𝟐ൗ 𝟏ൗ

𝒙 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟗ሺ𝟑. 𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 ሻ 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏ሺ𝒂𝝅𝒙ሻ, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝟏

Engineering Analysis’
Unsolved Examples
(:SOLVED!):

1|SAWAB.S(2023-2024)
 Chapter One
Exp3: A sinusoidal voltage 𝑬𝒔𝒊𝒏ሺꞷ𝒕ሻ, where 𝒕 is time, is passed through a half-
wave rectifier that clips the negative portion of the wave, see figure below. Find
the Fourier series of the resulting periodic function.

𝝅
𝟎 𝒊𝒇 − <𝒕<𝟎
𝒖ሺ𝒕ሻ = { ꞷ
𝝅
𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ꞷ𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝟎 < 𝒕 <
ꞷ

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 2𝐿 ⟶ − (− ) = 2𝐿 ⟶ + = 2𝐿 ⟶ 2 = 2𝐿 ⟶ 𝐿 =
ꞷ ꞷ ꞷ ꞷ ꞷ ꞷ
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑡)
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜋 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝜋 𝑡)
𝑛=1 ꞷ ꞷ
∞
ꞷ ꞷ
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋
𝑛=1
∞

𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ∑ሺ𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡ሻ

𝑛=1

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 ꞷ ꞷ 0 ꞷ
1 1 ꞷ ꞷ
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 0 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝐿 2ꞷ 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
−𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 0
− − (− ꞷ )
ꞷ ꞷ
𝜋 𝜋
ꞷ ꞷ 𝜋
ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ cos 𝑡 ꞷ
= 0 + ∫ 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ sin ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [− ]
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 ꞷ 0
0 0
( ) ( )
𝜋
−𝐸 −𝐸 𝜋 −𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸
= [cos ꞷ𝑡]ꞷ = [cos ꞷ ( ) − cos ꞷሺ0ሻ] = [−1 − 1] = ሺ−2ሻ =
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 ꞷ 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

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 𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 ꞷ ꞷ
1 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 ꞷ ꞷ
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ cos 𝜋 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ cos 𝑛𝜋 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿 𝜋 𝜋
−𝐿 ꞷ −𝜋 ꞷ −
𝜋
ꞷ ꞷ
𝜋 𝜋
ꞷ 0 ꞷ
ꞷ ꞷ
= ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 0 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 0
− [−ꞷ ]
ꞷ
𝜋 𝜋
ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ
= 𝜋 [0 + ∫0 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡] =
ꞷ
∫0 sin ꞷ𝑡 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 A trigonometric identity.
ꞷ
𝜋

𝜋
ꞷ
𝐸ꞷ 1
= ∫ [sinሺꞷ𝑡 + 𝑛ꞷ𝑡ሻ + sinሺꞷ𝑡 − 𝑛ꞷ𝑡ሻ] 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2
0
𝜋
ꞷ 𝜋
𝐸ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ − cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 ꞷ
= ∫[sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 + sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡] 𝑑𝑡 = [ − ]
2𝜋 2𝜋 ሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ ሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ 0
0

𝜋 𝜋
𝐸 −cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ ꞷ cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ ꞷ −cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷሺ0ሻ cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷሺ0ሻ
= [ − − − ]
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛

𝐸 −cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 1 1

= [ + + − ]
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
𝐸 − cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 + 1 cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 − 1
= [ + ]
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛

𝐸 − cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 + 1 −cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 + 1

= [ + ]
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
− cosሺ1+𝑛ሻ𝜋+1 −cosሺ1−𝑛ሻ𝜋+1
Note: From the graph of + it is known that the limit of the
1+𝑛 1−𝑛
function when it reaches 1 becomes zero.

When 𝑛 is an odd number 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, 7 …

For simplicity, the terms cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 and cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 can be investigated.

cosሺ1 ± 1ሻ𝜋 = 1, cosሺ1 ± 3ሻ𝜋 = 1, cosሺ1 ± 5ሻ𝜋 = 1

So, both terms all always 1 when 𝑛 is an odd integer.

Hence, it can be said for the odd integer values of 𝑛 the expression becomes:
𝐸 −1 + 1 −1 + 1
[ + ]=0
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1−𝑛
Hence, when 𝑛 is odd 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

3|Page
When 𝑛 is an even number 𝑛 = 2, 4, 6, 8 …

Again, firstly the terms cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 and cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 can be investigated.

cosሺ1 ± 2ሻ𝜋 = −1, cosሺ1 ± 4ሻ𝜋 = −1, cosሺ1 ± 6ሻ𝜋 = −1

So, both terms all always −1 when 𝑛 is an even integer.

Hence, it can be said for the even integer values of 𝑛 the expression becomes:

𝐸 −ሺ−1ሻ + 1 −ሺ−1ሻ + 1 𝐸 2 2 𝐸 1 1
[ + ]= [ + ]= [ + ]
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
𝐸 1 1 2𝐸
[ + ]=−
𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 ሺ𝑛 − 1ሻሺ𝑛 + 1ሻ𝜋

Hence, when 𝑛 is even:

𝐸 1 1 𝐸 1 1 −2𝐸
𝑛 = 2, [ + ]= [ + ]=
𝜋 1+2 1−2 𝜋 3 −1 3𝜋
𝐸 1 1 𝐸 1 1 −2𝐸
𝑛 = 4, [ + ]= [ + ]=
𝜋 1+4 1−4 𝜋 5 −3 15𝜋
𝐸 1 1 𝐸 1 1 −2𝐸
𝑛 = 6, [ + ]= [ + ]=
𝜋 1+6 1−6 𝜋 7 −5 35𝜋

𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 ꞷ ꞷ
1 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 ꞷ ꞷ
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ sin 𝜋 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ sin 𝑛𝜋 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿 𝜋 𝜋
−𝐿 ꞷ −𝜋 ꞷ −
𝜋
ꞷ ꞷ
𝜋 𝜋
ꞷ 0 ꞷ
ꞷ ꞷ
= ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 0 sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 0
− [−ꞷ ]
ꞷ
𝜋 𝜋
ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ
[0 + ∫0ꞷ 𝐸 sin ꞷ𝑡 sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡] = ∫0ꞷ sin ꞷ𝑡 sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 A trigonometric identity.
𝜋 𝜋

𝜋
ꞷ
𝐸ꞷ 1
= ∫ [cosሺꞷ𝑡 − 𝑛ꞷ𝑡ሻ − cosሺꞷ𝑡 + 𝑛ꞷ𝑡ሻ]𝑑𝑡
𝜋 2
0

4|Page
 𝜋
ꞷ 𝜋
𝐸ꞷ 𝐸ꞷ sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 ꞷ
= ∫[cosሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡 − cosሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ𝑡] 𝑑𝑡 = [ − ]
2𝜋 2𝜋 ሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ ሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷ 0
0

𝜋
𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷ (ꞷ) sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻꞷሺ0ሻ sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻꞷሺ0ሻ
= [ − − − ]
2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛

𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋

= [ − − 0 − 0] = [ − ]
2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛

𝑛, is an integer number. As it increases from 1, henceforth 𝑏𝑛 will go like, this:

𝑛 = 1, this makes 𝑏𝑛 to be undefined. Because of the term 1 − 𝑛. So, I will not be

plotting 𝑛 = 1 directly, instead I will take the limit when 𝑛 reaches 1.

𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋 𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋

lim [ − ]= [ lim − lim ]
𝑛⟶1 2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 2𝜋 𝑛⟶1 1−𝑛 𝑛⟶1 1+𝑛

sinሺ1−𝑛ሻ𝜋
For the term lim , the identity 𝒔𝒊𝒏ሺ𝝅 − 𝒙ሻ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏ሺ𝒙ሻ can be used and the
𝑛⟶1 1−𝑛
sin 𝑛𝜋
expression becomes lim . Then by applying L'Hôpital's Rule we get:
𝑛⟶1 1−𝑛

𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝜋 𝜋 cosሺ−1ሻ

lim = = =𝜋
𝑛⟶1 −1 −1 −1

sinሺ1+𝑛ሻ𝜋
And for the term lim , it can be computed numerically as follows:
𝑛⟶1 1+𝑛

sinሺ1 + 1.1ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 0.9ሻ𝜋

lim+ = 0.14715 … lim− = 0.34335 …
𝑛⟶1 1 + 1.1 𝑛⟶1 1 + 0.9
sinሺ1 + 1.01ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 0.99ሻ𝜋
lim+ = 0.01562 … lim− = 0.01373 …
𝑛⟶1 1 + 1.01 𝑛⟶1 1 + 0.99
sinሺ1 + 1.001ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 0.999ሻ𝜋
lim+ = 0.00157 … lim− = 0.00314 …
𝑛⟶1 1 + 1.001 𝑛⟶1 1 + 0.999
sinሺ1+𝑛ሻ𝜋
Therefore, it’s clear that the limit of is reaching zero from both sides as 𝑛
1+𝑛
gets closer and closer from 1.

Hence,
sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋
lim =0
𝑛⟶1 1+𝑛
𝐸 sinሺ1−𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1+𝑛ሻ𝜋
The expression 2𝜋 [ lim − lim ] can be written as:
𝑛⟶1 1−𝑛 𝑛⟶1 1+𝑛

5|Page
𝐸 𝐸
[𝜋 − 0] =
2𝜋 2
𝐸
At last, it can be said that 𝑏1 = .
2

As for other values of 𝑛, the numbers can be plotted directly.

𝐸 sinሺ1 − 2ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 2ሻ𝜋 𝐸

𝑛 = 2, [ − ]= [0 − 0] = 0
2𝜋 1−2 1+2 2𝜋

𝐸 sinሺ1 − 3ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 3ሻ𝜋 𝐸

𝑛 = 3, [ − ]= [0 − 0] = 0
2𝜋 1−3 1+3 2𝜋

𝐸 sinሺ1 − 4ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 4ሻ𝜋 𝐸

𝑛 = 4, [ − ]= [0 − 0] = 0
2𝜋 1−4 1+4 2𝜋

𝐸 sinሺ1−𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1+𝑛ሻ𝜋
By looking at the graph of 2𝜋 [ − ], it’s clear that for all integer values
1−𝑛 1+𝑛
of 𝑛 (except 𝑛 = 1) the function equals zero. And it can be mathematically written as:
∞
𝐸 sinሺ1 − 𝑛ሻ𝜋 sinሺ1 + 𝑛ሻ𝜋
∑ [ − ] = 0, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2𝜋 1−𝑛 1+𝑛
𝑛=2

𝐸
So, it can be said that 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑏1 =
2

Finally, the Fourier form of the function 𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ is:

𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ሺ𝑎2 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎6 … ሻ cos ꞷ𝑡 + ሺ𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑏3 … ሻ sin ꞷ𝑡

𝐸 −2𝐸 −2𝐸 −2𝐸 𝐸
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = +( + + … ) cos ꞷ𝑡 + ( + 0 + 0 … ) sin ꞷ𝑡
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 35𝜋 2
𝐸 −2𝐸 −2𝐸 −2𝐸 𝐸
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = +( cos 2ꞷ𝑡 + cos 4ꞷ𝑡 + cos 6ꞷ𝑡 … ) + ( sin ꞷ𝑡)
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 35𝜋 2
𝐸 𝐸 2𝐸 1 1 1
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = + ( sin ꞷ𝑡) − ( cos 2ꞷ𝑡 + cos 4ꞷ𝑡 + cos 6ꞷ𝑡 … )
𝜋 2 𝜋 3 15 35

In a general form 𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ will be:

∞
𝐸 2𝐸 cos 𝑛ꞷ𝑡 𝐸
𝑢ሺ𝑡ሻ = + ∑ (− + sin 𝑛ꞷ𝑡)
𝜋 ሺ𝑛 − 1ሻሺ𝑛 + 1ሻ𝜋 2
𝑛=1

6|Page
 Even and Odd Functions
Note that odd functions are described algebraically as 𝒇ሺ𝒙ሻ = 𝒇ሺ−𝒙ሻ and the even
functions as, 𝒇ሺ𝒙ሻ = −𝒇ሺ−𝒙ሻ.

Examples:
a) 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 Odd
b) −3𝑥 2 + 4 Even
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
c) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎሺ𝑥ሻ = Odd
2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎሺ𝑥ሻ = Even
2

Exp1: Find the Fourier series of the following function 𝐟ሺ𝐭ሻ.

Solution:
T T
The period of fሺtሻ is T, which starts from − 2 to 2 and
since the function is even, it means it has no sine terms.
Meaning bn = 0. Hence, we can only take one part (0 to
T
) of the function. Which at that portion of time it’s just
2
a line with a negative slope in the form of
𝑇
𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑚𝑡 + 𝑐. Also, we can simply see that 𝐿 = 2.

Where
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 −2 4
𝑚= = 𝑇 = −𝑇 and 𝑐 = 1
𝑟𝑢𝑛 ( )
2

Hence
4
𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ = − 𝑡 + 1
𝑇
∞
2𝑛𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos ( 𝑡)
𝑇
𝑛=1
𝑇 𝑇
2 2 𝑇
2 2 4 2 4 2
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (− 𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡 = [− 𝑡 + 1]
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 0
0 0

2 4𝑇 2 4
= [(− 𝑡 + 1) − ሺ0 + 1ሻ] = [−2𝑡 + 1 − 1] = − 𝑡
𝑇 2𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

7|Page
 𝑇 𝑇
2 2
4 2𝑛𝜋 4 4 2𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (− 𝑡 + 1) cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
0 0

Notice: I’m going to evaluate the integrals by ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 to match the

lecturer’s solutions. You can use the tabular method, it’s shorter.

4 2𝑛𝜋
𝑢=− 𝑡+1, 𝑑𝑣 = cos ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
4 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑣= sin ( 𝑡)
𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇
𝑇
2
4 4 4 4 2𝑛𝜋
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = (𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢) ⟶ ∫ (− 𝑡 + 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
0
𝑇
4 4 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 4 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 2
= [(− 𝑡 + 1) sin ( 𝑡) − ∫ − ( sin ( 𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 0
𝑇
4 2𝑡 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 2
= [− sin ( 𝑡) + sin ( 𝑡) − 2 2 cos ( 𝑡)]
𝑇 𝑛𝜋 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 𝑛 𝜋 𝑇 0
𝑇
4 2𝑡 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 2𝑛𝜋 2
= [(− + ) sin ( 𝑡) − 2 2 cos ( 𝑡)]
𝑇 𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 𝑛 𝜋 𝑇 0

𝑇
2( )
4
= [(−
2 + 𝑇 ) sin (2𝑛𝜋 (𝑇)) − 𝑇 cos (2𝑛𝜋 (𝑇)) + 𝑇 cosሺ0ሻ]
𝑇 𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 𝑇 2 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑇 2 𝑛2 𝜋2

4 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 4 𝑇 𝑇
= [(− + ) sinሺ𝑛𝜋ሻ − 2 2 cosሺ𝑛𝜋ሻ + 2 2 ] = [0 − 2 2 + 2 2 ] = 0
𝑇 𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑇 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 𝜋

4
𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑎0 = − 𝑡
𝑇

8|Page
Exp2: Find the Fourier series of the following problem 𝒇ሺ𝒕ሻ = 𝒕, −𝟏 < 𝒕 < 𝟏.

Solution:

Same as the previous problem, but the period is 2

and hence 𝐿 = 1. But here the function is odd,
and it has no cosine terms meaning; 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

Only it has 𝑏𝑛 which can be found like this:

𝑇
2 1
4 2𝑛𝜋 4 2𝑛𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ = 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑡ሻ sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡 sin ( 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 2 2
0 0

𝑢=𝑡 , 𝑑𝑣 = sinሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑣=− cosሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ
𝑛𝜋

2 ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 2 (𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢)

1
1
𝑡 1
2 ∫ 𝑡 sinሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡 = 2 [− cosሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ − ∫ − cosሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ 𝑑𝑡]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0
0
1
𝑡 1 1 1 1
2 [− cosሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ + 2 2 sinሺ𝑛𝜋𝑡ሻ] = 2 [− cosሺ𝑛𝜋ሻ + 2 2 sinሺ𝑛𝜋ሻ] = 2 [− + 0]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
2
=−
𝑛𝜋

9|Page
 Complex Form of Fourier Series
Exp1: Find the complex form of the Fourier series of the periodic function 𝒇ሺ𝒙ሻ
defined by:
𝟎, − 𝟐 < 𝒙 < −𝟏
𝒇ሺ𝒙ሻ = { 𝒌 , −𝟏<𝒙<𝟏
𝟎, 𝟏<𝒙<𝟐
Solution:

𝑝 = 2𝐿 = 4 , 𝐿 = 2
𝐿 2 1 1
1 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑘 𝑛𝜋
𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ𝑒 −𝑗 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ𝑒 −𝑗 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑒 −𝑗 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑗 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 4 4 4
−𝐿 −2 −1 −1
1
𝑘 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑘 2 𝑛𝜋 1 −𝑘 −𝑗𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 −𝑘 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= [ 𝑒 −𝑗 2 𝑥 ] = [ −𝑗 𝑥
𝑒 2 ] = [𝑒 2 ] = [𝑒 −𝑗 2 − 𝑒 𝑗 2 ]
4 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 4 −𝑗𝑛𝜋 −1
𝑗2𝑛𝜋 −1 𝑗2𝑛𝜋
2 −1
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑘 −𝑒 −𝑗 2 + 𝑒 𝑗 2 𝑘 𝑒 𝑗 2 −𝑒 −𝑗 2 𝑘 𝑛𝜋 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑥
= [ ]= [ ]= sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, sin 𝑛𝑥 =
𝑛𝜋 2𝑗 𝑛𝜋 2𝑗 𝑛𝜋 2 2𝑗

When,
𝑘 −3𝜋 𝑘
𝑐−3 = sin =−
−3𝜋 2 3𝜋
𝑘 −2𝜋
𝑐−2 = sin =0
−2𝜋 2
𝑘 −1𝜋 𝑘
𝑐−1 = sin =
−1𝜋 2 𝜋

For 𝒄𝟎 the function would be undefined, if plotted directly. Hence, we find its limit
when 𝑛 reaches zero (using L'Hôpital's Rule).
𝑛𝜋 𝑘𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑘 𝑛𝜋 𝑘 sin 2 cos 2 1 𝑘𝜋 ሺ0ሻ𝜋 1 𝑘𝜋 𝑘
lim sin = lim = lim 2 = ( cos )= ( )=
𝑛⟶0 𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛⟶0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛⟶0 𝜋 𝜋 2 2 𝜋 2 2
sin 𝑥 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Or you can use the identity of sync function which states that, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏 to
𝑥 𝒙⟶𝟎 𝒙
find the limit.

10 | P a g e
 𝑘 1𝜋 𝑘
𝑐1 = sin =
1𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑘 2𝜋
𝑐2 = sin =0
2𝜋 2
𝑘 3𝜋 𝑘
𝑐3 = sin =−
3𝜋 2 3𝜋
It’s clear that 𝒄𝒏 = 𝟎 when 𝒏 is an even integer number.

Therefore,
∞
𝑛𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥

𝑛=−∞
∞
𝑘 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = ∑ sin ( ) 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥
𝑛𝜋 2
𝑛=−∞

Or
𝑛𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = ሺ… 𝑐−3 + 𝑐−1 + 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 + 𝑐3 … ሻ𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥

𝑘 𝑗−3𝜋𝑥 𝑘 𝑗−𝜋𝑥 𝑘 𝑘 𝑗𝜋𝑥 𝑘 𝑗3𝜋𝑥

𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = ⋯ − 𝑒 𝐿 + 𝑒 𝐿 + + 𝑒 𝐿 − 𝑒 𝐿 …
3𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑘 𝑘 1 −3𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 1 3𝜋
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ = + (… − 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑗 𝐿 𝑥 … )
2 𝜋 3 3

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