‫ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ )ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﺍﻟﺒﺼﺮﻱ ‪ /‬ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻔﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻲ ‪ /‬ﺍﻹﺑﺪﺍﻉ(‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ‬ ‫‪١‬‬

‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻳﻜﺘﺴـــﺐ ﺍﻹﻧﺴـــﺎﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﻭﻳﺸـــﺎﺭﻛﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺴﻨﺪ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺗﻮﺳـــﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴـــﺮ ﻭﺗﻌﻤﻴﻘـــﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺬﻛـــﺮ ﻭﺍﻻﺣﺘﻔـــﺎﻅ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻘـــﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧـــﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻤﺴﺔ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤـــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣـــﺔ؛ ﻭﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺳـــﺘﺔ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻔﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻠﺴـــﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺗﻴﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﻟﺴـــﺒﺐ‬ ‫·‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺮﺿﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻤﻴﻤﺎﺕ‪ /‬ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﺛﻼﺛﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳـــﻮﺑﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻗﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺠﻮ‪ ،‬ﻣﺠﺴـــﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻮﺭﺍﻣﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﻹﻳﻀﺎﺡ )ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﻢ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ )ﺍﺳﺘﺤﻀﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻸﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻘﺮﺃ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻛﻔﻴﻠﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻫﻨﻪ(‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻟﻌﺐ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺭ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﻣﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻛﻴﻐﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬

‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﺧﻤﺲ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺻﻮﺭ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺤﺪﺩ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺷﺮﺣﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻬﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻭﻗﺘﺎ ﻃﻮﻳﻼ ﻟﺬﺍ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺟﻴﺪﺍ ﻟﻬﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺪﻭﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺎﺕ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻵﺧﺮ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﻳﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻳﺸـــﻴﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪ ٪٥٠‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻟﻔﻈﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﺑﺸـــﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺴـــﻴﻦ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟـــﺐ ﺑــــ ‪ ٢٧‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻣﺌﻴﻨﻴـــﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺃﺛﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ )‪ .(0.75‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺮﻳﻞ )‪ (2006‬ﻭﻫﺎﺗﻲ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧـــﻮ ﻭﻫﺎﻳﻔﻴﻠـــﺪ )‪ (2009‬ﻭﺑﻴﻔﻴﻮ )‪ (1990‬ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴـــﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﻘﻮﺩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓـــﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﻔﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﺟﺰﺀﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺱ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﻮﺻﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻴﺐ ﻛﻴﻐﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻧﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻹﺑﺪﺍﻉ ﻭﺍﻻﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺴﻬﻴﻞ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻔﺎﻅ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺮﺟﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻧﺸﺎﻃﺎﺕ ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﻓﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺘﺎﺏ ﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﺃﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻂ‪.‬‬

‫‪١‬‬
 1 NON-LINGUISTIC REPRESENTATION (Visual Perception / Tactile Stimulation / Creativity)

Description of Strategy

Most knowledge is conveyed linguistically, non-linguistic representation supports knowledge and

thinking elaboration, recall, and retention by relying on 5 basic components:
1. Using Graphic Organizers – 6 Types: Descriptive, Time Sequence, Process/Cause-Effect, Episodic,
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

Generalization/Principle, and Conceptual

2. Using Physical Models – 3-D Models, Computer Simulations, Lego, Dioramas, Realia, etc.
3. Using Mental Pictures – A Movie in the Mind
4. Using Pictures and Pictographs
5. Using Kinesthetic Activities [Total Physical Response] – Role Playing, Dramatization, Kagan

Marzano 5 characteristics of non-linguistic representation are:

1. Comes in many forms
2. Must identify crucial information
3. Students should explain it
4. Can be very time-consuming and therefore requires planning
5. A type of note taking and should be revised often based on new, more correct, or updated
information.

What the Research Says

Robert Marzano says 50+% of learning is non-linguistic. If used properly it can raise percentiles by 27%
or lead to a 0.75 Effect Size. McREL (2006), Hattie, Marzano & Hayfield (2009), and Paivio (1990) all
concluded that non- linguistic representation leads to enhanced elaboration on knowledge & thinking
and higher achievements in learning:

Teaching Tips

Non- linguistic learning can be part of any portion of the lesson, but Marzano urges explicit planning.
Non- linguistic learning supports Kagan cooperative structures, creativity, innovation, language
acquisition, and facilitates knowledge retention & recall, understanding, and achievement.

There are numerous NLR activities in the ASCD Classroom Instruction that Works books and in the following
embedded link HERE

1
 ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ )ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ‪ /‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺕ(‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ‬ ‫‪٢‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﻳﻌـــﺮﻑ ﻏﻴﺒﺴـــﻮﻥ )‪2002‬‬
‫( ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠـــﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈـــﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒـــﺎﺭﻩ ” ﺍﻳﺔ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌـــﺎﺭﻑ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻹﻧﺠـــﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺨﺘﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺑﻮﻋﻲ ﻭﻳﺒﺬﻝ ﺟﻬﺪﺍ ﻣﻘﺼﻮﺩﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺃﻱ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﺯﻣﻦ“‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎﻳﺪﻳﺮ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﺑﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻼﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻬﻤﺎﺕ ﺃﺩﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺳﻌﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﻭﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ‪،‬‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻭﻳﺘﻨﺒﺄ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﻴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﻘﺘـــﺮﺡ ﺯﻳﻤﺮﻣـــﺎﻥ )‪ (2002‬ﺃﻥ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺕ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﻤﻔﻬﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟـــﺬﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﻀﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻲ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺬﺍﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻣﺘﻼﻙ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ ﻭﻳﻔﻬﻤﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﺩﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﻣﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﻗﻮﺗﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻌﻒ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻓـــﻲ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺴـــﺆﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺠﺎﻫﻬﻤـــﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻔﻬﻢ ﺟﻴﺪﺍ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺬﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﻬـــﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺸـــﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴـــﺔ ﻭﻃﻠـــﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼـــﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﻤﻠﻪ ﻟﻤﻘﺪﺭﺗـــﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﻬـــﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺄﻣﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻫـــﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﻛﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﻭﺗﺤﺴـــﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺟﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻴﻦ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺭﺗـــﺐ ﻫﺎﺗـــﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﻛﺄﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﻓﻌﺎﻟـــﺔ ﺑﺤﺠﻢ ﺃﺛﺮ ﻣﻘـــﺪﺍﺭﻩ )‪.(1.33‬ﻓﺎﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻳﺼﻮﻏـــﻮﻥ ﺃﻫـــﺪﺍﻑ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﺒﻨﻮﻥ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﺎﺳـــﺒﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺮﺍﻗﺒﻮﻥ ﺃﺩﺍﺀﻫﻢ ﺑﺤﺜﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺷـــﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺗـــﺪﻝ ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﻴـــﻖ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻨﻈﻤﻮﻥ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﺑﺸـــﻜﻞ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻘﻴﻤﻮﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬـــﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﺘﺄﻣﻠﻮﻥ‬
‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻌﺰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺤﺼﻠﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﻴﻄﺮﺗﻬﻢ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻷﻗﺪﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﻘﺎﺀ ﺑﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺍﻷﻓﻀﻞ‬
‫)ﺯﻳﻤﺮﻣﺎﻥ‪.(1998 ،‬‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺗﺘﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺃﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻭﺗﺴﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻮﺍﺋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﻗﺪﻣﺎ ﻟﻴﺼﺒﺤﻮﺍ ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﻴﻦ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻮﻓﺮﺕ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .١‬ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺨﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٢‬ﻳﺮﻛﺰ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫‪ .٣‬ﻳﺘﺤﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻢ ﺑﻌﻀﺎ ﻟﻠﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻷﻓﻀﻞ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٤‬ﻳﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺫﻭﺍﺗﻬﻢ ﻭﻣﻌﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫‪ .٥‬ﻳﻌﺰﺯ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﻮﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻳﺠﺐ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺎﻹﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺸﺠﻴﻊ ﻭﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .١‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻣﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺪﺑﺮ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺘﻘﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٢‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﺎﺯ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٣‬ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻲ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﺙ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‪٢‬‬
 2 SELF-REGULATED LEARNING (Metacognitive Strategies – Self-Reporting)

Description of Strategy

Maurice Gibbons (2002) defines self-regulated learning as “any increase in knowledge, skill,
accomplishment, or personal development that an individual selects and brings about by his or her own
efforts using any method in any circumstances at any time”. SRL’s are more likely to apply themselves
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

to more extended performance tasks, problem solving, target setting, and are good predictors of their
own success.

Barry Zimmerman (2002) suggests that self-regulation relates to self-reliance and self-discipline, and
involves self-awareness, self-motivation, and effective skills in learning.

Self-regulated learners know and understand the factors that influence their learning. They are
motivated to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses as learners and to take responsibility for both.
Self – regulated learners understand that effort, planning, intrinsic motivation, active participation,
assistance- seeking, perceived competence & prediction, as well as reflection on purpose, and effective
metacognitive strategies all correlate significantly with high efficacy, enhanced achievement, better
grades and higher teachers’ ratings.

What the Research Says

John Hattie rates self-regulated learning as the third most effective teaching strategy with an Effect Size
of 1.33.
Learners who set their own goals, adopt appropriate strategies for attaining those goals, monitor their
performance for signs of progress, manage their time effectively, reflect on and self- evaluate the quality of
their learning outcomes, and attribute their results to factors within their control are more likely to shape
their own outcomes for the better [Zimmerman, 1998].
Self-regulation of learning is a proven proactive strategy for success and yields the highest impact when
implemented properly.

Teaching Tips

A Good Learn-to-Learn program can take students from novice to expert self-regulated learners if the
following set of essential elements are considered:
• Students have control over the learning experience.
• Skill development is focus of student-directed learning.
• Students challenge themselves to reach for their best possible performances.
• Students manage themselves and their learningobstacles.
• Self-regulated learning promotes self-motivation and self-assessment.

The community of learning should be positive, supportive, and encouraging, and involve:
1. Forethought phase: The processes and beliefs that occur before learning
2. Performance phase: The processes that occur during learning
3. Self-reflection phase: The processes that occur after learning

2
 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ‬ ‫‪٣‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒـــﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴـــﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺤﺎﺩﺛـــﺎﺕ ﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ‬
‫ﺑـــﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺻﻔﻴﺔ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻳﺴـــﺘﻄﻴﻌﻮﻥ ﺑﻨـــﺎﺀ ﻓﻬﻤﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻌﻤﻴﻖ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﺗﻬـــﻢ ﺣـــﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎﺗﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻫـــﻢ ﻟﻔﻈﻴﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺪﻋﻤﻮﻥ ﻣﺠﺎﺩﻻﺗﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﻷﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻤﺎﺭﺳـــﻮﻥ‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﺪﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺪﻭﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺎﺕ ﻭﻳﻄﺒﻘﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻔﺴﻬﻢ ﻭﺃﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺯﻣﻼﺋﻬﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﻫﻴﻞ ﻭﺳﻴﺘﻲ )‪ (2006‬ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻫﺪﻓﻴﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﻴﻖ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻟﻸﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻓﻬﻤﻬﻢ ﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭﻫﻢ ﻭﺃﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻗﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻟﻼﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎﺕ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺒﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺷﻴﻮﻋﺎ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺴـــﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴـــﺔ ﻭﺩﺭﺟـــﺔ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺠﺎﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺃﻫـــﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓـــﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺺ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺘﺠﻴﺐ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻟﻸﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﺴﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻘﺪﻣﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺯﻣﻼﺅﻫﻢ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻫﻮ ﺗﺤﺴـــﻴﻦ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﺪ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻘﺼﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻧﻲ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻳﻮﻓﺮﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺩﻣﺎﺝ ﻟﻠﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﺼﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻭﻧﻘﺪﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺃﺛﺮ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ) ‪ ( 1.33 – 0.26‬ﻭﻓﻖ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻄﺒﻘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺸـــﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳـــﻊ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﺗﺒﺎﻋﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳـــﺮ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺗـــﻪ ﻓـــﻲ ﺗﺼﻤﻴـــﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴـــﺔ ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺩﺗﻬـــﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻘﺘﺮﺡ ﺭﻭﻧﺎﻟـــﺪ ﻫﻴﻤـــﺎﻥ )‪ (1980‬ﺃﺭﺑﻌـــﺔ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳـــﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋـــﺪ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺮﻛـــﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻭﺍﺳـــﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﻣﺤـــﺪﺩﺓ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻒ‬
‫ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﺗﺠﺎﻫﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺣـــﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺸـــﻜﻼﺕ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺮﻛـــﺰ ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺍﻧﺨـــﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺼـــﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺟﺎﺑـــﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﻟﻠﻤﺸـــﻜﻠﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺮﻭﺣﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺣﻼ ﻟﻠﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻨﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﻣﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻴـــﺔ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﺮﻛـــﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻧﺨـــﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻬﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﻤﺎﺭﺳـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴـــﻞ ﻭﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ‪ :‬ﻭﻳﻨﺨﺮﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺃﻭ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‪.‬‬

‫‪٣‬‬
 3 CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

Description of Strategy

Classroom discussion is an instructional method that engages learners in a conversation for learning
content and related skills. By engaging in quality classroom discussion, students build understanding of
the subject matter, delve deeper into their own perspectives, present their own views verbally, support
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

their arguments with evidence, listen and respond critically, take notes, and critique themselves and
others.
In particular, there are two goals for a quality classroom discussion (Hale & City, 2006).
• Teachers must deepen students’ understanding of ideas in instructional content, as well as their
own ideas and the ideas of others.
• Teachers must develop students’ abilities to engage in a civil, intellectually challenging discussion
of ideas.
Virtually all teachers have experience organizing and leading classroom discussions; in fact, along with
lecture and questioning, discussion is one of the most prominent instructional techniques used in
classrooms—especially secondary classrooms.

What the Research Says

Classroom discussion has an overall positive impact on advancing students’ learning; however, the
effectiveness of discussion is contingent on how the discussion is structured and how sensitive it is to the
instructional goals. For instance, if the purpose is general comprehension or comprehension of explicit
meaning of texts, instructional conversation in which teachers and students respond to each other’s
provocative ideas and experiences would be a better option. If the learning goal were enhancing students’
critical-thinking skills, then collaborative reasoning would be a more appropriate approach, as students
would have to engage in reasoned argumentation.
The effect sizes ranged from 0.26 – 1.33 according to the approach of the discussion technique.

Teaching Tips

Despite the ubiquitous nature of discussions, there are guidelines that effective teachers should
consider as they seek to improve their skills as discussion designers and facilitators. Ronald Hyman
(1980) proposes four major types of discussion for use in classrooms.
1. Policy discussion: This type of discussion focuses on students’ reactions toward certain issues and requires
the group to take a stand.
2. Problem-solving discussion: This type of discussion requires groups of learners to seek an answer to a
problem or conflict.
3. Explaining discussion: This type of discussion asks students to analyze and articulate causes and effects.
4. Predicting discussion: This type of discussion prompts students to predict the probable consequences of
a given situation or position.

3
 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ‬ ‫‪٤‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻳﺸـــﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻴﻨﺴـــﻜﺎﺭ ﻭﺑﺮﺍﻭﻥ )‪ (1984‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﻗﺮﺍﺋﻲ ﺗﺸﺠﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‬
‫ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﻳـــﺮ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺗﻬـــﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻘـــﺮﺍﺀﺓ؛ ﻓﻬﻢ ﻳﻘﻮﻣﻮﻥ – ﻭﺑﺸـــﻜﻞ ﺁﻟـــﻲ – ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﺨﻴﺺ ﻭﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻷﺳـــﺌﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴـــﺢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒـــﺆ ﻭﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋـــﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘـــﺮﺃﻭﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻤﺎﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺋﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﻋﻨﺪ‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺗﻬﻢ ﻟﻨﺺ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﺇﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺝ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺻﻐﻴﺮﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻗـــﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴـــﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ ﻛﻠﻪ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷـــﻜﻞ ﺣﻠﻘـــﺎﺕ ﺃﺩﺑﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﻳﻤﺎﺭﺳـــﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺭﻭﺳـــﻬﻢ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﺼﻮﺹ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻘﺮﺃ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﻭﻳﻨﺎﻗﺸﻮﻧﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﻃﺎﻟﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻤﺎﺭﺱ ﺩﻭﺭﺍ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺎ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺘﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﺪ‬
‫ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﻨﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﺜﻠﻪ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ )ﺃﻭﻛﺴﻜﺲ‪ .(2005 ،‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻩ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ‬
‫ﺟﻠﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺪﻭﻳﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺼﻮﺹ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻗﺎﺩﻣﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺗﺸـــﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺤـــﻮﺙ ﺇﻟـــﻰ ﺃﻥ ‪ ٪٦٠‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺸـــﻜﻼﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺋﻲ؛ ﻓﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠـــﺔ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻳﻨﺼـــﺐ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰﻫـــﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻚ ﺗﺮﻣﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺳـــﻠﺒﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺑﻬﻢ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﺎﻧـــﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺒﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻮﺍﻓﺮ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺋﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺴـــﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﻴـــﺔ ﻭﺩﺭﺟـــﺔ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺠﺎﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴـــﻖ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓـــﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺮﺍﺳـــﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻴﻨﺴـــﻜﺎﺭ ﻭﺑﺮﺍﻭﻥ )‪ (1984‬ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻴﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺋﻲ ﻣﻦ ‪٪٣٠‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ‪ ٪٨٠‬ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ‪ ٢٠ – ١٥‬ﻳﻮﻣﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳـــﺔ ﻛﻮﺑﺮ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺋﻪ )‪2000‬‬
‫( ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ‪ ٧٦‬ﺩﺭﺳـــﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺃﺳـــﻬﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﻮﺍﻗﻊ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳـــﺔ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻴﺔ )‪2016‬‬
‫( ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻠﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ )( ﻭﻳﻌﺎﺩﻝ ﺗﻘﺪﻣﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻭﻧﺼﻒ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ )ﺑﻴﺘﻲ‪.(2016 ،‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻢ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـــﺘﻤﺮ ﻣﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﻧﻤﺬﺟﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻔﻀﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ ﻛﻠﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻳﻔﻀﻞ ﺁﺧﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ‪ :‬ﺗﻨﺸﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻭﺿﻊ ﻫﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓـــﻲ ﺃﺛﻨـــﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻘـــﺮﺍﺀﺓ‪ :‬ﺗﻤﻬﻴـــﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻣـــﻦ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﻓﻖ ﺣﺎﺟﺘﻬـــﻢ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤـــﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻤﻬﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ‪ :‬ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻱ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻋﻴﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪٤‬‬
 4 RECIPROCAL TEACHING

Description of Strategy

Reciprocal teaching (Palinscar & Brown 1984) is a guided reading comprehension strategy that encourages
students to develop the skills that effective readers and learners do automatically (read, summarize,
question, clarify, predict and respond to what they are reading). Students use these comprehension
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

strategies on a common text, in pairs or small groups.

Reciprocal teaching could be a whole-class session, teacher-led guided reading groups, and literature
circles. Teachers can easily incorporate the strategies into lessons using texts for reading in English, social
studies, science, and mathematics.
Students read and discuss, in groups, a text. Each student takes a different role (strategy). They may use
characters to model what each represents (Oczkus, 2005). Each student keeps his or her job for the entire
reciprocal teaching discussion. Jobs rotate with each new piece of text.

What the Research Says

Researches point out that almost 60% of students have common problems with reading comprehension;
primary students may be so focused on decoding that they lose comprehension, students of all ages may
lack strategies for figuring out confusing or difficult words.

The following researches verify that reciprocal teaching can yield results and improve students’ reading
comprehension skills:
Ø After 15–20 days of instruction, Palincsar and Brown (1984) saw students go from scoring 30% to scoring
80% on a reading comprehension assessment.
Ø After 76 lessons, students improved by one to two reading levels (Cooper, Boschken, McWilliams, &
Pistochini, 2000).
Ø Hattie’s (2016) indicates that reciprocal teaching has an average effect size of 0.74 that is equivalent to
one year and a half leap at GCSE (Geoff Petty, 2016).

Teaching Tips

The key is to regularly model and practice the strategies with students. Some teachers begin with
whole-class sessions, while others prefer a guided reading setting.
Before Reading:
• Activate prior knowledge.
• Review all four strategies.
• Set a purpose for Reading.
During Reading:
• Coach individual students in any of the four strategies.
• Supply needed tools.
After Reading:
• Discuss the strategies in any order.
• Reflect on strategy use: which strategies helped the most today.

4
 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ‬ ‫‪٥‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﺤﺴﻦ ﻗﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ‬
‫– ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳـــﺎﺱ – ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﺴـــﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻳﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻤﺴـــﺎﻋﺪﺗﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻬﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻈﻬﺮﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺅﻫﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻭﻗـــﺪ ﻟﺨـــﺺ ﻫﺎﺗـــﻲ )‪ (2009‬ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻬـــﺎ‪ ” :‬ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘـــﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺴـــﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻣـــﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺿﺎﻓـــﺔ ﺇﻟﻴـــﻪ‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮﻩ‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺘﻪ‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ ﺇﻋـــﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺮﺗﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﻨـــﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻟﺘﺸـــﻤﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ‪ ،‬ﺍﻭ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺴـــﻪ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺆﺩﻳﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﻭ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﺎﺭﺳﻬﺎ“‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻠﻴﻪ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻘﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺼﺪﺭﺍ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻵﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﻔﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺃﺷﺎﺭ ﻣﺎﺭﺯﺍﻧﻮ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ )‪ (2001‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﺮﺡ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺗﻘﻨﻪ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻘﻨﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﻣﺜﻠﺖ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ )‪ (0.53‬ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺸـــﺠﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺤﻘﻖ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺷﺎﺭﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻮﺭﻛﻬﺎﺭﺕ )‪ (2008‬ﻭﻫﺎﺗﻲ ﻭﺗﻴﻤﺒﺮﻟﻲ )‪ (2007‬ﻭﺷﻮﺕ )‪ (2008‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ‬
‫ﺩﻻﺋﻞ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ ﻭﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻠﻬﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻬﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺛﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﺄﻧﻔﺴﻬﻢ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪﻫﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻻﺕ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬

‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﻭﻳﻐﻴﻨﺰ )‪ (2012‬ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻣﻼﻣﺢ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﻫﺪﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻊ‪ :‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ‪،‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻭﻛﻞ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻟﻬﻢ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺴﺘﻨﺪﺍ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﻭﺍﻟﺸـــﻔﺎﻓﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺭﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻏﻤﻮﺽ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺸـــﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ‬
‫ﺫﺍﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﺪﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﻴـــﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﻴـــﻖ‪ :‬ﺇﺫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴـــﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﻟﺘﺤﺴـــﻴﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻪ ﻭﺗﺤﻘﻴـــﻖ ﻫﺪﻓﻪ‪ ،‬ﻓﻮﺻﻒ ﻣﺜﻞ‬
‫ﺃﺣﺴﻨﺖ ﻻ ﻳﻘﻮﺩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻱ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳـــﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‪ :‬ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻜﻴﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﻭﻓﻖ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻭﺃﻥ ﺗﺨﻠﻮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻟﻔﺎﻅ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻘﺪﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﻋﻨﺼـــﺮ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺛﻨﻴـــﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻـــﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻏﻮﺏ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮﻩ ﺑـــﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟـــﺐ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴـــﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﻦ‬
‫ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺁﻧﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﻳﺠﺐ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻱ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺁﻧﻴﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﻐﻼﻝ ﺗﻮﻗﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻦ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻻﺕ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻻﺗﻘﺎﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭﻳﺔ‪ :‬ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﻘﻮﻳﻢ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻨﻲ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻭﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺩﺍﺋﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻻﺗﺴﺎﻕ‪ :‬ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻭﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺛﻮﻗﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ ﺳﻼﻟﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻟﻔﻈﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﻮﺻﻔﺎﺕ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﺴـــﺘﻮﻱ ﻻﺳـــﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻭﺗﺒﺼﻴﺮﻩ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴـــﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻡ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ‪.‬‬

‫‪٥‬‬
 5 MEANINGFUL FEEDBACK

Description of Strategy

The feedback process supports student engagement in learning and enhances the teacher’s ability
to monitor the learning process. Essentially, it is an ongoing process in which teachers communicate
information to students to help them better understand:
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

• What they are to learn.

• What high-quality performance looks like.
• What changes are necessary to improve their learning.
Hattie (2009) summarizes feedback as “information with which a learner can confirm, add to, overwrite,
tune, or restructure information in memory, whether that information is domain knowledge, meta-
cognitive knowledge, beliefs about self and tasks, or cognitive tactics and strategies”. Therefore, teacher
feedback is an important source of information regarding student learning, and it serves as an important
mechanism for students to reach both cognitive and affective goals.

What the Research Says

Robert Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane Pollock (2001) find that the most effective feedback involves
an explanation of what is accurate and what is inaccurate in student responses, with an average effect
size of 0.53. Feedback that encourages students to keep trying until they succeed has an average effect
size of 0.53.
Research (Brookhart, 2008; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Shute, 2008) shows that when feedback provides
explicit guidance, students can adjust their learning in the following ways.
• There is greater impact of achievement.
• Students are more likely to take risks with their learning.
• Students are more likely to keep trying until they succeed.

Teaching Tips

Grant Wiggins (2012) provides seven attributes of effective feedback.

• Goal-referenced: effective feedback requires a goal that students are taking actions to achieve; they
should receive goal-related information about their actions.
• Tangible and transparent: effective feedback should be clear, unambiguous, and indicative of
tangible results related to the goal.
• Actionable: feedback such as “good job” is not actionable. Effective feedback is concrete, specific,
and empowering so that students can take further actions.
• User-friendly: customized effective feedback, personalized to students’ development levels is best. It
focuses on one or two key elements of performance, rather than overloading students with excessive
or technical information.
• Timely: effective feedback allows students the opportunity to use it while their attempts at and the
effects of learning are still fresh in their minds.
• Ongoing: effective feedback is a formative loop—students can start over immediately whenever
they fail and continuously get fresh opportunities to receive feedback and learn from it.
• Consistent: effective feedback provides information that is stable, accurate, and trustworthy—for
instance, using highly descriptive rubrics to anchor products and performances.

5
 ‫ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ‬ ‫‪٦‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻳﻌـــﺮﻑ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ )( ﺑﻨـــﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺸـــﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤـــﺮﺍﺩ ﺗﻌﻠﻤـــﻪ؛ ﻓﻬـــﻲ ﺗﺴـــﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳـــﺪ ﺍﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺒـــﺮﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺄﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻴﻨﻬـــﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴـــﻦ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺧﺼﻮﺻـــﺎ ﻣـــﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻻ ﻳﻤﺘﻠﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺄﻟﻴﻒ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺳـــﻬﻮﻟﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺇﺩﻣﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺴﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻟﻜﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻼ ﺑﺼﺮﻳﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻨﺤﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺮﻭﻧـــﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧـــﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨـــﺺ‪ .‬ﻭﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻳﺘﻌﺮﻓﻮﻥ ﺑﺴـــﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺼﺮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓـــﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴـــﺔ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻴـــﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣـــﺎ ﻳﺒﺤـــﺚ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﺭﺋﻴﺴـــﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺸـــﻴﺮ ﺑﻮﻟﺘﻨﻴـــﻚ )‪ (1997‬ﺇﻟـــﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺼﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺴـــﻤﺢ ﺑﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸـــﻤﻮﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻌﺠﺰ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻔﻌﻠﻪ ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﻤﺎ ﺗﻠﻌﺒﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺼﺮﻱ ﻟﻼﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ ﻭﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣـــﺪﺩ ﺑﻴﺘـــﺰ )‪ ،(2009‬ﻭﺗﺸـــﻴﻤﺎ ﻭﻣﻴـــﺮﺯﺍ )‪ (2013‬ﻭﺑﻠﻮﺗﻨﻴـــﻚ )‪ (1997‬ﺟﻤﻠـــﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻫـــﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﻘﻬـــﺎ ﺍﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻘﺪﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﺤﻔﻴﺰ ﺍﻹﺑﺪﺍﻉ ﻭﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺫﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻭﺗﻘﻮﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭ )ﺍﻟﻌﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻲ(‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ )ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﻴﻀﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺨﻤﺔ(‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺗﻘﻮﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻭﺗﺸﺨﻴﺺ ﺍﻷﺧﻄﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺟـــﺪ ﻫﻮﺭﺗـــﻮﻥ ﻭﺁﺧـــﺮﻭﻥ )‪1993‬‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫( ﺗﺄﺛﻴـــﺮﺍ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺑﻴﺎ ﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻋﻠـــﻰ ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻷﺛﺮ ﻟﻼﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣـــﺎ ﻳﻘـــﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄـــﻼﺏ ﺑﺈﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ )‪ (0.88‬ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻘـــﺎﻝ ﻣﺌﻴﻨﻲ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻩ ‪ ،٣١‬ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺑﻠﻎ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻷﺛـــﺮ )‪ (0.59‬ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﺌﻴﻨﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻘـــﺪﺍﺭﻩ ‪ ٢٢‬ﻋﻨﺪﻣـــﺎ ﻳﻘـــﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺑﺈﻋـــﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴـــﺔ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺟﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺄﺛﻴـــﺮ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺗﺠﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ )‪ (2009‬ﻓﻘﺪ ﺃﺷﺎﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺃﺛﺮ )‪ (0.57‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺟﺪﺍ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺰﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻨﺎﺋﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬

‫ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﻧﻮﻓﻚ ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺎﺱ )‪ (2008‬ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺖ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺍﺗﻲ ﺍﻗﺘﺮﺣﺎﻫﺎ ﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺪﺀ ﺑﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻣﺄﻟﻮﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺠﺮﻱ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻪ‬
‫ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺸﺎﺑﻜﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﻬﻴﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪٦‬‬
 6 CONCEPT MAPPING

Description of Strategy

Hattie (2009) says concept mapping involves the development of graphical representations of the
conceptual structure of the content to be learnt…. concept mapping can assist in synthesizing and
identifying the major ideas, themes, and interrelationships—particularly for the learners who do not
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

have these organizing and synthesizing skills.

A key advantage of concept mapping is that the teacher can readily integrate it into any other
instructional delivery approach. In addition, concept mapping is highly adaptable because visual
representation has several advantages over text alone. Because students quickly and easily recognize
visual symbols, minimum usage of text makes these images easy to scan for a word, phrase, or general
idea. Visual representation allows for development of a holistic understanding that words alone cannot
convey (Plotnick, 1997), and concept mapping plays an essential role in teaching and learning by helping
learners visualize big and small ideas alike.
Concept mapping can serve a variety of useful purposes (Baitz, 2009; Cheema & Mirza, 2013; Plotnick, 1997).
• Communicating complex ideas.
• Stimulating creativity and higher-order thinking.
• Organizing conceptual knowledge.
• Increasing meaningful learning and assessing understanding.
• Organizing and planning learning.
• Generating ideas (brainstorming).
• Designing complex structures (long texts, hypermedia, and large websites).
• Aiding learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge.
• Assessing understanding or diagnosing misunderstandings

What the Research Says

Phillip Horton & others (1993) found that concept mapping has a positive impact on student achievement.
Concept mapping by students in groups (with a mean effect size of 0.88 or a gain of about 31 percentile
points) and teacher-prepared maps (with a mean effect size of 0.59 or a gain of about 22 percentile points)
are two effective strategies to implement concept mapping in classrooms.
This study also indicated that concept mapping affects students’ learning attitudes positively. Hattie
(2009) reports that concept mapping has an effect size of 0.57 on student achievement. Concept mapping
is particularly effective when teachers provide students with the terms for the maps.

Teaching Tips

Most educators adapt Joseph Novak and Alberto Cañas’s (2008) excellent set of guidelines to help
apply concept mapping in the classroom. The following six steps sequentially detail their approach and
offer practical, user-friendly advice on how to build, embellish, critique, and refine concept maps.
• Begin with a familiar domain of knowledge
• Use a focus question to define the issue being mapped
• Identify the key concepts that apply to the knowledge domain
• Construct a preliminary concept map
• Develop cross-links to connect concepts across subdomains
• Recognize that a concept map is never finished

6
 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬ ‫‪٧‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻻ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻤﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ؛ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺣﺪﺩ ﺟﻮﻳﺲ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ )‪ (٢٠٠٤‬ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻤﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻐﻼﻝ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﻣﻨﺎﺥ ﺻﻔﻲ ﻣﻌﺘﺪﻝ ﻳﺠﻨﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﻼﻧﺘﻘﺎﺩ‪.‬‬ ‫·‬
‫ﺑﺸـــﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷـــﺮ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻄـــﻼﺏ ﻓـــﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋـــﺎﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺴـــﻤﺎﺡ ﻟﻠﻄـــﻼﺏ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻓﻬﻤﻬﻢ ﻣـــﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴـــﻖ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺇﺷـــﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻬﺔ )ﺟﻮﻳﺲ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ ‪.(٢٠٠٤ ،‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺃﺷﺎﺭﺕ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﻴﻮﻧﻲ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ )‪ (١٩٩٧‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻳﺴﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻮﺍﺋﺪ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ؛‬
‫ﻛﺎﻟﻤﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳـــﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺸـــﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻬﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠـــﻢ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﺋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺃﺷﺎﺭ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ )‪ (٢٠١٧‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﺛﺮ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ )‪.(٠٫٦‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬

‫ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷـــﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳـــﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻳﺠﺮﻱ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻤﻴﻦ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ )ﺑﺮﻳﺴﺖ ‪:(٢٠٠٩ ،‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻬﻴﺌﺔ‪ :‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻠﻄﻼﺏ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ‪ :‬ﻳﺸﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻳﻌﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻴﺪﺓ‪ :‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻬﺔ‪ :‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺇﺷﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴـــﺘﻘﻠﺔ‪ :‬ﻳﻘـــﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﺑﺄﺩﻧﻰ ﺗﻮﺟﻴـــﻪ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺣﺘـــﻰ ﻳﺤﻘﻘﻮﺍ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺗﻘﺎﻥ‪.‬‬

‫‪٧‬‬
 7 DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Description of Strategy

Direct instruction does not mean all lecture or “drill and kill.” Prominent features of direct instruction
include (Joyce et al., 2004):
• A focus on academic tasks and learning.
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

• A high degree of teacher direction and control of the learning process.

• High expectations for student progress.
• A learning environment in which every minute counts.
• A relatively neutral atmosphere marked by avoidance of negative practices such as criticism.
In general terms, direct instruction is an instructional method in which the teacher explains a new
concept or skill to students in a large-group setting, has the students test their understanding through
practice under the teacher’s direction, and then continues with guided practice (Joyce et al., 2004).

What the Research Says

Kame’enui, Simmons, Chard, & Dickson, (1997) report that the direct instruction approach produces greater
gains in a variety of outcomes measures—including basic skills, cognitive problem solving, engagement,
and student affect (self-esteem)—than other educational models.

Hattie (2017) indicates that direct instruction has 0.6 effect size.

Teaching Tips

The basis of direct instruction is a systematic process focused on observing and modeling to influence
behavior. This process includes the following practices (Preast, 2009).

• Orientation: the teacher clarifies the learning task and student expectations.
• Presentation: the teacher explains and demonstrates a new task.
• Structured practice: the teacher uses examples to guide statements in learning a new task.
• Guided Practice: students practice with the teacher’s help.
• Independent practice: students practice until they have mastered the task.

7
 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﻲ‬ ‫‪٨‬‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ )‪ (٢٠٠٩‬ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻨﺤﻰ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺴﻴﻲ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺘﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻒ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﺪﻯ ﺗﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻹﻧﺠﺎﺯ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﻇﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻭﻃﺮﺡ ﺍﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺣﻮﻟﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬

‫ﻃﺮﺡ ﺗﺄﻭﻳﻼﺕ ﻭﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺃﻣﻜﻦ ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪﺗﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺏ ﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻭﻳﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﻮﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺟﻤﻌﻬﺎ ﻟﻔﺤﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻭﻳﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺷﺘﻘﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻠﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺎﺩﺍ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺗﺘﻤﻴـــﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻗـــﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻤﻴـــﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳـــﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﻻ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻳﺠـــﺎﺩ ﺣﻞ ﻭﺣﻴﺪ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬
‫ﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺨﺮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻃﺮﺡ ﺃﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﻭﺗﺠﺮﻳﺐ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻄﻼﻉ ﻭﻣﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﻟﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺭﻓﻀﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺪﻻﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺃﺷﺎﺭ ﻫﺎﺗﻲ )‪ (٢٠٠٩‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻷﺛﺮ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ )‪ (٠٫٣١‬ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ‪ ١٢‬ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﺌﻴﻨﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻢ ﺃﻭﺿﺢ ﺗﺎﺳﺎﻧﻲ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ )‪ (٢٠١٤‬ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ؛ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻴﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻭﻫﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻳﺰﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﻭﻳﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ‪ ،‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻓﻼ ﻳﺰﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﻃﻼﺑﻬﻢ ﺇﻻ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﺷﺎﺭ ﺑﻨﺘﻴﺮﻡ )‪ (٢٠١٤‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻳﻈﻬﺮﻭﻥ ﺃﺩﺍﺀ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﻮﺍ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‪.‬‬

‫ﺇﺭﺷﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ‬
‫ﹰ‬ ‫ﹰ‬
‫ﺻﻤﻢ ﺟﻮﻳﺲ ﻭﺯﻣﻼﺅﻩ )‪ (٢٠٠٤‬ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﺎ ﺧﻤﺎﺳﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﺤﻴﺮ‪ :‬ﻭﻓﻴﻪ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻭﻳﺸﺮﺡ ﺧﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺋﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺟﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ‪ :‬ﻳﺠﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻭﻳﻨﺎﻗﺸﻮﻥ ﺧﺒﺮﺍﺗﻬﻢ ﺣﻮﻟﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺐ‪ :‬ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﺤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﻭﻳﺼﻮﻏﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﻳﺠﻤﻌﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎﺕ‪ :‬ﻳﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻳﺼﻮﻏﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎﺀ‪ :‬ﻳﺤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻷﺳﺌﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻫﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺣﺘﺎﺟﻮﻫﺎ ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﺼﻠﻮﺍ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﻄﻮﺭﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪.‬‬

‫‪٨‬‬
 8 INQUIRY – BASED LEARNING

Description of Strategy

Hattie (2009) describes inquiry based learning as an instructional approach in which the teacher develops
challenging situations for students to:
• Observe and question phenomena
Eight Effective Teaching Strategies

• Pose explanations of what they observe

• Devise and conduct experiments to collect data to support or contradict their theories
• Analyze data related to their theories
• Draw conclusions from experimental data
• Design and build models based on the findings
Such learning situations are open-ended in that they do not aim to achieve a single “right” answer for a
particular question, but rather involve students in the process of observing, posing questions, engaging in
experimentation or exploration, and learning to analyze and reason.

What the Research Says

Hattie (2009) finds that inquiry-based learning has an effect size of 0.31 (an increase of 12 percentile
points).
Tassanee Bunterm et al. (2014) note the effects of two types of inquiry—guided versus structured inquiry—
on secondary students’ learning. In the structured-inquiry condition, the teachers provide the questions
and procedures to students, withholding only the solution; in the guided inquiry condition, teachers provide
only the questions.
Bunterm et al. (2014) found that students in the guided-inquiry condition show greater improvement in
both content knowledge and thinking skills.

Teaching Tips

Joyce et al. (2004) propose a five-phase model of inquiry learning:

• Confront a puzzling situation: the teacher presents the problem situation and explains inquiry
procedures
• Gather and verify data: students gather information about the objects and events based on
what they experience and verify the occurrence of the problem situation
• Experiment: students isolate relevant variables, hypothesize, and test causal relationships
• Formulate an explanation: students organize the data and formulate explanations
• Analyze the inquiry process: students determine the most effective questions and the types of
information they need but have not acquired, then develop more effective ones for the future