Department of Applied Physics

KDK College of Engineering, Nagpur

Subject: Applied Physics

Unit1:Wave Optics
12 marks

Dr.(Mrs.)S. Wankhede
HOD, Applied Physics Dept. KDKCE
 Contents of Unit I: Wave optics
 Introduction
 Huygens’ principle
 Geometrical construction of wavefront
 Superposition principle
 Interference in thin films
 To calculate path difference and condition for obtaining maxima and minima
for thin parallel film
 Wedge shape thin film: Calculation of fringe width and wedge angle
 Applications of Wedge shape thin film
 Newton Rings and its salient features
 Expression for radius of ring
 Expression for radius of curvature of plano-convex lens
 Applications of Newton Rings
 Advanced applications of thin films.
 Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit
 Fraunhofer diffraction from a circular aperture
 Diffraction grating and its resolving power
 Concept of Wavefront
• It is also defined as a surface on which the wave disturbance is in same phase at
all the points.
• The direction of propagation of a wave at a point is always perpendicular to the
wavefront through that point.
• Depending on source, the shape of the wavefront may be circular, spherical,
cylindrical or planar.
• Point source produces spherical wavefront and linear source produces
cylindrical wavefront.

Figure1.(a) Circular (b) Spherical (c) Cylindrical (d) Plane Wavefront

 HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE
• A Dutch physicist named Christian Huygens (1629 – 1695), suggested that light may
have a wave nature.
• Huygens’ wave theory of light successfully explained Young’s double slit experiment in
1801.
• Huygens proposed a geometrical method known as Huygens’ Principle to find the shape
and location of wavefront at some instant from the knowledge of the same at earlier
instant of time
• Huygens’ Principle states that:
• Each point of a wavefront is a source of a secondary disturbance and generates spherical
secondary wavelets.
• After a certain interval of time ‘t’, the new position of the wavefront will be that of
surface tangent to these secondary wavelets.

Christian Huygens
 Geometrical construction of wavefront
 Each point of primary wavefront AB acts as a source of secondary
disturbance coming from a point source ‘S’ of light as shown in fig.2(a).
 The secondary wavelets emerging from these points are spherical in
shape, spreading in all directions at speed equal to wave’s speed.
 Draw spheres of radius vt from each point on the spherical wavefront
where speed of the wave is’v’ in time ‘t’.
 Then draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new
position of the wavefront at t.
 The new wavefront is again a spherical wavefront.
 According to Huygens, amplitude of the secondary wavelets is
maximum in the forward direction and zero in the backward direction;
hence he could explain the absence of the backwave.
 Hence the wavelets as well as the whole wave always travel in forward
direction only.
 Similarly, plane wavefront can be constructed as shown in fig.2(b).
Fig.2: Geometrical construction of Huygen’s Principle (a) Spherical (b) Plane wavefront

QUE: What is Huygens principle in regard to the conception of light waves ?

QUE:What is a wavefront ? How is it produced?Slide 3
QUE:State the postulates of Huygens’s wave theory.
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
• The Superposition Principle states that: When two or more waves arrive at a
point in a medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement at that point is the
algebraic sum of their individual displacements.
• After the superposition, the wave trains travel as if they have not interfered at
all. Each wave train retains its individual characteristics. They pass through
each other without being disturbed.
• To understand this, as shown in fig.3, consider two waves travelling in opposite
directions pass through a point in a medium.

Fig.3: Superposition of two waves a) in phase b) out of phase

 Interference: An Introduction
 Interference: When two or more coherent light waves traveling along the same
direction superpose, then there is redistribution of light energy, at some points
energy is maximum (constructive Interference) and at some points energy is
minimum (destructive Interference). This phenomenon is called as Interference.
This phenomenon is based on superposition principle.
 Condition for constructive interference: When two light waves travelling
through a medium arrive at a point in phase simultaneously, the resultant light
intensity at that point is maximum and the point appears bright. This is called
the condition of constructive interference.
 The phase difference between the two waves is 0, 2 , … .
 The path difference between the two waves = nλ where n the order of fringe is
0, 1, 2, 3…..
 Condition for destructive interference: When two light waves travelling through
a medium arrive at a point out of phase, the resultant light intensity at that
point is minimum and the point appears dark. This is called the condition of
destructive interference.
 The phase difference between the two waves is , , ,… .
 The path difference between the two waves = (2n+1) / or (2n-1) / where n
the order of fringe is 1, 2, 3…..
 Interference phenomena was observed by Newton and Robert Hooke but
theory was developed by Thomas Young.
 Interfernce in thin films:Natural thin film and related phenomena:
Iridescence
Thin film: A film is said to be thin when its thickness is of the order of one
wavelength of visible light ~ 5500 Å (0.55μm) or of incident light.

CD DVD
colours in
reflected
light

↑ Iridescence caused by interference : Colours as seen due to interference phenomena

on oil layer, soap bubbles, peacock feathers, beetle body, oil film on rock and morph
butterfly wings, Colours on CD and DVD.
 Techniques of Interference
Division of wavefront Division of amplitude

Figure 1 Figure 3

Figure 2 Figure 4
 Important Concepts
Geometrical path
Shortest distance between two points.
It is same in vacuum or any other medium.
Optical path
 The path traveled by light in a medium having refractive index ‘µ’.
 Optical path = R.I × Geometrical path.
 Optical path difference
The difference between optical paths of two rays travelling in
different directions is called Optical path difference.
 Phase difference:
When a wave covers a distance of one wavelength(
changes by 2
 ),its phase

Hence for a wave travelling a distance of ‘L’ in air, its phase changes
by   2L

 Plane parallel thin film:Thin Film of uniform thickness
Derivation of Path difference and condition of constructive (maxima) and
destructive (minima) interference: Consider a plane parallel thin film of
uniform thickness ‘t’ having refractive
index ‘µ’ as shown in Figure 5. The film is
surrounded by air on both the sides.
Let a monochromatic source of light of
wavelength ‘λ’ is incident on the plane
parallel thin film obliquely.
Let AB represent one of the incident rays
at point B, a part of incident light at B is
reflected as BC (ray 1) and partially
transmitted into the film along BF.
The transmitted ray BF partially
reflected back into the film along FD and
refracts into the outer medium as DE (ray
2). Ray2 is parallel to the Ray1.
The interference pattern consisting of
Figure5 dark and bright bands is formed due to
superposition of light rays reflected from
top and bottom of this thin film.
To find optical path difference between the rays 1 and 2:
Draw DH  to BC and FG  to BD.
From the geometry of the figure 5, BFG = r and BDH = i.
Optical path difference between the two waves = μ (BF+FD) - BH
Since BF = FD , Optical path difference = μ(2BF) - BH----- (1)
From Δ BFG, cos r = / = / or BF = /cos ----- (2)
From Δ BDH, sin i = / Or BH= BD sin i ----- (3)
From Δ BFG, tan r = / = /
Or BG = t tan r
But BD = 2 BG BD = 2 t tan r ----- (4)
Substituting the value of BD from equation (4) in equation (3) we get,
BH = 2 t tan r x sin i =2 t tan r x μ sin r
(using Snell’s law μ = sin /sin )
or BH =2 t (sin cos ) x μ sin r =2 μ t 2 /cos ----- (5)

Substituting the value of BH from eqn. (5) and BF from eqn. (2) in equation (1) we
get,
Optical path difference =2 /cos − 2 2 /cos

= 2μt/cosr (1−sin2r)
=2μt/cosr (cos2r) =2μt cosr
When light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium, a phase
change of π, equivalent to a path difference of λ/2 occurs.
Correct path difference Δ =2 cos − /2 .
Condition for constructive interference (Bright bands)
Path difference = nλ
2 μ t cos r - /2 = nλ
2 μ t cos r = nλ + /2
2 cos =((2n+1) /2 ------ Condition for brightness(maxima)
Condition for destructive interference (Dark bands)
Path difference = (2n-1) /2
2 μ t cos r - /2 = (2n-1) /2
2 μ t cos r = (2n-1) /2+ /2
= (2n) /2 = nλ
or 2 μ t cos r = (n+1) λ = nλ ------ Condition for darkness (minima)

Question1:Derive an expression for path difference and conditions for constructive

and destructive interference for phenomenon of interference in thin parallel film in
reflected light. (4) W-15
 Interpretations/Conclusions
THIN FILM EXPOSED TO WHITE LIGHT
 When white light consisting of many wavelengths (colors) is incident on
thin film then all colors get reflected from the top and bottom surface.
 But all of them does not satisfy the condition of brightness (maxima).
 Hence reflected light will have only those colors which satisfy the
condition of maxima.
 The colors which satisfy the condition of minima (darkness) will remain
absent. Hence thin film appears colored under White light.
WHEN FILM IS VERY THIN
 When film is so thin like only a few layers of air molecules as in case of
air film, then the thickness of film is very small as compared to
wavelength of incident light (i.e., t << λ).
 The path difference will be nearly equal to λ/2.Hence a phase difference
of 180o will be introduced between the interfering rays .
 Therefore, the wave reflected from upper surface and bottom surface of
film will interfere destructively and the film appears dark.
 Interference in Wedge shape thin film :Film of varying thickness
A wedge shaped thin is a thin film of varying thickness having thickness zero at one end
and uniformly increasing towards another end.
A wedge- shape thin film of air can be formed by placing two glass slides resting on each
other at one edge and separated by a thin spacer at the opposite edge.
The interference pattern of wedge- shape thin film
consists of alternate dark and bright bands of equal
thickness called as fringes.
The optical path difference between two interfering
rays, Δ = 2 cos − /2 as shown in figure 6.
A parallel beam of monochromatic light
Figure 6 illuminates the wedge as shown in figure 7.
A glass plate is kept at an angle of 45o to make the
Experimental Arrangement
light fall on top surface of wedge shape film at
normal incidence.
The light reflected from top and bottom surface of
wedge shape film forms an interference pattern of
straight, parallel, equidistant dark and bright
fringes.

Interference pattern
Figure 7
 Derive an expression for fringe width(β) in wedge shape thin film
 Consider a wedge shape thin film of varying thickness with refractive index ‘μ’
and wedge angle ‘θ’ illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ.
 The rays reflected from top and bottom surfaces of the thin film form an
interference pattern consisting of dark and bright, straight, parallel fringes.
 Consider two consecutive dark fringes at point A and C as shown in figure 8.
The nth dark band be formed at point A at a distance x1 from the edge of
contact ‘O’ and t1 be the thickness of film at A.
 The (n+1) th dark band is formed at point C at a distance x2 from ‘O’ and t2 is
the thickness of film at point C.
For destructive interference condition,
2 μ t cos r = n λ (normal incidence, cos r =1)
For nth dark fringe, 2 μ t1= nλ ------- (1)
For (n+1) th dark fringe,
2 μ t2 = (n+1) λ --------- (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2) we get,
2 μ (t2 – t1) = λ -------- (3)
From figure, in right angled triangle AEC,
tan θ = / =t2 − t1/x2−x1
Figure 8 Since θ is small, tan θ ~ θ,t2 − t1= (x2−x1 ) θ ---- (4)
 Substituting value of t2-t1 in equation (3) we get
2 μ (x2-x1) θ = λ
Since x2-x1 = β = Fringe width (i.e., distance between two consecutive dark
fringes).
 Therefore, 2 μ β θ = λ or Fringe width β = /2μ
For air film, refractive index μ =1,
β = /2
Since , are constant, β is constant. Hence fringes are equidistant .
To find the Wedge angle ‘θ’  Experimentally, we can find the wedge
angle ‘θ’ using a travelling microscope.
As shown in the figure 7, consider two
dark fringes formed at points A and B at a
distance x1and x2 respectively from apex ‘O’.
 Let ‘N’ be the number of fringes in
between A and B.
Consider that the thickness of the film be
t1 and t2 at A and B respectively.
At point A, 2 μ t1 = n λ
From the figure 9, t1 = x1tan θ ~ x1 θ
(as θ is very small)
Figure 9 2μ x1 θ = nλ ------- (1)
 Similarly, at point B,
2μ x2 θ = (n+N) λ ------- (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2) we get, 2 μ(x2-x1) θ = Nλ
Hence = λ/2 μ(x2-x1)
for air film, = λ/2 (x2-x1) ---------- (3)
The fringes at apex is dark
 At the apex, the thickness of the wedge is very small compared to λ, i.e. . Therefore,
thickness of film at apex is zero.
 The optical path difference becomes, Δ = 2μt−λ/2 = λ/2
 For path difference of /2, the interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase and
interfere destructively . Therefore, the fringe at the apex of the wedge is always dark.

Question2:What is thin film? Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film.
(1+3) S-13,S-15,S-17,W-17,W-18
Question3: Deduce expression for fringe width and wedge angle in case of wedge -shaped thin film.
(4) W-13, S-18 ,W13,W-17
Question4:Derive the expression for wedge angle in case of wedge- shaped thin film. (3) S-18
Question5: Obtain an expression for fringe width in the interference pattern of wedge- shaped film.
Explain why the fringe at the apex of the wedge is always dark. (4) W-16
Question6:Derive an expression for fringe width in interference pattern obtained in wedge shaped thin
film. How this phenomenon is used for testing the optically flat surface? (5) S-14
 Applications of Wedge shape film
 To find the thickness of spacer/sheet or diameter of wire ‘t’
From figure 9, t = tan θ ~ θ Slide 18
where tan θ ~ θ, for very small values of θ and is the length of air wedge.
Substituting the value of θ from eqn.3 we get,
= = λ/2μ (x2-x1) -------(using eqn.3)
 Testing of optically flatness of a surface:
The flatness of the surface can be inspected easily by keeping an optical flat at an
angle on the surface under inspection and illuminating the wedge formed with a
monochromatic light.

Figure10: Testing of surface finish (a) optically flat (b) concave (c) convex surface
Interpretation:
1] An air wedge will produce straight equidistant bands if surface is flat.
2] If the fringes are curved towards the apex then surface is concave.
3] If the fringes are curved away from the apex then surface is convex.
The surface under test is then polished and above process is repeated till straight and
parallel fringes are obtained.
 Newton’s Rings: Fringes of equal thickness

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11:(a) Experimental set up of Newton’s rings (b) Ray diagram and (c) Fringe pattern
. The phenomenon of Newton's rings, observed by Isaac Newton, is an interference
pattern formed by the reflection of light from a film enclosed between a Plano-convex
lens of large radius of curvature and a plane glass plate as shown in figure 11(a).
 The air film has zero thickness at the point of contact between lens and glass plate
and gradually increases as we move away from the point of contact on either side as
shown in Figure 11(b).
When illuminated by monochromatic source, light is reflected at point D from top
surface of the air film as ray 1 and the remaining light pass through an air film, strike
the plane glass plate at point J and gets reflected as ray 2 as shown in Figure 11(b).
Ray 1 and ray 2 interfere and produce interference pattern as shown in figure
11(c).
 Condition for dark and bright rings
The condition of brightness and darkness depends on path difference
between the two reflected light rays 1 and 2.
The path difference itself depends on thickness of the air film at the
point of incidence.
 For bright rings: Path difference 2 μ t cos r - /2 = nλ
For air film, μ= 1and for normal incidence cos r =1 ,
Hence 2 t - /2 = nλ
or 2 = (2n+1) /2 ------ Condition for bright fringe
For dark rings: Path difference 2 μ t cos r - /2 = (2n+1) /2
For air film, μ= 1and for normal incidence cos r =1 ,
Hence 2 t - /2 = (2n+1) /2
2 = (2n+1) /2+ /2
or 2 = (n+1)λ = nλ ------ Condition for dark fringe
The fringes are localized, circular and of constant thickness.
 Expression for Radii of dark and bright rings
As shown in figure12, consider a Plano-
convex lens of large radius of curvature ‘R’.
Let ‘t’ be the thickness of film at point P.
then AP = BQ = t = ON
 Let the radius of circular fringe at point P be
‘rn’ .
Hence PO =OQ = rn . Also, rn= AN=NB.
Let ‘Dn’ is the diameter of nth dark ring ,
Figure12
then Dn = PQ = AB.
By the theorem of intersecting chords, (MN) x (ON) = (AN) x (BN)
or (MO - ON) x (ON) = (AN) x (BN)
Hence (2R – t) x (t) = rn x rn
or r2 n =2Rt - t2
Since R >>> t, 2Rt >>> t2
Therefore r2n ≈ 2Rt ----------(1)
But for dark ring, 2t = nλ .Hence eqn.(1) becomes r2 n ≈ nλR

Hence radius of dark ring r n

 n R Also diameter D  2 nR
n
for n=1,2,3----- where ‘n’ represents order of rings
Hence rn α √n , rn α √R and rn α √λ
 Hence radius as well as diameters of dark rings are proportional to square root of
natural numbers.
Also, Radius as well as Diameters of dark rings are proportional to square root
of wavelength(λ) of incident light and square root of radius of curvature of
Plano-convex lens(R).
Similarly, for bright ring, 2 = (2n+1) /2 ,
( 2 n  1)  R
 Hence radius of bright ring, r n

2
Hence radius and Diameter of bright rings are proportional to square root of odd
numbers.
Salient feautres of Newton’s Rings:
1. Plano-convex Lens of large radius of curvature is used:
1. The radius of dark fringe rn α √R and hence diameter Dn α √R where R is the
radius of curvature of plano-convex lens. Hence, greater the radius of curvature of
the lens, the larger would be the diameter of the ring.
2. Secondly if R is large, the angle enclosing the air film will become smaller and
hence fringe width β will become larger.
Therefore due to these two reasons, we conclude that there will be more accuracy
and less error in the measurement of diameter of rings when radius of curvature of
Plano convex lens is large.
2. Rings get closer/crowded away from the center(rings are not equally spaced) :
1.In Newton’s rings experiment, diameter of a dark ring is directly proportional to
square root of natural numbers, while the diameter of the bright ring is
proportional to square root of odd numbers.
Therefore, as the order of rings (n) increases, the diameter does not increase in
the same proportion.
2. Also, the wedge angle is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases as
we move away from the point of contact on either side. Hence according to the
relation, = /2μ , when wedge angle θ increases, β (fringe width) decreases.
Hence due to these two reasons, we conclude that the fringes, therefore, get closer
and closer with increasing radii as we move away from the centre.
3. Central fringe is dark in reflected light :
 At the point of contact of the lens and glass plate the thickness of air film is
negligibly small compared to wavelength of light. 0 Δ /2
 For path difference of /2, the interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase
and interfere destructively with each other. Thus, the two interfering waves at
the center are opposite in phase and produce a dark spot.
4. Fringes are circular :
 In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin air film is enclosed between plano-convex
lens and a glass plate.
 The thickness of the air film at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases
as we move outward.
 Each dark and bright fringe is locus of film of constant thickness.
 The locus of points (in the air film)having the constant thickness lie on the circle
whose center is the point of contact between the lens and glass plate. The fringes
are, therefore, circular.
Question6: Draw a neat diagram of experimental set up for the Newton’s rings formation.
Why are the rings circular? Why the rings are not evenly spaced? (4M)[S16]
Question7: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i)) The rings are not equally spaced?
ii) The central fringe is dark? (3M)[S11]
Question8: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Plano convex lens should have larger
radius ii) Rings get closer away from center iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected
light. (4M)[S15]
Question9: In Newtons ring experiment why: i)Plano convex lens should have larger
radius of curvature ii) Rings gets closer away from center (3M)[S13]
Question10: Why in Newton’s ring experiment the central spot is dark? (4M)[W13]
Question11: In Newton’s Ring experiment, explain why i) Plano-convex lens should have
larger radius ii) Rings get closer away from the center iii) Central fringe is dark in
reflected light iv) Fringes are circular. (4M)[S18]
 Applications of Newton’s Rings:
To determine the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens.
To determine the wavelength of incident light.
To determine refractive index of liquid.
 To test the surface finish of lens.
Experiment: To determine the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens:
In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin film of air is enclosed between Plano convex
lens and a glass plate.
The thickness of the film at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we
move outward.
When the film is illuminated with monochromatic sodium light of wavelength ‘λ’ at
normal incidence, dark and bright circular concentric fringes (rings) are obtained.
The condition of constructive and destructive interference of rays is given by
For bright rings, 2 =(2n+1) /2
For dark rings, 2 t = n λ
The radius of dark rings of nth dark ring is 𝑛 = √( λR)
The diameter is given by 𝑛 = 2√( λR) and
2
𝑛 = 4 λ R --------------- (1)
For (n+p)th dark ring, 𝑛+p2 = 4( +p) λ R --------------- (2)
 Subtracting eqn.(1) from eqn.(2) we get
2 2
𝑛+p - 𝑛 = 4( +p) λ R - 4 λ R = 4 p λ R
Hence R = 𝑛+p2 - 𝑛2 / 4 p λ ---------- (3)
 In practice, the diameters of successive dark rings are measured using a
travelling microscope (Figure 11).
 A graph is plotted between 𝑛2 versus ‘n’ as shown in figure 14.
 The plot is a straight line passing through origin. The slope of line is calculated
as 𝑛+p2 - 𝑛2 / p .
 Substituting value of slope, Radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens ‘R’ is
calculated as R = slope/4 λ where the wavelength of incident monochromatic
source(sodium source) is given as λ = 5893Å.
 Eqn.(3) can also be used to find wavelength of incident light provided the
value of Radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens ‘R’ is known.
 Application:To determine refractive index of liquid
 We first determine the diameters of (n+p)th and nth dark rings with air film
enclosed between lens and glass plate.
 The air film is then replaced by liquid whose refractive index is to be
determined. The liquid is filled between plano-convex lens and glass plate as
shown in figure 15.
 The condition of interference is given by, 2 μL = ( for dark rings) -------- (1)
 Diameter of nth dark ring is given by,
( 2 ) = 4 / μL --------- (2)
𝑛 𝐿

 Similarly, diameter of (n+p)th dark ring is given by,

( 𝑛+𝑝2)𝐿= 4( + ) / μL --------- (3)
 Subtracting eq. (2) from (3), we get,
( 𝑛+𝑝2)𝐿 − ( 2𝑛)𝐿 = 4 p / μL --------- (4)
We know for air, μ=1,
( 𝑛+𝑝2)air − ( 2𝑛)air =4 --------- (5)
 Dividing equation (5) by (4) we get,
μL = ( 𝑛+𝑝2)air − ( 2𝑛)air / (( 𝑛+𝑝2)𝐿 − ( 2𝑛)𝐿 --------- (6) Figure15

Question12:How can Newton’s ring experiment be used to determine refractive index of

liquid? (4) W-14, W-18
 Application: To test the surface finish of lens
 This experiment is used for testing the optical components of telescopes and
other instruments. The lens surface is tested by keeping it on a master.
 If the lens is grounded perfectly, circular fringe pattern can be obtained as
shown in Figure.14 (a). If not, distorted patterns can be observed as shown in
Figure. 16 (b) and (c).
 Variations in the fringe pattern indicate how the lens must be grounded and
polished to remove the imperfections.

.
Figure16:Testing the lens surface using Newton’s rings (a) circular ring pattern
indicating the perfectness of the surface (b) and (c) distorted patterns indicating
irregularities
 Anti reflection coating(AR coating)
 Anti-reflective (AR) coatings make your glasses easier to clean by preventing
oil, water, and dirt from sticking to the lens.
 It increases visual clarity, enhances life of lenses, reduces blue light exposure
and protects our eyes from UV rays.
 (AR) coating options that vastly improve the efficiency of the optic by
increasing transmission, enhancing contrast, and eliminating ghost images.

AR coating On Spectacles AR coating On camera lens AR coating on Solar cells

AR coating On laser diodes AR coating On Sensors in automobiles

 Principle of Anti reflective coating
 A thin transparent film coated on a surface in order to suppress reflections
from it is called an antireflection coating (AR coating).
Principle: A thin film coating can act as an AR
coating if it satisfies two conditions:
1. Phase condition: The waves reflected from the top
and bottom surface are exactly out of phase by 180º
and
(b) Amplitude condition: The two waves should
have equal amplitude.
When these two conditions are satisfied the
reflected rays, Ray1 and Ray 2 undergo destructive
interference as shown in figure 17.
Amplitude condition
To satisfy amplitude condition, the refractive
index of the coating material must be nearly equal
to the square root of the refractive index of the
substrate material (glass).
𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚=√ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =√ glass --------- (1)
Therefore 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚<√ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Figure17
Phase condition and expression for minimum thickness of Anti-reflection coating):
 Consider a thin film coated on a glass surface
such that refractive index 𝑓 < g as shown in
figure.
 The phase condition requires that the waves
reflected from top and bottom (Ray1 and Ray 2)
must be exactly 180o out of phase.
 Hence after reflection the path difference for
both the ray changes by /2.
 Therefore, the Optical path difference between
the reflected rays is given by
Δ=2 𝑓 cos − /2 − /2
 For normal incidence cos r = 1 Path difference
Δ=2 𝑓 –λ =2 𝑓
 But for destructive interference , Δ = (2 +1) /2
2 𝑓 = (2 +1) /2
 When n = 0, the thickness of the film will be
minimum. Thus, 2 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = /2
𝑚𝑖𝑛= /4 𝑓 --------- (2)
Therefore, the optical thickness of the film ( 𝑓 ) should be equal to one- quarter wavelength.
 Advanced applications of Thin Films
1.Single layer AR coating(fig.18)
 In case of glass surface having refractive index equal to 1.5, the
single layer AR coating which can be chosen should have
refractive index .
 The materials whose refractive index is nearer to this value are
magnesium fluoride MgF2(µ= 1.38) and Cryolite 3NaF.AlF3(µ=
1.36).
 They are coated on the substrate using sol-gel process.
 Such single layer AR coatings are effective only at one particular
wavelength.
 Such coatings cannot totally reduce reflection at that specific
wavelength.
 Single layer coatings find use in case of lasers, photodiodes and
solar cells.
 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT: INTRODUCTION
 Diffraction is exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves, light
waves, water waves or matter waves.
 Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of
most of the obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in
everyday observations.
 Also, the finite resolution of our eye or of optical instruments such as
telescopes or microscopes is limited due to the phenomenon of
diffraction.
 The first scientist who recorded accurate observations on the diffraction
phenomenon was an Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi, in
1660.
 He coined the word "diffraction“ from the Latin word
‘diffringere’,meaning ‘to break into pieces', referring to light breaking
up into different directions.
 Diffraction is defined as the bending of light rays around the corners of
an obstacle or encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow of the
obstacle or aperture.
 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:IN REAL LIFE
 Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life are formation of
rainbow after rain, CD and DVD’s reflecting rainbow colours, Sun
appears red during sunset, bending of light at the corners of the door as
shown in figure
 Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring
to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon.

Fig.21: Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life

 CONDITIONS FOR DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
 The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the
size of the opening as shown in fig.22
 If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength (Fig.22 a), the
bending will be almost unnoticeable.
 However, if the size of the opening (fig.22 b) is of the order of the
wavelength of light, then the amount of bending is considerable,i.e.the
condition of diffraction.(Slit width should be of the the order of the
wavelength of light,
 An obstacle or opening will diffract shorter wavelength slightly and
longer wavelengths more as shown in fig.22 (c).

Fig.22: a) and b) As slit opening decreases, diffraction increases. c) With shorter

wavelength and no change in size of opening, diffraction decreases.
 TYPES OF DIFFRACTION

Types of
Diffraction

Fresnel Fraunhofer

 The source or the screen or  The source and the screen or

both are at finite distances from the telescope is placed at infinite
the obstacle (or aperture). distance from the obstacle.

 In this case, no lenses are  Lenses are used to make the

used to make the rays parallel rays converge.
or convergent.
 The incident wavefront on the
 The incident wavefronts are aperture or obstacle and the
either spherical or cylindrical. telescope is plane wavefront.
 Difference between interference and diffraction
S.No.
Interference Diffraction
1. Interference phenomenon is due to Diffraction phenomenon is due to
superposition of light waves from superposition of secondary wavelets
two separated wavefronts. originating from different points of the
exposed parts of the same wavefront.
2. In the interference pattern, the In the diffraction pattern, the contrast
contrast between maxima and between maxima and minima is poor.
minima is good.
3. In the interference pattern, regions In the diffraction pattern, regions of
of minimum intensity are perfectly minimum intensity are not perfectly dark
dark and all bright fringes are of and only the first maxima has maximum
equal intensity. intensity and the intensity decreases as the
order of maxima increases.
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION THROUGH SINGLE SLIT
 Experimental arrangement is shown in figure 23
 The wavefront from source S is incident on the
slit AB of width‘d’.
 According to Huygens’ Principle, each point of
wavefront passing through the slit AB acts as a
source of secondary wavelets.
 A real image of diffraction pattern is formed on
the screen with the help of converginglensL2.
 Thus, diffraction pattern on screen consists of a
central bright band and alternate dark and
bright bands of decreasing intensity on both
sides.
 Let C be the center of the slit AB. The secondary
waves, from points equidistant from center C of
the slit lying on portion CA and CB of wave
front travel the same distance in reaching Q and
hence the path difference between them is zero.
 These waves reinforce each other and give rise to
Fig:23 Fraunhofer diffraction through the central maximum at point Q.
single slit
 Derivation of width of slit and position of minima and secondary maxima.

 Draw AN perpendicular on .The path difference between the secondary wavelets

originating from A and B is BN.
𝑩𝑵
 From Δ BAN, = sinθ or BN = AB sinθ
𝑨𝑩
Path difference, BN = d sin θ ≈ dθ (as θ is small)
 For Minima: If the path difference is equal to one wavelength,
i.e., BN= d sin θ = λ, position P will be of minimum intensity.
𝝀
 For first minima, for θ = 𝟏 , d sin 𝟏 = λ or sin 𝟏 = 𝒅
𝝀
o 𝟏= (for very small value of θ)
𝒅
 In general, for minima of order ‘m’, d sin 𝒎= mλ
𝒎𝝀
or sin 𝒎= 𝒅
 Since 𝒎 is very small, so sin 𝒎 = θm
𝒎𝝀
𝒎 (here θ we use is in radians)
𝒅

where m=1,2,3, ….is an integer.

For secondary maxima:
𝝀
 If path difference, BN = d sin θ is an odd multiple of ,
𝟐

(𝟐𝒎 𝟏)𝝀
i.e., d sin 𝒎= 𝟐

 Since 𝒎 is very small,sin θm = θm,

where m=1 ,2, 3, …. is an integer.

Width of central maximum: 2x
 Let ‘f’ be the focal length of lens L2 .
 The distance of first minima on either side of the central maxima
be .
𝒙
Then, tan θ =
𝒇

𝒙
 Since the lens L2 is very close to the slit, so f = D, tan θ = ---------- (1)
𝑫
𝒙
 For θ is very small, tan θ ≈ sin θ , sin θ = ---------- (2)
𝑫

𝝀
 Also, for first minima, d sin θ = λ or sin θ = ---------- (3)
𝒅
𝒙 𝝀
 From eqns. (2) and (3), we have =
𝑫 𝒅

𝛌
or = D ---------- (4)
𝒅

This is the distance of first minima on either side from the centre of the central
maximum.
𝟐𝛌
 Width of central maximum, 2 D ----------( 5)
𝒅
 The width of the central maximum is proportional to ‘ , the wavelength of light.
 For longer wavelength, the width of the central maxima is more than with light of
shorter wavelength.
 With a narrow slit (smaller ‘d’ value), the width of the central maximum is more.
 The diffraction pattern consists of alternate bright and dark bands with
monochromatic light.
 With white light, the central maximum is white and the rest of the diffraction
bands are coloured.
 We can see that the maxima and minima are very close to the central maximum.
 But with a narrow slit ‘d’ is small and hence θ is large.(because d sin θ = λ )
 Hence there is distinct diffraction maxima and minima on both the sides of central
maximum.
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION THROUGH CIRCULAR APERTURE

 When a parallel beam of light is passed through circular aperture of an

opaque board, then the light is diffracted by the aperture.
 If received on a screen at a large distance, the pattern is a bright disc called
Airy disc surrounded by alternate dark and bright concentric rings called
Airy rings of decreasing intensity.
 The wavefront is obstructed by the opaque board and only the points of the
wavefront that are exposed by the aperture send the secondary wavelets.
 The bright and dark rings are formed by the superposition of these wavelets.
 The diffracted secondary wavelets are converged on the screen by keeping a
convex lens between the aperture and the screen. The screen is at the focal
plane of the convex lens.
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION THROUGH CIRCULAR APERTURE

 The secondary wavelets travel same distance to reach Po and there is no path difference
between these rays. Hence a bright spot is formed at Po which is known Airy’s disc. Po
corresponds to the central maximum.
 The secondary waves which travel at a certain angle θ with respect to central axis form
a cone and hence, they form a diffracted ring on the screen.
𝝀𝒇
 The radius of Airy’s disc is given by = 1.22
𝒅
 Therefore, the radius of Airy’s disc is inversely proportional to the diameter of the
aperture. Therefore, by decreasing the diameter of aperture, the size of Airy’s disc
increases.
 Since the lenses used as objective and eyepieces in telescopes and microscopes are
circular in shape and constitute a circular aperture. Hence Fraunhofer diffraction using
circular Aperture is of the most practical interest.
 RADIUS OF AIRY’S DISC

 The secondary wavelets travel same distance to reach Po and there is no path difference
between these rays. Hence a bright spot is formed at Po which is known Airy’s disc. Po
corresponds to the central maximum.
 The secondary waves which travel at a certain angle θ with respect to central axis form
a cone and hence, they form a diffracted ring on the screen.
𝝀𝒇
 The radius of Airy’s disc is given by = 1.22
𝒅
 Therefore, the radius of Airy’s disc is inversely proportional to the diameter of the
aperture. Therefore, by decreasing the diameter of aperture, the size of Airy’s disc
increases.
 Since the lenses used as objective and eyepieces in telescopes and microscopes are
circular in shape and constitute a circular aperture. Hence Fraunhofer diffraction using
circular Aperture is of the most practical interest.
 DIFFRACTION GRATING
 Diffraction Gratings are optical components used
to separate light into its component wavelengths.
 Diffraction Grating consists of a series of closely
packed grooves(deep line cut in a surface) that
have been engraved or etched into the Grating’s
surface.
 Plane transmission Grating is a plane sheet of
transparent material on which opaque rulings
are made with a fine diamond pointer.
 Thus, it consists of a large number of equally
spaced parallel transparent spaces called slits.
 Grating element and grating equation:
If light is incident normally on a transmission
grating of wavelength λ, then the
direction of principal maxima is given by
d sin θ = nλ
where‘d’ is the distance between two consecutive
slits and n =1, 2, 3----, is the order of principal
maxima.
 This Equation is called Grating equation and
gives the position of principal maxima.
 The rulings on the grating act as obstacles having
a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space
between the rulings act as slit of width ‘a’.
 The combined width of a ruling and a slit is
called grating element d = a + b.
DIFFRACTION THROUGH PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING
 Let MN is the plane transmission grating
having AB, CD, EF as successive slits of equal
width ‘a’ and BC, DE represent rulings of
width ‘b’.
 The path difference between the wavelets
from one pair of corresponding points A and
C is CH = (a + b) sin θ.
 The point P1 will be bright, when
(a + b) sin θ = n λ where n = 0, 1, 2 3 --------
𝒏𝝀
 Therefore
𝒂 𝒃
𝟏
or where , gives
𝒂 𝒃
number of lines per unit width of the grating.
𝐚 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Also from above equation n=
𝝀
 Since the maximum angle of diffraction is 90o,
hence the maximum possible order available
in grating is given by
𝐚 𝒃
nmax. = for sin θ = 1
𝝀
 RESOLVING POWER OF GRATING
 Resolving power of the grating is defined as the ability of a grating to form
separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very close to each other.
 For two nearly equal wavelengths 1 and 2, between which a diffraction
grating can just barely be distinguished, the resolving power ‘R’ of the grating
is defined as
𝛌 𝛌
 R= =
𝛌𝟐 𝛌𝟏 𝐝𝛌

𝛌𝟏 𝛌𝟐
where is the mean value of the two wavelengths 1 and 2 and
𝟐

the smallest difference dλ= 𝟐 𝟏

 Also Resolving power of grating is found as

𝛌
R.P. = = nN
𝒅𝛌

Where the order of spectrum is ‘n’ and total number of lines on the grating
surface ‘N’.
 Numericals
Formulae:
(I)Wedge shaped film:
• 1. Fringe width

• 2. Wedge angle
• 26.Q.1 Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a glass wedge of R.I.
1.52. The fringe spacing is 0.1mm, wavelength of light being 5893Å.
Calculate the wedge angle. (3) W-14
• Ans. Given: µ = 1.52
• β= 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
• λ = 5893 A0= 5893 x 10-10 m. =?
• Solution: Fringe width

• Wedge angle is given by- =1.94x10-3rad =0.11°.

.
 Numericals
• (II) Newton’s Rings:
• 1. For dark ring = 4n λ R
• 2. Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens

• 3. Wavelength of incident light

Q. 3 In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of 5th ring is 0.336cm and
the diameter of 15th ring is 0.590cm. Find the radius of curvature of
plano-convex lens if the wavelength of light used is 5890Å.
(3) W-15
Ans. Given: λ = 5890Å = 5890 x 10 -10 m ,
D15=0.590 cm=0.59 x10-2m,
D5=0.336 cm= 0.336x10-2m, p=15-5=10, R=?

• Solution:
( . ) ( . )
= =0.9983m=99.83cm
•
 Numericals
27.Q. 4 In Newton’s Rings experiment, diameter of 10th dark ring due to
wavelength 6000Å in air is 0.5cm, find the radius of curvature of lens.
(3) W-16
Ans. Given: Diameter of 10th dark ring=
λ=6000Å=6000X10-10m, n=10, R=?
Solution: For dark ring, = 4n λ R
( . )
= 1.04m
30-Q. 5 In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 15th ring was found to
be 0.59cm and that if 5th ring was 0.336cm. If the radius of the plano convex lens
is 100cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. (3) S-17
Ans. Given: R = 100cm=100x10-2 m,
D15=0.590 cm=0.59 x10-2 m,
D5=0.336 cm= 0.336x10-2 m, p= 15-5=10, λ =?
( . ) ( . )
Solution: =

=5880.1x10-10m=5880.1 Å
 Numericals
(III) Anti –reflection coating:
1. Minimum thickness of anti –reflection coating 𝒎𝒊𝒏. 𝟒𝝁𝒇

28--Q.8 Find the thickness of water film with refractive index of 1.33 formed on a
glass window pane to act as non-reflecting film. Given λ=5500 Å.
(2) S-13
Ans. Given: λ=5500Å , µf = 1.33, tmin. =?
Å
Solution: 𝒎𝒊𝒏. = 1033 Å=1033 x10-10m.
𝟒𝝁𝒇 .

29-Q.9 A glass of microscope lens is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ=1.38) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light of wavelength 6800Å. What is
minimum film thickness needed for optimum result? (2) S-15
Ans.Given: λ=6800 Å , µf = 1.38, tmin. =?
Å
Solution: 𝒎𝒊𝒏. = 1231.88 Å=1231.8x10-10m.
𝟒𝝁𝒇 .

Q. 10 A glass microscope lens (μ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ=1.30)

film to increase the transmission of normally incident light (λ=5800Å). What
minimum film thickness would be deposited on the lens? (3) W-14
Ans. Given: λ=5800 Å, µf = 1.3, tmin. =?
Å
• Solution: 𝒎𝒊𝒏. = 1051 Å=1051 x10-10m.
𝟒𝝁𝒇 .