Unit 1

1. What is the objective to study DBMS?

:- The objective of a database management system is to facilitate the creation of data
structures and relieve the programmer of the problems of setting up complicated files. Data
base management systems have developed from a concept of the data base as something distinct
from the programs accessing it.
2. The difference between file system and database system.

:-

3. Give examples DBMS?

• :- MySQL. ...
• Oracle Database. ...
• MongoDB. ...
• IBM Db2 DBMS. ...
• Amazon RDS. ...
• PostgreSQL. ...

4. Three-tier architecture of DBMS.

:-

1. Physical Level: At the physical level, the information about the location of database objects
in the data store is kept. Various users of DBMS are unaware of the locations of these
objects.In simple terms,physical level of a database describes how the data is being stored
in secondary storage devices like disks and tapes and also gives insights on additional
storage details.
2. Conceptual Level: At conceptual level, data is represented in the form of various database
tables. For Example, STUDENT database may contain STUDENT and COURSE tables
which will be visible to users but users are unaware of their storage.Also referred as logical
schema,it describes what kind of data is to be stored in the database.
3. External Level: An external level specifies a view of the data in terms of conceptual level
tables. Each external level view is used to cater to the needs of a particular category of
users. For Example, FACULTY of a university is interested in looking course details of
students, STUDENTS are interested in looking at all details related to academics, accounts,
 courses and hostel details as well. So, different views can be generated for different us ers.
The main focus of external level is data abstraction.
Advantages of DBMS
DBMS helps in efficient organization of data in database which has following advantages over typical
file system:
• Minimized redundancy and data inconsistency: Data is normalized in DBMS to minimize
the redundancy which helps in keeping data consistent. For Example, student information
can be kept at one place in DBMS and accessed by different users.This minimized
redundancy is due to primary key and foreign keys
• Simplified Data Access: A user need only name of the relation not exact location to access
data, so the process is very simple.
• Multiple data views: Different views of same data can be created to cater the needs of
different users. For Example, faculty salary information can be hidden from student view of
data but shown in admin view.
• Data Security: Only authorized users are allowed to access the data in DBMS. Also, data
can be encrypted by DBMS which makes it secure.

5. Two-tier architecture of DBMS

:- the client is on the first tier. The database server and web application server reside on the
same server machine, which is the second tier.
6. One-tier architecture of DBMS
:-, the data is directly provided to the user and that user can directly use the database
through the computer
7. Write are the Full form of DDL, DML and DCL?
:- DDL – Data Definition Language. DQL – Data Query Language. DML – Data Manipulation
Language. DCL – Data Control Language.
8. Explain DDL, DML, DCL and TCL.
:- DDL (Data Definition Language):
DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL commands that can be used to define the
database schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is used to create and
modify the structure of database objects in the database. DDL is a set of SQL commands used to create,
modify, and delete database structures but not data. These commands are normally not used by a general
user, who should be accessing the database via an application.
List of DDL commands:
• CREATE: This command is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views, store
procedure, and triggers).
• DROP: This command is used to delete objects from the database.
• ALTER: This is used to alter the structure of the database.
• TRUNCATE: This is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the records
are removed.
• COMMENT: This is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
• RENAME: This is used to rename an object existing in the database.

DML(Data Manipulation Language):

The SQL commands that deals with the manipulation of data present in the database belong to DML or Data
Manipulation Language and this includes most of the SQL statements. It is the component of the SQL statement
that controls access to data and to the database. Basically, DCL statements are grouped with DML statements.

List of DML commands:

INSERT : It is used to insert data into a table.

UPDATE: It is used to update existing data within a table.

DELETE : It is used to delete records from a database table.

LOCK: Table control concurrency.

CALL: Call a PL/SQL or JAVA subprogram.

TCL (Transaction Control Language):

Transactions group a set of tasks into a single execution unit. Each transaction begins with a specific task and
ends when all the tasks in the group successfully complete. If any of the tasks fail, the transaction fails.
Therefore, a transaction has only two results: success or failure. You can explore more about transactions here.
Hence, the following TCL commands are used to control the execution of a transaction:

COMMIT: Commits a Transaction.

ROLLBACK: Rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

SAVEPOINT: Sets a save point within a transaction.

SET TRANSACTION: Specifies characteristics for the transaction.

DCL (Data Control Language):

DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which mainly deal with the rights, permissions, and other
controls of the database system.

List of DCL commands:

GRANT: This command gives users access privileges to the database.

REVOKE: This command withdraws the user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT command.

Unit 2

9. Write SQL query to get the Student name whose salary is between 1000 and 2000.
:- SELECT * FROM students
WHERE salary BETWEEN 1000 and 3000;

10. Write SQL query to get the Students Name and address from Student table.
:- SELECT S_NAME, S_ADDRESS, FROM STUDENTS ;
11. Write SQL query to get the Students Name who have got marks greater than 90 from Student table Explain
Union and Intersection in DBMS.
:- SELECT StudID, StudName ,Marks FROM STUDENT_MARKS

WHERE MARKS >80 ORDER BY RIGHT(StudName,3), StudID ASC;

12. Explain join in DBMS.
:- In DBMS, a join statement is mainly used to combine two tables based on a specified common field
between them. If we talk in terms of Relational algebra, it is the cartesian product of two tables followed by
the selection operation. Thus, we can execute the product and selection process on two tables using a
single join statement. We can use either 'on' or 'using' clause in MySQL to apply predicates to the join
queries.
A Join can be broadly divided into two types:
1. Inner Join :- Inner Join is a join that can be used to return all the values that have matching values
in both the tables. Inner Join can be depicted using the below diagram.
The inner join can be further divided into the following types:
Equi Join :- Equi Join is an inner join that uses the equivalence condition for fetching the values of two
tables.
Natural Join :- Natural Join is an inner join that returns the values of the two tables on the basis of a
common attribute that has the same name and domain. It does not use any comparison operator. It also
removes the duplicate attribute from the results.
Eg :- Select * from employee Natural Join department;
2. Outer Join :- Outer Join is a join that can be used to return the records in both the tables whether
it has matching records in both the tables or not.
The outer join can be further divided into three types
Left-Outer Join :- The Left-Outer Join is an outer join that returns all the values of the left table, and the values of
the right table that has matching values in the left table. If there is no matching result in the right table, it will return
null values in that field
Right-Outer Join :- The Right-Outer Join is an outer join that returns all the values of the right table, and the values
of the left table that has matching values in the right table
Full-Outer Join :- The Full-Outer join contains all the values of both the tables whether they have matching values in
them or not
13. Explain Cartesian Product in DBMS with example.
:- The final product of the sets will be a collection of all ordered pairs obtained by the product of the two
non-empty sets. In an ordered pair, two elements are taken from each of the two sets. Example: Cartesian
product of two sets A = {2,3} and B = {x,y} will be: A × B = {(2,x), (2,y),(3,x),(3,y)}.
CROSS PRODUCT is a binary set operation means, at a time we can apply the operation on two relations.
But the two relations on which we are performing the operations do not have the same type of tuples,
which means Union compatibility (or Type compatibility) of the two relations is not necessary.
Notation:
A✕S
where A and S are the relations,
the symbol ‘✕’ is used to denote the CROSS PRODUCT operator.
Example:-
STUDENTS X DETAILS

We can observe that the number of tuples in STUDENT relation is 2, and the number of tuples in DETAIL is
So the number of tuples in the resulting relation on performing CROSS PRODUCT is 2*2 = 4.
Important points on CARTESIAN PRODUCT(CROSS PRODUCT) Operation:
• The cardinality (number of tuples) of resulting relation from a Cross Product operation is equal to the
number of attributes(say m) in the first relation multiplied by the number of attributes in the second
relation(say n).
• Cardinality = m*n
• The Cross Product of two relation A(R1, R2, R3, …, Rp) with degree p, and B(S1, S2, S3, …, Sn) with degree n,
is a relation C(R1, R2, R3, …, Rp, S1, S2, S3, …, Sn) with degree p + n attributes.
• Degree = p+n
• In SQL, CARTESIAN PRODUCT(CROSS PRODUCT) can be applied using CROSS JOIN.
• In general, we don’t use cartesian Product unnecessarily, which means without proper meaning we don’t
use Cartesian Product. Generally, we use Cartesian Product followed by a Selection operation and
comparison.
14. Explain Select and Project.
:- YHA CLICK KRKE PDH LO BHAI
 Unit
3
1. What is partial functional dependency?
2. What is transitive functional dependency?
3. What is full functional dependency?
4. Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF with Example.
5. What is the difference between 3NF and BCNF.
6. R(C, S, Z)
7. CS→Z
Z→C
8. Find the list of candidate key.
9. Find Normal Form

Emp(ename, did, empid, salary)

ename, did->salary did, empid-> salary ename

-> empid empid->ename Find the Normal

Form
R(A,B,C,D,E)

A->BC

BC->E

E->DA
Unit 4
1. What is concurrent schedule?
2. What is deadlock?
3. What do you mean by serializable schedule.
4. What is serial schedule?
5. What do you mean by ACID property?
6. check the given schedule is serializable or not. Consider the
following schedule for transaction T1, T2, T3
T1 T2 T3

r(x)

r(y)

r(y)

w(y)

w(x)

w(x)

r(x)
 w(x)

Unit 5

1. What is temporary update problem?

:- Temporary update or dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item and fails. But the
updated item is used by another transaction before the item is changed or reverted back to its last value

2. Explain Two Phase Locking Protocol .

:- Every transaction will lock and unlock the data item in two different phases.

• Growing Phase − All the locks are issued in this phase. No locks are released, after all
changes to data-items are committed and then the second phase (shrinking phase) starts.
• Shrinking phase − No locks are issued in this phase, all the changes to data-items are noted
(stored) and then locks are released.
The 2PL locking protocol is represented diagrammatically as follows −

In the growing phase transaction reaches a point where all the locks it may need has been acquired. This
point is called LOCK POINT.

After the lock point has been reached, the transaction enters a shrinking phase.

Types
Two phase locking is of two types –

Strict two phase locking protocol

A transaction can release a shared lock after the lock point, but it cannot release any exclusive lock until
the transaction commits. This protocol creates a cascade less schedule.

Cascading schedule: In this schedule one transaction is dependent on another transaction. So if one has to
rollback then the other has to rollback.

Rigorous two phase locking protocol

A transaction cannot release any lock either shared or exclusive until it commits.

The 2PL protocol guarantees serializability, but cannot guarantee that deadlock will not happen.

Example
Let T1 and T2 are two transactions.
T1=A+B and T2=B+A

T1 T2

Lock-X(A) Lock-X(B)

Read A; Read B;

Lock-X(B) Lock-X(A)

Here,

Lock-X(B) : Cannot execute Lock-X(B) since B is locked by T2.

Lock-X(A) : Cannot execute Lock-X(A) since A is locked by T1.

In the above situation T1 waits for B and T2 waits for A. The waiting time never ends. Both the transaction
cannot proceed further at least any one releases the lock voluntarily. This situation is called deadlock.

The wait for graph is as follows −

Wait for graph: It is used in the deadlock detection method, creating a node for each transaction, creating
an edge Ti to Tj, if Ti is waiting to lock an item locked by Tj. A cycle in WFG indicates a deadlock has
occurred. WFG is created at regular intervals.

3. What is the objective to do concurrency control?

:-- Concurrency control is provided in a database to:
(i) enforce isolation among transactions.
(ii) preserve database consistency through consistency preserving execution of transactions.
(iii) resolve read-write and write-read conflicts
• Concurrency control manages the transactions simultaneously without letting them interfere with
each another.
• The main objective of concurrency control is to allow many users perform different operations at
the same time.
• Using more than one transaction concurrently improves the performance of system.
• If we are not able to perform the operations concurrently, then there can be serious problems
such as loss of data integrity and consistency.
• Concurrency control increases the throughput because of handling multiple transactions
simultaneously.
• It reduces waiting time of transaction.
4. Explain Dirty read problem.
:- SHASHANK SINGH
The dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item of the database, and somehow the
transaction fails, and before the data gets rollback, the updated database item is accessed by another
transaction. There comes the Read-Write Conflict between both transactions.
A dirty read can cause duplicate rows to be returned where none exist. Alternatively, a dirty read can cause
no rows to be returned when one (or more) actually exists. In some cases, dirty reads can return data that
was never in the database at all (e.g., rolled back before committed)
Dirty data refers to data that contains erroneous information. It may also be used when referring to data
that is in memory and not yet loaded into a database. The complete removal of dirty data from a source is
 impractical or virtually impossible. Dirty Reads A dirty read occurs when a transaction reads data that has
not yet been committed. For example, suppose transaction 1 updates a row. Transaction 2 reads the
updated row before transaction 1 commits the update.
5. What is concurrency control?
:- Concurrency control concept comes under the Transaction in database management system (DBMS). It is
a procedure in DBMS which helps us for the management of two simultaneous processes to execute
without conflicts between each other, these conflicts occur in multi user systems.
Concurrency can simply be said to be executing multiple transactions at a time. It is required to increase
time efficiency. If many transactions try to access the same data, then inconsistency arises. Concurrency
control required to maintain consistency data.
For example, if we take ATM machines and do not use concurrency, multiple persons cannot draw money
at a time in different places. This is where we need concurrency.
Advantages
• Waiting time will be decreased.
• Response time will decrease.
• Resource utilization will increase.
• System performance & Efficiency is increased.

Control concurrency
The simultaneous execution of transactions over shared databases can create several data integrity and
consistency problems.
For example, if too many people are logging in the ATM machines, serial updates and synchronization in
the bank servers should happen whenever the transaction is done, if not it gives wrong information and
wrong data in the database.
Main problems in using Concurrency
Updates will be lost − One transaction does some changes and another transaction deletes that change.
One transaction nullifies the updates of another transaction.
Uncommitted Dependency or dirty read problem − On variable has updated in one transaction, at the
same time another transaction has started and deleted the value of the variable there the variable is not
getting updated or committed that has been done on the first transaction this gives us false values or the
previous values of the variables this is a major problem.
Inconsistent retrievals − One transaction is updating multiple different variables, another transaction is in a
process to update those variables, and the problem occurs is inconsistency of the same variable in different
instances.
Concurrency control techniques
Locking
Lock guaranties exclusive use of data items to a current transaction. It first accesses the data items by
acquiring a lock, after completion of the transaction it releases the lock.

Types of Locks
Shared Lock [Transaction can read only the data item values]
Exclusive Lock [Used for both read and write data item values]
Time Stamping
Time stamp is a unique identifier created by DBMS that indicates relative starting time of a transaction.
Whatever transaction we are doing it stores the starting time of the transaction and denotes a specific
time.
Optimistic
It is based on the assumption that conflict is rare and it is more efficient to allow transactions to proceed
without imposing delays to ensure serializability.
6. What is Lost Update problem?
:- Consider the case where two users are about to update the same row/document in some data store. For
example, let user A retrieve some row first. After that, assume that user B retrieves the same row;
however, B writes his update immediately, and in particular before A writes his update.
 In the lost update problem, an update done to a data item by a transaction is lost as it is overwritten by the
update done by another transaction.
7. Explain validation-Based Protocol.
:- Validation Based Protocol is also called Optimistic Concurrency Control Technique. This protocol is used
in DBMS (Database Management System) for avoiding concurrency in transactions. It is called optimistic
because of the assumption it makes, i.e. very less interference occurs, therefore, there is no need for
checking while the transaction is executed.
In this technique, no checking is done while the transaction is been executed. Until the transaction end is
reached updates in the transaction are not applied directly to the database. All updates are applied to local
copies of data items kept for the transaction. At the end of transaction execution, while execution of the
transaction, a validation phase checks whether any of transaction updates violate serializability. If there is
no violation of serializability the transaction is committed and the database is updated; or else, the
transaction is updated and then restarted.
Optimistic Concurrency Control is a three-phase protocol. The three phases for validation based protocol:
Read Phase:
Values of committed data items from the database can be read by a transaction. Updates are only applied
to local data versions.
Validation Phase:
Checking is performed to make sure that there is no violation of serializability when the transaction
updates are applied to the database.
Write Phase:
On the success of the validation phase, the transaction updates are applied to the database, otherwise, the
updates are discarded and the transaction is slowed down.

The idea behind optimistic concurrency is to do all the checks at once; hence transaction execution
proceeds with a minimum of overhead until the validation phase is reached. If there is not much
interference among transactions most of them will have successful validation, otherwise, results will be
discarded and restarted later. These circumstances are not much favourable for optimization techniques,
since, the assumption of less interference is not satisfied.
In order to perform the Validation test, each transaction should go through the various phases as described
above. Then, we must know about the following three time-stamps that we assigned to transaction Ti, to
check its validity:

1. Start(Ti): It is the time when Ti started its execution.

2. Validation(Ti): It is the time when Ti just finished its read phase and begin its validation phase.
3. Finish(Ti): the time when Ti end it’s all writing operations in the database under write-phase.

Two more terms that we need to know are:

1. Write_set: of a transaction contains all the write operations that Ti performs.

2. Read_set: of a transaction contains all the read operations that Ti performs.
In the Validation phase for transaction Ti the protocol inspect that Ti doesn’t overlap or intervene with any
other transactions currently in their validation phase or in committed. The validation phase for Ti checks
that for all transaction Tj one of the following below conditions must hold to being validated or pass
validation phase:
1. Finish(Tj)<Starts(Ti), since Tj finishes its execution means completes its write-phase before Ti started its
execution(read-phase). Then the serializability indeed maintained.
2. Ti begins its write phase after Tj completes its write phase, and the read_set of Ti should be disjoint with
write_set of Tj.

3. Tj completes its read phase before Ti completes its read phase and both read_set and write_set of Ti are
disjoint with the write_set of Tj
 Unit 6
1. What do you mean by research?
:- Research databases are organized collections of computerized information or data such as periodical
articles, books, graphics and multimedia that can be searched to retrieve information
2. Explain Quantitative data Analysis
:- Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful
information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful information
from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.
In this Data Science Tutorial, you will learn:
If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and acknowledge your mistakes and make a
plan again without repeating those mistakes. And even if your business is growing, then you have to look
forward to making the business to grow more. All you need to do is analyze your business data and
business processes.

• Data Analysis Tools

• Data Analysis Tools
• Data Analysis Tools

Data analysis tools make it easier for users to process and manipulate data, analyze the relationships and
correlations between data sets, and it also helps to identify patterns and trends for interpretation. Here is a
complete list of tools used for data analysis in research.
Types of Data Analysis: Techniques and Methods
There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business and technology. However,
the major Data Analysis methods are:

• Text Analysis
• Statistical Analysis
• Diagnostic Analysis
• Predictive Analysis
• Prescriptive Analysis
• Text Analysis

Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is one of the methods of data analysis to discover a
pattern in large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to transform raw data into business
information. Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is used to take strategic business
decisions. Overall it offers a way to extract and examine data and deriving patterns and finally
interpretation of the data.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical Analysis shows “What happen?” by using past data in the form of dashboards. Statistical Analysis
includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modeling of data. It analyses a set of data or
a sample of data. There are two categories of this type of Analysis – Descriptive Analysis and Inferential
Analysis.
Descriptive Analysis
analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean and deviation for
continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical data.
Inferential Analysis
analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different conclusions from the
same data by selecting different samples.
Diagnostic Analysis
Diagnostic Analysis shows “Why did it happen?” by finding the cause from the insight found in Statistical
Analysis. This Analysis is useful to identify behavior patterns of data. If a new problem arrives in your
business process, then you can look into this Analysis to find similar patterns of that problem. And it may
have chances to use similar prescriptions for the new problems.
Predictive Analysis
 Predictive Analysis shows “what is likely to happen” by using previous data. The simplest data analysis
example is like if last year I bought two dresses based on my savings and if this year my salary is increasing
double then I can buy four dresses.
Prescriptive Analysis
Prescriptive Analysis combines the insight from all previous Analysis to determine which action to take in a
current problem or decision. Most data-driven companies are utilizing Prescriptive Analysis because
predictive and descriptive Analysis are not enough to improve data performance. Based on current
situations and problems, they analyze the data and make decisions.
Data Analysis Process
The Data Analysis Process is nothing but gathering information by using a proper application or tool which
allows you to explore the data and find a pattern in it. Based on that information and data, you can make
decisions, or you can get ultimate conclusions.
Data Analysis consists of the following phases:

• Data Requirement Gathering

• Data Collection
• Data Cleaning
• Data Analysis
• Data Interpretation
• Data Visualization

Data Requirement Gathering

First of all, you have to think about why do you want to do this data analysis? All you need to find out the
purpose or aim of doing the Analysis of data. You have to decide which type of data analysis you wanted to
do! In this phase, you have to decide what to analyze and how to measure it, you have to understand why
you are investigating and what measures you have to use to do this Analysis.
Data Collection
After requirement gathering, you will get a clear idea about what things you have to measure and what
should be your findings. Now it’s time to collect your data based on requirements. Once you collect your
data, remember that the collected data must be processed or organized for Analysis. As you collected data
from various sources, you must have to keep a log with a collection date and source of the data.
Data Cleaning
Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or irrelevant to your aim of Analysis, hence it should be
cleaned. The data which is collected may contain duplicate records, white spaces or errors. The data should
be cleaned and error free. This phase must be done before Analysis because based on data cleaning, your
output of Analysis will be closer to your expected outcome.
Data Analysis
Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for Analysis. As you manipulate data, you
may find you have the exact information you need, or you might need to collect more data. During this
phase, you can use data analysis tools and software which will help you to understand, interpret, and
derive conclusions based on the requirements.
Data Interpretation
After analyzing your data, it’s finally time to interpret your results. You can choose the way to express or
communicate your data analysis either you can use simply in words or maybe a table or chart. Then use the
results of your data analysis process to decide your best course of action.
Data Visualization
Data visualization is very common in your day to day life; they often appear in the form of charts and
graphs. In other words, data shown graphically so that it will be easier for the human brain to understand
and process it. Data visualization often used to discover unknown facts and trends. By observing
relationships and comparing datasets, you can find a way to find out meaningful information.

3. Explain Quantitative data Analysis

:- same question dal,diya inhone
4. Importance of research in social aspect.