UNIT – II

REAL POWER AND

FREQUENCY CONTROL
TECHNICAL TERMS

Control area: Most power systems normally control their generators in unison. The
individual control loops have the same regulation parameters. The individual
generator turbines tend to have the same response characteristics then it is possible to
let the control loop in the whole system which then would be referred to as a control
area.

Power Pool: An association of two or more interconnected electric systems having

an agreement to coordinate operations and planning for improved reliability and
efficiencies.

Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an electric
generator; or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to electricity directly (e.g.,
photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).

Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant: A plant that usually generates electric energy during
peak-load periods by using water previously pumped into an elevated storage reservoir during
off-peak periods when excess generating capacity is available to do so. When additional
generating capacity is needed, the water can be released from the reservoir through a conduit
to turbine generators located in a power plant at a lower level.

Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities through

the process of rulemaking and adjudication
Reserve Margin (Operating):The amount of unused available capability of an electric power
system at peak load for a utility system as a percentage of total capability.

Restructuring:The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with

competing sellers, allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity supplier but
still receive delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes the reconfiguration of
the vertically-integrated electric utility.

Retail Wheeling: The process of moving electric power from a point of generation across one
or more utility-owned transmission and distribution systems to a retail customer.
Revenue: The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products and/or
services, gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends earned on
investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising from capital
adjustments.

Scheduled Outage: The shutdown of a generating unit, transmission line, or other

facility, for inspection or maintenance, in accordance with an advance schedule.

Real power: The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the
driving torque of the individual turbines of the system.

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

The following basic requirements are to be fulfilled for successful operation of the system:
1. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand
2. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and rigid limits.
3. The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits and
4. In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at the
specified values.
When real power balance between generation and demand is achieved the frequency
specification is automatically satisfied. Similarly, with a balance between reactive power
generation and demand, voltage profile is also maintained within the prescribed limits. Under
steady state conditions, the total real power generation in the system equals the total MW
demand plus real power losses. Any difference is immediately indicated by a change in speed
or frequency. Generators are fitted with speed governors which will have varying
characteristics: different sensitivities, dead bands response times and droops. They adjust the
input to match the demand within their limits. Any change in local demand within permissible
limits is absorbed by generators in the system in a random fashion.
An independent aim of the automatic generation control is to reschedule the generation
changes to preselected machines in the system after the governors have accommodated the
load change in a random manner. Thus, additional or supplementary regulation devices are
needed along with governors for proper regulation.
The control of generation in this manner is termed load-frequency control. For
interconnected operation, the last of the four requirements mentioned earlier is fulfilled by
deriving an error signal from the deviations in the specified tie-line power flows to the
neighboring utilities and adding this signal to the control signal of the load-frequency control
system. Should the generation be not adequate to balance the load demand, it is imperative
 that one of the following alternatives be considered for keeping the system in operating
condition:
I. Starting fast peaking units.
2. Load shedding for unimportant loads, and
3. Generation rescheduling.
It is apparent from the above that since the voltage specifications are not stringent.
Load frequency control is by far the most important in power system control.

The block schematic for Load frequency control

In order to understand the mechanism of frequency control, consider a small step
increase in load. The initial distribution of the load increment is determined by the system
impedance; and the instantaneous relative generator rotor positions. The energy required to
supply the load increment is drawn from the kinetic energy of the rotating machines. As a
result, the system frequency drops. The distribution of load during this period among the
various machines is determined by the inertias of the rotors of the generators partaking in the
process. This problem is studied in stability analysis of the system.
After the speed or frequency fall due to reduction in stored energy in the rotors has taken place,
the drop is sensed by the governors and they divide the load increment between the machines as
determined by the droops of the respective governor characteristics. Subsequently, secondary
control restores the system frequency to its normal value by readjusting the governor
characteristics.
AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance
in the system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii)
control the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating generating
units. The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the tie- line
flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the angle deviation ∆δ).
These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie a r e amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power
signal, which then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve position, the turbine
(prime mover) changes its output power to
establish the real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig3.3

The Schematic representation of ALFC system

For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig2 are required. The
generator and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the
hydraulic amplifier represent the speed governing system.Using the
swing
equation, theegenerator can b Using the swing equation, the generator can be
modeled
by �

Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator

 The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent
component and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as Pe = P0 +
Pf

Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator And Load

where, Pe is the change in the load;

P0 is the frequency independent load
component; Pf is the frequency dependent
load component.

Pf = D where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called as damping

constant) expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in frequency. If D=1.5%,
then a
1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load. The combined generator and the load
(constituting the power system) can then be represented as shown in Fig3.5
The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig2.6

Turb
∆de1+∆
G(s) =
=
 ∆
Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to
action). Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output
The governor can similarly modeled as shown inig2F.7. The output of the governor is by

Where ∆Pref is the reference set power, and ∆w/R is the power given by
governor speed characteristic. The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal Pg into
valve/gate position corresponding to a power PV.
Thus
PV(s) = (Kg/ (1+sTg)) _Pg(s).

Block Diagram Representation Of The Governor

LFC control of single area and derive the steady state frequency error.
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as

Block diagram representation of the ALFC

Static Power Generation

We have

∆PG(s) = kGkt/ (1+sTG)(1+sTt)[∆Pc(s)-1/R∆F(s)]

The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or
frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the generator

ie, ∆F(s) =0

Therefore ∆PG(s) =kGkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ∆Pc(s)

Steady state response

 (i)Controlled case:

To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:

Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ∆Pc of the speed

changer For step change, ∆Pc(s) = ∆Pc/s

∆PG(s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)/s

s∆PG (s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)

Applying final value theorem,

∆PG (stat) = ∆

(ii)Uncontrolled case

Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ∆PD.Consider
there is no external work and the generator is delivering a power to a single load.

Since ∆Pc=0, kgkt=1

It has been shown that the load frequency control system posses inherently steady state error
for a step input. Applying the usual procedure, the dynamic response of the control loop can be
evaluated so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot.
For this purpose considering the relatively larger time constant of the power system the
governor action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action. Further the turbine generator
dynamics also may be neglected at the first instant to derive a simple expression for the time
response.
∆PG(s) = 1/ (1+sTG) (1+sTt) [-∆F(s)/R] For

a step change ∆F(s) = ∆f/s Therefore

∆PG(s) = 1/(1+sTG)(1+sTt)[-

∆F/sR] ∆f/∆PG (stat) =-R Hz/MW

Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop state, and the output is obtained by
In the steady state, the ALFC is in ‘open’
substituting s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that ∆Pm =∆PT = PG =∆Pe = ∆PD;
That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)

∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R) ∆ω or ∆ Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f

When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then ∆Pm = ∆Pref .
If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
∆Pm = (1/R)∆f or∆f=RPm.
Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
The ALFC loop shown in is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the
primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output ∆Pm to match the
change in load demand ∆PD. All the participating generating units contribute to the change in
generation. But a change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation
∆f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional control loop
called the supplementary loop. This objective is met by using integral controller which
makes the frequency deviation zero. The ALFC with the supplementary loop is generally
called the AGC. The block diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig3.9. The main objectives of
AGC a r e i) to regulate t h e frequency (using b o t h primary a n d
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary
objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation among the connected
generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).
 Block diagram representation of the AGC

AGC in a Single Area System

In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the function
of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will be achieved using
the supplementary loop (as shown in Fig.3.9) which uses the integral controller to change
the reference power setting so as to change the speed set point.
The integral controller gain KI n e ed s to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms of
overshoot, settling time) of the system. Although each generator will be having a separate
speed governor, all the generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent
generator, and the ALFC for the area corresponds to this equivalent generator.

Dynamic Response of the One-Area System

`Now we are going to study the effect of a disturbance in the system derived above.
Both loss of generation and loss of load can be simulated by imposing a positive or negative
step input on the variable Pload. A change of the set value of the system frequency f0 is not
considered as this is not meaningful in real power systems. From the block diagram in
Figure 3.9 it is straightforward to derive the transfer function between
 In order to calculate an equivalent time constant Teq, Tt is put to 0. This can be done since
for realistic systems the turbine controller time constant Tt is much smaller than the time
constant
AGC IN A MULTI AREA SYSTEM
In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control area (located
at the ECC of that area). They are combined as shown in Fig2.10 for the interconnected system
operation. For a total change in load of ∆PD, the steady state Consider a two area system as depicted
in Figure 3.10. The two secondary frequency controllers, AGC1 and AGC2, will adjust the power
reference values of the generators participating in the AGC. In an N-area system, there are N
controllers AGCi, one for each area

A block diagram of such a controller is given in Figure 4.2. A common way is to implement
this as a proportional-integral (PI) controller:

Deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by

∆f=∆ω 1=∆ω 2
 β1= D1+1/R1

Substituting these equations, yields

(1/R1+ D1) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm

(1/R2+ D2) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm

A G C for a multi-area operation

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
LOOPS
It has been shown that the load frequency control system posses inherently steady state
error for a step input. Applying the usual procedure, the dynamic response of the control loop
can be evaluated so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot.
For this purpose considering the relatively larger time constant of the power system the
governor action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action. Further the turbine
generator dynamics also may be neglected at the first instant to derive a simple expression for
the time response.
It has been proved that

For a step load change of magnitude k

Neglecting the governor action and turbine dynamics

Applying partial fractions

INTERCONNECTED OPERATION
Power systems are interconnected for economy and continuity of power supply. For the
interconnected operation incremental efficiencies, fuel costs. Water availability, generation
limits, tie line capacities, spinning reserve allocation and area commitment’s are important
considerations in preparing load dispatch schedules.
Flat Frequency Control of lnter- connected Stations
Consider two generating stations connected by a tie line as in Fig3.12.For a load
increment on station B, the kinetic energy of the generators reduces to absorb the same.
Generation increases in both the stations A and B, and frequency will be less than normal at
the end of the governor response period. The load increment will be supplied partly by A and
partly by B. The tie line power flow will change thereby. If a frequency controller is placed at
B, then it will shift the governor characteristic at B parallel to itself as shown in Fig and the
frequency will be restored to its normal value fs' reducing the change in generation in A to
zero.

Figure 3.12.Two area with tie line power

Assumption in Analysis:
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of the two area system:
1. The overall governing characteristic of the operating units in any area can be represented
by
a linear curve of frequency versus generation.
2. The governors in both the areas start acting simultaneously to changes in their respective
areas.
3. Supplementary control devices act after the initial governor response is over
The following time instants are defined to explain the control sequence:
To=is the instant when both the areas are operating at the scheduled frequency
and Tie=line interchange and load change takes place.
tl = the instant when governor action is initiated at both A and B.
t2 =the instant when governor action ceases.
t3 =the instant when regulator action begins.
t4 = the instant when regulator action ceases.
`While the initial governor response is the same as for the previous case, the action of
the controller in B will force the generation in area B to absorb the load increment in area A.
When the controller begins to act at t3, the governor characteristic is shifted parallel to itself in
B till the entire load increment in A is absorbed by B and the frequency is restored to normal.
Thus, in this case while the frequency is regulate on one hand, the tie-line schedule is not
maintained on the other hand.
If area B, which is in charge of frequency regulation, is much larger than A, then load
changes in A will not appreciably affect the frequency of the system. Consequently, it can be
said that flat frequency control is useful only when a small system is’ connected to a much
larger system.

3.10.4. Two Area Systems - Tie-Line Power Model:

Two Area Systems - Tie-Line Power

Consider two inter connected areas as shown in figure operating at the same frequency fl
power Power flow from area I to area 2
nd V 2 be the voltage magnitudes
voltage phase angles at the two ends of the tie-
line While P flows from area I to area 2 then,

Where X is the reactance of the line. If the angles change by f1o1, and f102 due to load
changes in areas I and 2 respectively. Then, the tie-line power changes by
Block diagram for tie-line power

Dynamic Response:
Let us now turn our attention during the transient period for the sake of simplicity. We
shall assume the two areas to be identical .Further we shall be neglecting the time constants of
generators and turbines as they are negligible as compared to the time constants of power
systems. The equation may be derived for both controlled and uncontrolled cases. There are
four equations with four variables, to be determined for given PDl and PD2. The dynamic
response can be obtained; even though it is a little bit involved. For simplicity assume that the
two areas are equal. Neglect the governor and turbine dynamics, which means that the
dynamics of the system under study is much slower than the fast acting turbine-governor
system in a relative sense. Also assume that the load does not change with frequency (D, = D2
= D = 0).
We obtain under these assumptions the following relations

No hat both K and ro2 are positive. From the roots of the characteristic
equation we notice tha e system is stable and damped. The frequency of the
damped oscillations is given by Since Hand fo are constant, the frequency of
oscillations depends upon the regulation parameter R. Low R gives high K and
high damping and vice versa .We thus conclude from the preceding analysis that
the two area system, just as in the case of a single area system in the uncontrolled
mode, has a steady state error but to a lesser extent and the tie line power deviation and
frequency deviation exhibit oscillations that are damped out later.