithic lapilli. BAF

6 ch lapilli may be present. PDC

Layers 4 to 6 consist of vesicular (~35 - 45 vol. %),

coarse pumice and lithic ash. Layer 2 : W hite, fine pumice

p,x Dark grey-purplish, dense, andesitic fine lithic ash, supporting

and few red-altered and bleached dense lithic lapilli (<10

Altered and/or accidental lithics are very scarce (<5 vol.%).

6 blocks along with very few orange-altered lithics (11-13 vol.%).

n pumiceous ash (<6 vol.%). Layer 6 is rich in pumice ash

4.7 - 4.6 cal ka BP

m ch 15 vol.%), supporting grey, dark grey, black and red-altered, PDC

r and grey lithic lapilli (40 vol.%) divided by a pinching bed of

3 r,p,x weathered ash, supporting coarse lithic ash. Layer 3 : PDCs

r,m Five bed-sets separated by paleosols and/or weathered ash Fallout

Layer 1 : Grey, fine-coarse lithic ash supporting dense, Fallout

1 m im Layer 2 : Pinching bed of grey, fine-coarse lithic ash and few

Other proximal Proximal Lithostratigraphy

Table 1 Radiocarbon dating of material from proximal sections of Mt. Taranaki

Lab code Location Section Material a BP 1s cal a BP 2s Bed-set/member

Bed-sets KkF-I and KkF-II The Korito bed-set

ka Bdst Falls / PDCs x Bdst 0 4 8

Comparison with previous work Late-Holocene eruptions of Mt. Taranaki

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