INTRODUCTION TO SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Aircraft Propulsion
UNIT-3
Unit-2
(17BTAE701)
 Unit-3
ORBITAL MANEUVER
 Syllabus
No. Topic
1 Impulsive maneuvers

2 Hohmann transfer

3 One tangent burn transfer

4 bi-elliptic Hohmann transfer

5 Phasing maneuvers, Plane change maneuvers

 Reference Books:

1. Howard D. Curtis., “Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students”,

Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005

2. Cornelisse, J.W, Schoyer H F R, and Wakker K F, “Rocket Propulsion and

Space Dynamic”, Pitman Publishing Co., 1979
 Introduction
Orbital maneuvers transfer a spacecraft from one orbit to another. Orbital
changes can be dramatic, such as the transfer from a low-earth parking orbit to
an interplanetary trajectory.
Changing orbits requires the firing of onboard rocket engines. We will be
concerned solely with impulsive maneuvers in which the rockets fire in
relatively short bursts to produce the required velocity change (delta-v).
 Impulsive maneuvers
Impulsive maneuvers are those in which brief firings of onboard
rocket motors change the magnitude and direction of the velocity vector
instantaneously.

 During an impulsive maneuver, the position of the spacecraft is

considered to be fixed; only the velocity changes

It is satisfactory for those cases in which the position of the spacecraft
changes only slightly during the time that the maneuvering rockets fire.

This is true for high-thrust rockets with burn times short compared
with the coasting time of the vehicle.
 Impulsive maneuvers
Each impulsive maneuver results in a change Δv in the velocity of the
spacecraft. Δv can represent a change in the magnitude (‘pumping
maneuver’) or the direction (‘cranking maneuver’) of the velocity
vector, or both.
The magnitude Δv of the velocity increment is related to Δm, the mass
of propellant consumed (burnout velocity formula)
 Impulsive maneuvers

1. that for Δv on the order of 1 km/s or higher, the required

propellant exceeds 25 % of the spacecraft mass prior to
the burn (Initial mass)
2. Proper planning of Δv is require to optimize fuel
consumption and accommodate more payload.
 Hohmann transfer
The Hohmann transfer is the most energy
efficient two-impulse maneuver for transferring
between two coplanar circular orbits sharing a
common focus.
The Hohmann transfer is an elliptical orbit
tangent to both circles at its apse line.
The periapse and apoapse of the transfer ellipse
are the radii of the inner and outer circles,
respectively.
only one-half of the ellipse is flown during the
maneuver, which can occur in either direction, from
the inner to the outer circle, or vice versa.

Introduction to the Hohmann Transfer Orbit.mp4

 Hohmann transfer
The energy of an orbit depends only on it semimajor
axis a.

Therefore, the larger the semimajor axis is, the more

the energy the orbit has.
It is clear that energy increases as we move from
inner circle to outer circle.
1. Starting at A on the inner circle, a velocity
increment ΔvA in the direction of flight is required
to boost the vehicle onto the higher-energy
elliptical trajectory.
2. After coasting from A to B, another forward
velocity increment ΔvB places the vehicle on the
still higher-energy, outer circular orbit.

The flight time on the Hohmann-transfer

ellipse is simply one-half the elliptical period
 Hohmann transfer
Q-1; A spacecraft is in a 480 km by 800 km earth orbit (orbit 1 in Figure 6.3).
Find (a) the Δv required at perigee A to place the spacecraft in a 480 km by 16 000 km
transfer orbit (orbit 2); and
(b) the Δv (apogee kick) required at B of the transfer orbit to establish a circular orbit
of 16 000 km altitude (orbit 3).

Step-1 find velocity at perigee of orbit-1

h= Vp*r=?
e= 0.02279, h=52876.69 km2/s
Vp1= h/r= 7.710 km/s

Step-2 find velocity at perigee of orbit-2

h= Vp*r=?
e=0.5308, h= 64689.537km2/s
Vp2= h/r= 9.4327km/s
Delta VA= Vp2-Vp1= 1.7227 km/s
Vb2= 2.8907 km/s
Vb3= 4.220 km/s
Delta Vb= Vb3- Vb2= 1.329 km/2
 Hohmann transfer
Q-1; A spacecraft is in a 480 km by 800 km earth orbit (orbit 1 in Figure 6.3).
Find (a) the Δv required at apogee A to place the spacecraft in a 800 km by 16 000 km
transfer orbit (orbit 2); and
(b) the Δv (apogee kick) required at B of the transfer orbit to establish a circular orbit
of 16 000 km altitude (orbit 3).

Step-1 find velocity at Apogee of orbit-1

h= Va1*ra=?
e1= 0.02279, h1= 52751.5km2/s
Va1= h1/ra1= 7.35km/s
•For the transfer orbit; 1
•Rp2= 800+6378= 7178 km
3 2
• e2= 0.5141
• h2=65850.55 km2/s
Vp2=9.174 km/s
Δv1= 9.174-7.35= 1.824 km/s
(b) the Δv (apogee kick) required at B
Δv2 = Vb3- Vb2= 1.329 km/2
 Hohmann transfer
Q-2; A geocentric satellite is in an elliptical orbit with semimajor axis a = 8,500 km and
eccentricity e = 0.15.
1. Determine the impulsive Δv required to create a circular orbit with a radius equal
to the apogee radius of the elliptical orbit.
2. Determine the propellant mass and burn time for the impulsive Δv
maneuver(Assume that the initial spacecraft mass is m = 2,000 kg and that the
onboard rocket engine has a thrust magnitude T = 6,000 N and specific impulse Isp
= 320 s.)

Perigee rp = a (1−e )=7225 km

Apogee= ra= a(1+e)=9775 km
 Hohmann transfer
Q-2; A geocentric satellite is in an elliptical orbit with semimajor axis a = 8,500 km and
eccentricity e = 0.15.
1. Determine the impulsive Δv required to create a circular orbit with a radius equal
to the apogee radius of the elliptical orbit.
2. Determine the propellant mass and burn time for the impulsive Δv
maneuver(Assume that the initial spacecraft mass is m = 2,000 kg and that the
onboard rocket engine has a thrust magnitude T = 6,000 N and specific impulse Isp
= 320 s.)
Velocity at apogee, Va= 5.87km/s Burn time = (mass of the
Velocity of circular orbit of radius ra= 9775km, = 6.37 km/s propellant/ mass flow rate of the
Δv= 6.37-5.87= 0.5 km/s propellant )
Burn time = 294.48/1.91= 154.2
Sec

the propellant mass(delta m)= 294.48 kg

= 1.91 kg/s
 Hohmann transfer
Q-3; A geocentric satellite is in an elliptical orbit with semimajor axis a = 8,500 km and
eccentricity e = 0.15.
1. Determine the impulsive Δv required to create a circular orbit with a radius equal
to the perigee radius of the elliptical orbit.
2. Determine the propellant mass and burn time for the impulsive Δv
maneuver(Assume that the initial spacecraft mass is m = 2,000 kg and that the
onboard rocket engine has a thrust magnitude T = 6,000 N and specific impulse Isp
= 320 s.)
Perigee rp = a (1−e )=7225 km
Apogee= ra= a(1+e)=9775 km

V1= 7.9 km/s

V (circular of 7225)= 7.4 km/s
Δv= 7.9-7.4= 0.5 km/s

the propellant mass = 294.48 kg

Burn time = 154.2 sec
 Hohmann transfer
Q-4; In July 2001, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched the ARTEMIS
spacecraft on an Ariane 5 booster rocket. Because ARTEMIS was a communication
satellite, its ultimate destination was GEO. Due to a partial failure of the Ariane
booster, the ARTEMIS spacecraft reached a sub-nominal elliptical orbit with perigee
and apogee altitudes of 580 and 17,350 km, respectively. The Ariane’s target was a
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with an apogee altitude of 35,786 km (i.e., GEO
altitude). Mission operators decided to use the onboard chemical-propulsion rocket to
transfer the ARTEMIS spacecraft from the sub-nominal elliptical orbit to a circular orbit
with an altitude of 31,000 km (see Figure). ARTEMIS’ onboard electric-propulsion stage
performed the remaining orbit transfer from the 31,000-km altitude circle to GEO.
Determine the two tangential Δv impulses required for the coplanar orbit transfer. In
addition, compute the burn time for the first Δv impulse if the initial mass of the
ARTEMIS satellite is 3,100 kg and the onboard chemical rocket provides 400 N of thrust
with a specific impulse of 318 s.
 Hohmann transfer
Q-4;
 Hohmann transfer
Q-5; we want to increase the orbital energy for a given Δv impulse – where is the
optimal location in the orbit for the rocket engine burn?
Using energy equation

Taking differentials of energy Eq;

For an impulsive velocity change, there

is no change in position (i.e., dr = 0).
There fore

Above Equation clearly shows that for a fixed Δv, we can achieve the largest energy increase by
applying the impulse where velocity v is maximum, that is, at periapsis. Of course, aligning the
impulsive Δv with the periapsis velocity (i.e., a tangent burn) maximizes the change in kinetic
energy. This discussion is an example of the so-called Oberth effect named after the German
physicist Hermann Oberth.
General Coplanar Transfer
 General Coplanar Transfer
Fig. a shows the circular and elliptical-orbit velocity vectors at the two
intersections where the impulsive maneuvers occur.
For a general coplanar orbit transfer, the velocity vectors on the
circular and elliptical transfer orbits will not necessarily be collinear.
Therefore, vector addition and geometry is required to calculate the
magnitude and orientation of the impulsive vector Δv. To show this,
consider the first velocity impulse in Fig b:

by using the law of cosines

 General Coplanar Transfer
 Similarly
 Time of Flight
The “time of flight” (TOF); that is, computation of the transit time
between two positions in an orbit.
Kepler determined the fundamental relationship between orbital
position and TOF. This relationship is known as Kepler’s equation and it
serves as the starting point for this chapter.
Kepler’s equation allows us to propagate a two-body orbit, or predict
a satellite’s orbital position at an arbitrary time in the future.
Finally, the ability to relate TOF to orbital position leads to additional
orbit-determination methods as we shall see in the latter part of this
chapter when we present Lambert’s problem.
 Time of Flight
Time of Flight Using Geometric Method:
 Time of Flight
Time of Flight Using Analytical Method:

Where E is the eccentric anomaly.

Multiplying above equation by (e/e)

From orbital equation;

 Time of Flight
We know that;

By taking time derivative of above equation;

And

So,

From the Diagram:

Where b/a is elapse to circle vertical ratio

 Time of Flight

So;

Using above relation in

We get;

we have already derived

By substituting value of sinθ and simplifying above equation , we get

 Time of Flight
By separating variables
easily integrated from periapsis to the satellite’s orbital position.
Therefore, the lower integration bounds at periapsis are time tp and
eccentric anomaly Ep = 0.
(Kepler’s equation and it determines the TOF from periapsis
to the satellite’s current position).
Kepler introduced another angle called the mean
anomaly, M, defined as the parenthetical term in
the TOF equation. M is not a physical term
 Time of Flight
The constant mean motion n is the time rate of mean anomaly, or
n =dM/dt.
One way to think of the mean motion n is to divide one orbital
revolution (dM = 2π) by the orbital period.

By Relating Eccentric and True

Anomalies, we get
 General Coplanar Transfer
Q-6; Fig. shows a two-impulse Earth-orbit transfer where the first impulse
occurs after perigee passage on the transfer ellipse. The inner and outer
circular orbits have radii r1=2.5RE and r2=6RE, respectively where RE is the
radius of the Earth. The transfer orbit has a perigee radius of 1.9RE and an
apogee radius of 8.5RE. Determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the first
impulse, and (b) the time of flight on the transfer ellipse

Vc1= 4.99 km/s

at = 33165.6 km
e = 0.634
h =88858.44 km2/s
V1= 6.16 km/s
 General Coplanar Transfer
Q-6; Fig. shows a two-impulse Earth-orbit transfer where the first impulse
occurs after perigee passage on the transfer ellipse. The inner and outer
circular orbits have radii r1=2.5RE and r2=6RE, respectively where RE is the
radius of the Earth. The transfer orbit has a perigee radius of 1.9RE and an
apogee radius of 8.5RE. Determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the first
impulse, and (b) the time of flight on the transfer ellipse
 General Coplanar Transfer
Q-6; Fig. shows a two-impulse Earth-orbit transfer where the first impulse
occurs after perigee passage on the transfer ellipse. The inner and outer
circular orbits have radii r1=2.5RE and r2=6RE, respectively where RE is the
radius of the Earth. The transfer orbit has a perigee radius of 1.9RE and an
apogee radius of 8.5RE. Determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the first
impulse, and (b) the time of flight on the transfer ellipse
 General Coplanar Transfer
Q-6; Fig. shows a two-impulse Earth-orbit transfer where the first impulse
occurs after perigee passage on the transfer ellipse. The inner and outer
circular orbits have radii r1=2.5RE and r2=6RE, respectively where RE is the
radius of the Earth. The transfer orbit has a perigee radius of 1.9RE and an
apogee radius of 8.5RE. Determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the first
impulse, and (b) the time of flight on the transfer ellipse
 Bi-elliptic Hohmann transfer
Q-7;Find the total delta-v requirement for a bi-elliptical Hohmann
transfer from a geocentric circular orbit of 7000 km radius to one of 105
000 km radius. Let the apogee of the first ellipse be 210 000 km.
Compare the delta-v schedule and total flight time with that for an
ordinary single Hohmann transfer ellipse.
1. Vc1= 7.53 km/s
2. e2=0.935, h2=73312.04 km2/s
Vp2= 10.3 km/s
Delata V(A)= 10.3-7.53= 2.8 km/s
3. Va2= h2/ra2=73312.04/210000= 0.35 km/s
For Va3=
ra3=210000 km, rp3= 105000 km, e3=0.33,
h3=235400km2/s, Va3=h3/ra3= 1.12 km/s
Delta V(B)= Va3-Va2= 0.77 km/s
4.Vp3= h3/rp3= 2.24 km/s
Vc4= 1.94 km/s
Delta V(C)= Vp3-Vc4= 0.3 km/s
 Bi-elliptic Hohmann transfer
Q-7;Find the total delta-v requirement for a bi-elliptical Hohmann
transfer from a geocentric circular orbit of 7000 km radius to one of 105
000 km radius. Let the apogee of the first ellipse be 210 000 km.
Compare the delta-v schedule and total flight time with that for an
ordinary single Hohmann transfer ellipse.
Total Delta V= V(A)+V(B)+ V(C) =3.87 Km/s

Total flight time in bi-elliptical Hohmann transfer=

(time period of 2nd orbit/2) +(time period of 3rd
orbit/2)

Total flight time in bi-elliptical Hohmann transfer

= Tf2+Tf3
=178240+ 311735
=489975 s
=136.10 hrs
=5.67 days
 Phasing maneuvers
A phasing maneuver is a two-impulse
Hohmann transfer from and back to the
same orbit, as illustrated in Figure.
 The Hohmann transfer ellipse is the
phasing orbit with a period selected to
return the spacecraft to the main orbit
within a specified time.
Phasing maneuvers are used to change
the position of a spacecraft in its orbit.
If two spacecraft, destined to
rendezvous, are at different locations in
the same orbit, then one of them may
perform a phasing maneuver in order to
catch the other one.
Communications and weather satellites
in geostationary earth orbit use phasing
maneuvers to move to new locations
above the equator
 Phasing maneuvers
Q-8;Spacecraft at A and B are in the same orbit (1). At the instant
shown, the chaser vehicle at A executes a phasing maneuver so as to
catch the target spacecraft back at A after just one revolution of the
chaser’s phasing orbit (2). What is the required total delta-v?

e 1= 0.33
a1= (13600+6800)/2
h1 = 59905.4 km2/s
Velocity of Space craft A, Vpa1= (h1/rp1)= 8.8 km/s

Orbital time period of Orbit-1= 10275.3 sec

Flight time of space craft B,

1502.2s
Time required for spacecraft
B to reach at A= 8773.1 sec
 Phasing maneuvers
Q-8;Spacecraft at A and B are in the same orbit (1). At the instant
shown, the chaser vehicle at A executes a phasing maneuver so as to
catch the target spacecraft back at A after just one revolution of the
chaser’s phasing orbit (2). What is the required total delta-v?

Time required for spacecraft

B to reach at A= 8773.1 sec
i.e. phasing orbit should have orbital time period equals to
8773.1 sec

So, by using orbital time period equation we get,

a2 = 9179.9 km, rp2= rp1= 6800km, ra2= 11559.8 km
e2= 0.26, h2= 58307.6 km2/a
VpA2=h2/rp2= 8.57
Delta V- 8.8-8.57= 0.23 km/s
Total velocity change delta v total= 0.23+0.23= 0.46 km/s
 Phasing maneuvers
Q-9; It is desired to shift the longitude of a GEO satellite 12◦ westward
in three revolutions of its phasing orbit. Calculate the delta-v
requirement.
r1= 42164 km
Vp1= 3.0746 km/s
Flight time from P to B= ?
E=θ= 360-12= 348 degree
Flight time (P-B)=

Total time period= 2(Orbital time of GE0)+ Flight time (P-B)

Time period of phasing orbit=(Flight Time)=

Using orbital time period formula;
a = 41221.7 km, rp2=r1= 42164 km , ra2=
 Plane change maneuvers

Orbits having a common focus F need not, and generally do not, lie in a common plane.
Fig. shows two such orbits and their line of intersection BD.
A and P denote the apoapses and periapses. Since the common focus lies in every
orbital plane, it must lie on the line of intersection of any two orbits. For a spacecraft
in orbit 1 to change its plane to that of orbit 2 by means of a single delta-v maneuver
(cranking maneuver), it must do so when it is on the line of intersection of the orbital
planes. Those two opportunities occur only at points B and D in Figure
 Plane change maneuvers
A view down the line of intersection,
from B towards D, is shown in Figure
6.22(b).
Here we can see in true view the
dihedral angle δ between the two planes.
The transverse component of velocity
v at B is evident in this perspective,
whereas the radial component vr , lying
as it does on the line of intersection, is
normal to the view plane (thus appearing
as a dot).
It is apparent that changing the plane of orbit 1 requires simply rotating v around
the intersection line, through the dihedral angle.
If the magnitudes of v and vr remain unchanged in the process, then we have a
rigid body rotation of the orbit. That is, except for its new orientation in space, the
orbit remains unchanged.
If the magnitudes of vr and v change in the process, then the rotated orbit
acquires a new size and shape.
Plane change maneuvers
Plane change maneuvers
Plane change maneuvers
Plane change maneuvers
 Plane change maneuvers
Find the delta-v required to transfer a satellite from a circular, 300 km altitude low
earth orbit of 28◦ inclination to a geostationary equatorial orbit. Circularize and change
the inclination at altitude. Compare that delta-v requirement with the one in which
the plane change is done in the low-earth orbit.

Rc1- 6678 km
Vc1= 7.72 km/s
Rp= rc1= 6678 km, ra= rc2= 42164 km
et = 0.73, ht= 67860.2 km2/s, Vpt= (h/rp)= 10.2 km/s

At point be Delta V1= Vc1- Vpt= 2.48 km/s

Vat= (ht/ra)= (67860.2/42164) = 1.61 km/s
Vc2= 3.07 km/s
Delta V2= Vc2-Vat= 1.46 km/s

Total delta V= 2.48+1.46= 3.94 km/s

 Plane change maneuvers
Find the delta-v required to transfer a satellite from a circular, 300 km altitude low
earth orbit of 28◦ inclination to a geostationary equatorial orbit. Circularize and change
the inclination at altitude. Compare that delta-v requirement with the one in which
the plane change is done in the low-earth orbit.

Total velocity change in case-1= Vc1

3.94+1.4877 = 5.43 km/s

Total Velocity Change in case-2

3.73+ 3.94 = 7.67
 Plane change maneuvers
A spacecraft is in a 500 km by 10 000 km altitude geocentric orbit which
intersects the equatorial plane at a true anomaly of 120◦ (see Figure 6.34). If the
inclination to the equatorial plane is 15◦, what is the minimum velocity
increment required to make this an equatorial orbit?

e = 0.408
h = 62140.91 km2/s
At, Θ= 120
rb = 12173.534 km
Vt= (h/rb) =5.1045 km/s
Vr=(µ/h)esinθ=2.2686 km/s