SPACE FLIGHT MECHANICS

Aircraft Propulsion
UNIT-2
Unit-2
(18BTAE701)
 Unit-2
ORBITS IN THREE DIMENSIONS
 Syllabus

No. Topic
1 Different coordinate frames

2 coordinate transformation

3 Orbital elements

4 relations between position and time,

5 Effects of the earth’s oblateness, Orbit perturbation due to

third body, orbit decay and life time.
 Reference Books:

1. Howard D. Curtis., “Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students”,

Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005

2. Cornelisse, J.W, Schoyer H F R, and Wakker K F, “Rocket Propulsion and

Space Dynamic”, Pitman Publishing Co., 1979
Coordinate Reference
Frames
1. Earth Reference Frame:
The origin of the coordinate system is at the center of the Earth. Its fundamental plane is the
Earth's equatorial plane. Perpendicular to the plane is the North pole direction. The principal
direction is the Vernal Equinox direction, which is from the Earth to the Sun at the first day of
spring.
This system is called Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate
System (GES). It is also known as Earth Centered Inertial
(ECI), or the Conventional Inertial System (CIS).
Coordinate Reference
Frames
2. Sun-centered Frame:
Its origin is at the center of the Sun. The fundamental plane is Earth's mean orbital plane about
the Sun which is called the ecliptic plane. The fundamental direction is the Vernal Equinox
direction.
Vernal Equinox direction is(Xi) , (Yi) is in ecliptic plane from in the direction of Earth's motion,
(Zi) is perpendicular to ecliptic plane.
It is also a right-handed system.
This is called the Heliocentric-Ecliptic Coordinate System (HECS).
Coordinate Reference
Frames
3. Right Ascension-Declination System :
The origin is at the center of the Earth or point on the surface of the Earth, but it is not very
important. The fundamental plane is also Earth's equatorial plane extended to the sphere of
infinite radius, which is called the celestial equator.
The right ascension angle (α ) is the angle measured eastward from vernal equinox in the plane
of the celestial equator. The declination angle ( δ ) is the angle measured up (north) from the
celestial equator.
This frame is primary used to catalog stars, then used to help determine spacecraft position.
This system is also called the celestial sphere
Coordinate Reference
Frames
4. Satellite Coordinate System :
The Satellite Coordinate System is a so-called Radial Transverse Normal system, also known as
Radial Tangential Normal system.
This system moves with the satellite. The x (R)axis points the satellite, the y(s)-axis is normal to
the orbital plane (and usually not aligned with the axis), and the z(w) axis is normal to the
position vector. The axis is continuously aligned with the velocity vector only for circular orbits.
Perifocal frame

The perifocal frame is the ‘natural frame’ for an orbit. It is centered at the focus of
the orbit.
Its x y plane is the plane of the orbit, and its x axis is directed from the focus through
periapse, as illustrated in Fig.
The unit vector along the x axis (the apse line) is denoted ˆ p. The y axis, with unit
vector ˆq , lies at 90◦ true anomaly to the x axis.
The z axis is normal to the plane of the orbit in the direction of the angular
momentum vector h. The z unit vector is ˆw ,
Perifocal frame
The position vector r is written as,

Orbital equation can be Written as;

By taking dr/dt, we get velocity ;

P(x,y)
Perifocal frame
Taking differentiation of

We get;

Where, ˙r is the radial component of velocity,

vr.

And

By simplifying above equations,

Therefore , equation of velocity will be come

Perifocal frame
The Lagrange coefficients
If the position and velocity of an orbiting body are known at a given instant, then the position
and velocity at any later time are found in terms of the initial values.

At Time t= to
r and v can be written as,

The angular momentum h is constant, and can be calculated as,

ˆw is the unit vector in the direction of h,

Therefore
The Lagrange coefficients
The Lagrange coefficients

The equations of Position and velocity can be written as

The Lagrange coefficients
Or,

The f and g functions are referred

to as the Lagrange coefficients
The Lagrange coefficients

Calculate h using alternative equations of r and v

The Lagrange coefficients

Where h0 is the angular momentum at time t= t0,

But, we know that angular momentum is constant, i.e. h= h0
Therefore,
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
at time t =t0 ;
We know that

1. Evaluating the function f;

By Using, cos(θ − θ0) = cos θ cos θ0 + sin θ sin θ0

And taking Δθ = θ − θ0; we get
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
From orbital equation we get;

By equation of “f” will reduced to

Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
To obtain ˙g,
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
By Using ,

We can find
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
By using θ =θ0 +Δθ,
in orbital Equation

We Know that,
cos(θ 1− θ2) = cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ1
So, the orbit equation can be written as,

at t =t0 and

(Position vector and velocity vector formula )

Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly

Using this form of the orbit equation,

we can find r in terms of the initial
conditions and the change in the true
anomaly
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
Question
An earth satellite moves in the xy plane of an inertial frame with origin at the earth’s
center. Relative to that frame, the position and velocity of the satellite at time t0 are

Compute the position and velocity vectors after the satellite has traveled through a
true anomaly of 120◦.
Lagrange coefficients in terms
of the true anomaly
Question
For a spacecraft trajectory around the earth, r =10 000 km when θ =30◦, and
r =30 000 km when θ =105◦. Calculate the eccentricity

Ans- the eccentricity -1.217

 State vector and the geocentric
equatorial frame
At any given time, the state vector of a satellite comprises its velocity v and acceleration a.
Orbital mechanics is concerned with specifying or predicting state vectors over intervals of
time.
We know that,
State vector and the geocentric
equatorial frame
 State vector and the geocentric
equatorial frame
Question: If the position vector of the International Space Station is
r = −5368ˆI − 1784ˆJ + 3691ˆK (km)
what are its right ascension and declination?

r=6754.373 km
Unit vector; ur= -0.794i- 0.264j+0.546k
right ascension=320
and declination=33.12
 State vector and the geocentric
equatorial frame
At time t0 the state vector of an earth satellite is
r0 = 1600ˆI + 5310ˆJ + 3800ˆK (km)
v0 = −7.350ˆI + 0.4600ˆJ + 2.470ˆK (km/s)
Determine the position and velocity 3200 seconds later and plot the
orbit in three dimensions.
Orbital elements and the state vector
Orbital elements and the state vector

•First, we locate the intersection of the orbital plane with the equatorial (XY) plane.
That line is called the node line.
•The point on the node line where the orbit passes above the equatorial plane from
below it is called the ascending node.
•The angle between the positive X axis and the node line is the first Euler angle , the
right ascension of the ascending node.
•Recall that right ascension is a positive number lying between 0◦ and 360◦.
•The dihedral angle between the orbital plane and the equatorial plane is the
inclination i, measured according to the right-hand rule, that is, counterclockwise
around the node line vector from the equator to the orbit.
•The inclination is also the angle between the positive Z axis and the normal to the
plane of the orbit.
•that perigee lies at the intersection of the eccentricity vector e with the orbital path.
The third Euler angle ω, the argument of perigee, is the angle between the node line
vector N and the eccentricity vector e, measured in the plane of the orbit. The
argument of perigee is a positive number between 0◦ and 360◦.
Orbital elements and the state vector

The six orbital elements are:

1. h -specific angular momentum
2. i -inclination
3. Ω -right ascension (RA) of the ascending node
4. e- eccentricity
5. ω- argument of perigee
6. θ -true anomaly
The angular momentum h and true anomaly θ are frequently replaced by the
semimajor axis a and the mean anomaly M, respectively.
Orbital elements and the state vector

Question: Given the state vector,

r = −6045ˆI − 3490ˆJ + 2500ˆK (km)
v = −3.457ˆI + 6.618ˆJ + 2.533ˆK (km/s)
find the orbital elements h, i,, e, ω and θ.

r= 7414.3 COS (i)= Hz/h

V= 7.8 km/s = -52070.74/58311.6699
Cos (i)= 0.6271
e= 0.17 i= 153.249

N= h*k
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements

1. The Euler angles, Ω, ω, i, for describing the orientation of the perifocal orbital
plane relative to a planet-centered, stationary coordinate frame
2. we can derive the rotation matrix representing the orientation.
3. To transform the perifocal position and velocity to the celestial, Cartesian frame.

where the triad I, J,K denotes the frame, and

C is the following rotation matrix
representing the orientation of the celestial
frame relative to the perifocal frame
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements

Question: For a given earth orbit, the elements are h=80 000 km2/s, e =1.4, i=30◦,
Ω=40◦, ω=60◦ and θ =30◦. find the state vectors r and v in the geocentric equatorial
frame.

R
R metrix
r(geocentric)= r(perifocal)*Transpose of
R(metrix)
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements

Question: For a given earth orbit, the elements are h=80 000 km2/s, e =1.4, i=30◦,
Ω=40◦, ω=60◦ and θ =30◦. find the state vectors r and v in the geocentric equatorial
frame.
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements

Question: For a given earth orbit, the elements are

Angular momentum (kmˆ2/s) = 69088.8
Eccentricity = 0.741095
Right ascension (deg) = 309.998
Inclination (deg) = 63.4
Argument of perigee (deg) = 269.999
True anomaly (deg) = 180
find the state vectors r and v in the geocentric equatorial frame.

Step-1 find position vector in Perifocal ref.

Step-2 Find Velocity vector in Perifocal ref.
Step-3 rotate the coordinates around Z axis,
with Angle RA
Celestial Frame and Orbital Elements

Question: For an earth orbit with a = 8000 km, e = 0.5, τ = −1000 (s),Ω = 60◦, ω = −85◦,
and i = 98◦, determine the celestial position and velocity at t = 50min.
 Effects of the earth’s oblateness

The earth, like all of the planets with comparable or higher rotational rates, bulges
out at the equator because of centrifugal force. The earth’s equatorial radius is 21 km
(13 miles) larger than the polar radius. This flattening at the poles is called oblateness,
which is defined as follows

oblateness = (equatorial radius − polar radius)/equatorial radius

The earth is an oblate spheroid, lacking the perfect symmetry of a sphere. (A

basketball can be made an oblate spheroid by sitting on it.) This lack of symmetry
means that the force of gravity on an orbiting body is not directed towards the center
of the earth.
Whereas the gravitational field of a perfectly spherical planet depends only on the
distance from its center, oblateness causes a variation also with latitude, that is, the
angular distance from the equator (or pole).This is called a zonal variation.
The dimensionless parameter which quantifies the major effects of oblateness on
orbits is J2, the second zonal harmonic. J2 is not a universal constant. Each planet has
its own value, which lists variations of J2 as well as oblateness.
Effects of the earth’s oblateness
Effects of the earth’s oblateness
Effects of the earth’s oblateness
Effects of the earth’s oblateness
 Effects of the earth’s oblateness

Question:
The space shuttle is in a 280 km by 400 km orbit with an inclination of 51.43◦. Find the rates of
node regression and perigee advance.

Ra= 400+6300=6700
Rp= 6300+280=6580
J2= 1.08*10^-3
R= 6300
i= 51.63

e= (ra-rp)/(ra+rp)=120 / 13280 = 0.008

a=(ra+rp)/2= 6640 km
 Effects of the earth’s oblateness

Question:
A satellite is to be launched into a sun-synchronous circular orbit with period of 100 minutes.
Determine the required altitude and inclination of its orbit.
Orbit perturbation due to third body

For the two-body problem, it is assumed that gravity is the only force;
the Earth's mass is much greater than a spacecraft's mass; the Earth is
spherically symmetric with uniform density and a spacecraft's mass is
constant. These assumptions led to the restricted two-body problem.
Its solution yields: -semi-major axis, -eccentricity, -inclination, -right
ascension of ascending node, -argument of perigee, -true anomaly. Only
varies with time—others are constant for a given orbit.
If these assumptions change, other elements may change. When
considering perturbation, there are two general categories of
techniques: (1) special perturbations techniques, which deal with
numerical integration of equation of motion, for particular problem; (2)
general (absolute) perturbations techniques, which deal with analytic
integration of series expansion of perturbing accelerations for general
problems.
Orbit perturbation due to third body

Gravity is no longer the only force. For example, consider atmospheric

drag. Earth's atmosphere has an effect as high as 600 km. Drag is a non
conservative force - it takes energy away from the orbit in terms of
friction, which results not only in the semi-major axis getting smaller,
but in eccentricity decreasing. Drag is difficult to model. To keep a
spacecraft in orbit, fire thrusters are used, but now they have small
mass change.
There are some other perturbations, such as solar radiation pressure,
third body gravitational effects, and unexpected thrusting (outgassing).
Orbit perturbation due to third body

The moon and sun are the two obvious gravitational bodies that
perturb Earth-orbiting satellites. Let us develop an expression for the
perturbing acceleration due to a third gravitational body that is present
in the two-body (Earth and satellite) system.
Orbit perturbation due to third body

The relative position vectors shown in Figure are

Orbit perturbation due to third body

Central body perturbation acceleration due to

acceleration lunar gravity
Orbit perturbation due to third body

If we take the sun as the third body and repeat the

previous derivation, we obtain its perturbation
acceleration acting on the satellite

perturbation acceleration due to

Solar gravity
Orbit perturbation due to third body

Lunar and solar gravity cause a secular drift rate in a satellite’s ascending
node and argument of perigee (we have already noted that third-body gravity
is a conservative force that does not change the satellite’s total energy). Larson
and Wertz present expressions for the approximate secular drift in Ω and ω
due to third-body gravity for nearly circular orbits
Orbit perturbation due to third body

Question:
Compute the secular drift rates in Ω and ω caused by lunar and solar
gravity for the Earth-orbiting satellite. Compare these gravity-induced
secular changes with the nodal regression and apsidal rotation caused
by Earth oblateness (J2).
Semi-major axis a = 8,059 km, Eccentricity e = 0.15, Inclination i = 20

= 7200 Sec or 2 hrs

N= 24/2= 12
Orbit perturbation due to third body

Question:
Compute the secular drift rates in Ω and ω caused by lunar and solar
gravity for the Earth-orbiting satellite. Compare these gravity-induced
secular changes with the nodal regression and apsidal rotation caused
by Earth oblateness (J2).
Semi-major axis a = 8,059 km, Eccentricity e = 0.15, Inclination i = 20

h=56036.062
R=9720.7 KM
 Orbit Decay and Life Time

Satellites in low orbits (or orbits with a low perigee) will encounter particles of
the upper atmosphere. This interaction is manifested as an aerodynamic drag
force that can be calculated from the same basic equation used for airplane
drag. Atmospheric drag acceleration is the drag force divided by the satellite’s
mass m

The drag force always opposes the satellite’s velocity vector vrel that is relative to the Earth’s
atmosphere

Drag coefficient CD and cross-sectional area S are difficult to determine

because they depend on the satellite’s orientation relative to the velocity
vector. One solution is to group the terms CD, S, and m into a single parameter
called the ballistic coefficient
Orbit Decay and Life Time
 Orbit Decay and Life Time

Question:
The Space Shuttle is in a 300-km altitude circular orbit. The Space Shuttle has
mass m = 90,000 kg and is oriented so that its maximum cross-sectional area is
normal to the atmospheric-relative velocity vector vrel. Using S = 367 m2 and
CD = 2, compute the drag acceleration and estimate the loss of altitude after 1
day in orbit

r=6600
V=7.7299 km/s
V rel = 7.65 km/s
Density= 7.22E-12
the drag acceleration=
1.7242E-6 m/s2

loss of altitude after 1 day in

orbit= 0.257 km/day
 Orbit Decay and Life Time

Drag will cause the Shuttle’s circular orbit to slowly shrink over time. Gauss’
variational equation for semimajor axis,
the rate of altitude change because the orbit is circular (i.e., a = r = h + RE)

By definition, the perturbing acceleration at is along the inertial velocity

direction (T axis), whereas drag acceleration aD opposes the relative velocity
vector. Neglecting this slight difference in direction, we set at = –aD and
compute da/dt using a = r = 6,678 km and v = μ/r = 7.7258 km/s [note that we
express drag acceleration as aD = 4.1667(10–9) km/s2 so that we obtain da/dt
in kilometers per second]. The time-rate of semimajor axis due to drag is
 Orbit Decay and Life Time

We can estimate the orbital lifetime of the Space Shuttle by numerically

integrating Gauss’ variational equation da/dt with drag as the sole
perturbation. A simple Euler integration scheme may be used: