Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric.

(2024) 11:111 Chemical and Biological

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-024-00641-6
Technologies in Agriculture

RESEARCH Open Access

A real‑time on‑site precision nutrient

monitoring system for hydroponic cultivation
utilizing LIBS
Daryl Lim1†, K. Keerthi1†, Sreekanth Perumbilavil1, C. S. Suchand Sandeep1,2, Maria Merin Antony1 and
Murukeshan Vadakke Matham1*

Abstract
Indoor hydroponic farming is an advanced cultivation technique with diverse sustainability benefits, such as facilitat-
ing local produce, minimizing transportation costs and emissions, and enabling year-round crop cultivation. To opti-
mize crop growth for enhanced yield, improved crop quality, and reduced environmental footprint, precise monitor-
ing and replenishment of essential nutrients within hydroponic systems is crucial. Current methods employed in most
commercial farms for online nutrient supply monitoring is limited to pH and conductivity measurements. These
techniques can only offer an indication of the overall change in the complex nutrient mixture and lack the capability
to precisely identify the specific nutrient or quantify the nutrient content. Most of the existing techniques for meas-
uring individual nutrient levels are expensive and invasive, necessitating sample preparation, frequent recalibration,
and skilled personnel for operation. In this context, we propose and demonstrate a real-time, on-site monitoring sys-
tem for the precise analysis of hydroponic nutrient supply based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). We
also discuss the system design considerations, parametric optimizations, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quan-
titation (LOQ) of key nutrient components such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg),
using the proposed approach. The detection range of the developed LIBS-based monitoring system can encompass
the typical concentration range observed in hydroponic nutrient solutions used at agricultural farms. This technique
offers rapid online monitoring of individual nutrient components, providing precise, real-time analysis and the poten-
tial to enable comprehensive automation capabilities for current and future hydroponic farms.
Keywords Hydroponics, Precision agriculture, Nutrient monitoring, Laser-induced break down spectroscopy, Liquid
LIBS, Elemental analysis

†
Daryl Lim and K. Keerthi contributed equally.
*Correspondence:
Murukeshan Vadakke Matham
[email protected]
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 2 of 10

Graphical abstract

Background macronutrients comprising nitrogen (N), phosphorus

Indoor vertical farming is an alternative to traditional (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulphur (S), magne-
agriculture methods, offering high productivity within sium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H),
a small footprint. This is a promising technology for and (ii) the micronutrients comprising iron (Fe), boron
sustainable food production, especially in constrained (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper
spaces or land-exhausted areas [1]. The indoor farming (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), and nickel (Ni). The amount
techniques ensure year-round crop supply through pre- of nutrients required by each crop depends on the indi-
cise control of inputs, also often termed as ‘speed breed- vidual crop species and the nutrient type. Nutrient levels
ing’ techniques [2]. These facilitate rapid crop growth, beyond the sufficiency range of a crop can cause a decline
thereby enhancing the crop yield within a stipulated in overall crop growth and a reduction in crop health
time. Majority of the indoor farms employ hydroponic either due to a deficiency or due to a toxicity. Nutri-
technology as an alternative to conventional soil-based ent deficiency occurs when an essential nutrient is not
cultivation [3, 4]. In this approach, the roots are either available in enough amounts to satisfy the crop growth
supported with grow substrates such as perlite, clay, and requirements whereas toxicity occurs when a nutrient
rock or suspended in water, which is supplemented with exceeds crop requirements, causing a decrease in growth
essential nutrient solutions. Within the hydroponic sys- or quality. Although nutrients in a hydroponic system are
tem, the essential inputs such as ambient temperature, formulated in ratios that reflect the needs of the crop, the
light, water, nutrients, and oxygen are precisely con- nutrient level will gradually deplete or change from the
trolled and systematically supplied to the plants. It also optimal value by transpiration during the crop growth.
offers the modularity to be placed anywhere (indoors or This rate of change will vary according to the crop type.
outdoors) and in any spatial configuration (e.g., verti- An advanced hydroponic system should be able to diag-
cal columns, walls, horizontal or flat-bed system, etc.) nose such nutrient deficiencies and toxicities by means
depending on the available space and the type of crops of specialized measurement tools. Current hydroponic
being grown. Hydroponic cultivation allows more effi- systems use conventional methods based on the elec-
cient use of space, water, and fertilizers, as well as bet- troconductivity and pH of the nutrient solution to get a
ter control of pest factors thereby increasing productivity, feedback loop to replenish the nutrients [8, 9]. However,
crop quality, and economic income [5]. these measurements are unable to provide the exact com-
Among the various factors influencing the hydroponic position and concentration of the individual nutrients
cultivation system, the composition of the nutrient solu- and their depletion levels, but rather only give an overall
tion is regarded as one of the most crucial in terms of indication of the change in the complex nutrient mixture
crop yield and quality [6, 7]. The nutrient solution in [7]. This limits its capability to successfully replenish the
a hydroponic system is an aqueous solution contain- right nutrients needed for ideal crop growth. For optimal
ing ions from soluble salts of essential elements. In gen- replenishment, accurate monitoring of the amounts of
eral, there are 17 important nutrients for plants: (i) the each individual nutrient component in the hydroponic

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 3 of 10

nutrition solution is essential. This optimization ensures the laser-induced plasma makes it possible to classify
the precise composition of the regenerated nutrient solu- and measure elementary components in the sample. The
tion, thereby maximizing the quality and productivity of key advantages of this technique include minimal or no
the crops. Specific nutrient measurements such as induc- sample preparation, versatility of the materials that can
tively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy be analyzed, and real-time measurement capability. LIBS
(ICP-OES), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectros- on liquid samples poses specific challenges such as exces-
copy (ICP-MS), atomic absorption, high performance sive splashing, as well as rapid quenching of the plasma
liquid chromatography (HPLC), etc., are expensive offline intensity leading to a shorter plasma lifetime [28]. This
measurements, and often require the use of “wet chem- impacts the signal intensity and consequently the detec-
istry”, requiring dedicated skilled workforce, equipment, tion capability and sensitivity of liquid LIBS. However,
and tools that are generally not available in conventional optimization of the sampling configuration can mitigate
indoor farms [10]. While some attempts have been made these potential challenges [32]. A more detailed discus-
in the past to automate the existing “wet chemistry” labo- sion on the state-of-the-art of liquid LIBS analysis, poten-
ratory to provide online analysis to the hydroponic sys- tial experimental strategies, and challenges can be found
tem, such modalities almost always require the use of elsewhere [33, 34]. Here, we detail the system design
chemical reagents and involve tedious sample prepara- considerations, experimental parameter optimization,
tion [7, 10–16]. detection limits for various nutrient components, and
Recently, real-time monitoring of hydroponic nutrient the potential of the proposed approach to accurately esti-
solutions using ion-selective electrodes and the Internet mate the nutrient concentrations. The prospects of the
of Things (IoT) have been explored [8–11, 17–20]. In proposed LIBS-based technique for online monitoring
this method, ion-selective features of specialized mate- of specific nutrients, along with the potential to integrate
rials were used to generate electrical signals that can be automation and online monitoring features in forthcom-
detected and quantified and hence specifically monitor ing hydroponic farms, are also discussed.
the concentration of individual nutrients in the solu-
tion [14, 15, 17, 21–25]. However, not all elements in the Methods
nutrient solution can be detected as the selective elec- Figure 1 shows the schematic of the LIBS-based nutrient
trodes for many of the elements have not been developed solution monitoring system developed. A small amount
yet [8, 9]. Moreover, some electrodes for nutrients, such (10 mL) of the nutrient solution from the hydroponic sys-
as Ca, show poor sensitivity, which further reduces over tem is pumped to a quartz cell using a micro-pump and
time [8, 23, 24, 26]. Most of these electrodes need fre- temporarily stored there by closing the outlet valve of the
quent recalibration as the continuous monitoring of the quartz cell for LIBS analysis. Once the measurements are
nutrient solution leads to oxidation of the electrode sur- completed, the nutrient solution in the cell is pumped
faces leading to reduced detection sensitivity over time. back to the hydroponic system. The micro-pump is
Furthermore, these measurements are also greatly influ- equipped with an inlet filter, which filters out suspended
enced by environmental conditions such as the tempera- solids or algae in the nutrient solution. The cell is made
ture of the nutrient solution, and signal drift of electrodes of polished square quartz windows of 2 cm length. Nano-
for specific ions [8]. As an alternative, some indoor farms second laser pulses from an Nd-YAG laser (Quantel,
opt for visual inspection of symptoms displayed on crops Q-smart 850) at the wavelength of 1064 nm and a rep-
to interpret nutrient deficiency and toxicity. However, etition rate of 10 Hz are used to generate the plasma
interpreting nutrient stress symptoms remains challeng- for the LIBS measurements. It should be noted that the
ing due to the complex combination of plant-nutrient high optical absorption rate, and minimal scattering and
reactions [27]. For instance, nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) splashing at the excitation wavelength of 1064 nm ena-
deficiency symptoms are similar depending upon place- bles the generation of plasma with distinct line emissions
ment, growth stage, and severity of deficiencies or mul- with a longer lifetime [35].
tiple deficiencies and/or toxicities can occur at the same A plano-convex lens (L1) with a focal length of 50 mm
time [27]. is employed to focus the laser beam inside the quartz
In this context, we propose a LIBS-based measurement cell containing the liquid nutrient sample. The resulting
system, as a new tool for nutrient monitoring and smart plasma emission from the sample is collected in the back-
nutrient management for hydroponic systems. LIBS is a ward geometry (180° collection scheme) using the same
rapidly evolving, in situ technique that can be used for lens (L1). The collected emission is transmitted through
the quantitative analysis of elemental compositions in the dichroic mirror and focused by another plano-convex
various samples [28–31]. The analysis of the character- lens (L2) to be directly coupled to the entrance slit of a
istic atomic, ionic and molecular emission spectra from high-resolution Czerny–Turner spectrometer (Kymera

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 4 of 10

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the LIBS-based hydroponic nutrient solution monitoring system

328i, Andor). The spectrometer is equipped with a grat- water and were subsequently stored in standard volu-
ing consisting of 1200 grooves per mm and an intensified metric flasks. To attain solutions of varied concentrations
charge-coupled device (ICCD) camera (iStar, Andor). required for the analysis, serial dilution was carried out.
The spectrometer disperses the collected light using the Since the measurements are done on samples pumped
grating, which is then captured by the ICCD camera. The out from the grow tray into a sample cell in an isolated
spectral range monitored during the measurements is measurement system, external lighting or plant growth
350–800 nm. To efficiently capture the LIBS signal, the lighting does not affect the measurements.
acquisition is appropriately gated, and the delay between
the laser pulse and detection is controlled by the timed Results and discussion
triggering of the spectrometer using the laser source’s Parametric investigations conducted for optimization of
synchronization output signal. The data acquisition soft- the system showed that the analytical performance of the
ware plays a crucial role in integrating the laser trigger- LIBS-based nutrient monitoring system relies on various
ing and spectral collection processes, enabling real-time system parameters. The primary controllable parameters
nutrient quantification. The recorded LIBS spectra were influencing the LIBS analytical performance are the laser
processed using Andor SOLIS software. Emission peak pulse energy and the delay between the laser pulse and
identification was achieved by comparing emission peaks the spectrometer gating. Optimizing these experimental
with the NIST database. Signal-to-background (S/B) parameters has the potential to minimize background
ratios were calculated for each measurement to assess noise and improve overall system performance.
the quality of the acquired spectra. The details relevant As LIBS utilizes a high-energy laser pulse to create
to the calculation of the S/B ratio were earlier reported by the laser-induced plasma, the plasma properties and the
our group [33]. The S/B ratio was calculated using a cus- analytical performance of the system are highly depend-
tom software code written in Python and each emission ent on the exciting pulse energy. Optimizing the laser
spectrum presented is an average of 200 measurements pulse energy is thus crucial for achieving enhanced per-
unless stated otherwise. Liquid samples for the calibra- formance. To determine the optimal laser pulse energy,
tion were prepared according to standard protocols, LIBS spectra generated from a sample solution contain-
including dilution and homogenization steps to ensure ing 400 ppm Na were recorded at a fixed delay time of
uniformity. Analytical grade sodium chloride (NaCl), 500 ns and gate width of 1000 ns, employing different
potassium chloride (KCl), magnesium sulfate (­MgSO4), laser pulse energies ranging from 5 to 25 mJ. Figure 2a
and calcium chloride ­(CaCl2) were procured from Sigma displays the recorded Na analyte signal corresponding
Aldrich. Stock solutions of each analyte were prepared to different laser pulse energies, and Fig. 2b illustrates
by dissolving the respective solute in deionized (DI) the Na analyte S/B ratio. The data in Fig. 2 represent an

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 5 of 10

Fig. 2 a The intensity variation in the atomic line signal of Na (589.14 nm) and b the corresponding S/B ratio at different laser pulse energies

average of over 200 measurements. From the figures, it decays much faster than the discrete line emissions that
is evident that the signal intensity increased with the rise emerge at a later time. Thus, controlling the detection
in the exciting laser pulse energy and reached an opti- gate delay allows for the acquisition of LIBS signals with
mal value at ~ 15 mJ. At higher laser pulse energies, the minimal background and thus an enhanced S/B ratio.
plasma absorbs more energy, elevating the plasma tem- To investigate the influence of the delay between laser
perature, and causing an increase in continuum back- pulse and the detector gating on the LIBS signal obtained
ground emission. Consequently, this leads to a reduction from the present configuration, the gate delay was varied
in the S/B ratio. Additionally, beyond the optimum laser from 0 to 2200 ns, and the LIBS signals were recorded.
energy, the intensity of the discrete line emission began The laser energy was kept at the optimum value of 15 mJ
to decrease, which is attributed to the shielding effect and in all the measurements. Figure 3 shows the variation in
self-absorption within the plasma [35–37]. the atomic line signal of Na and the corresponding S/B
It is well-known that plasma emission is dominated ratio at different gate delays. As seen from the figure,
by the continuum background emission (so-called there is a significant dependence of the S/B ratio on the
Bremsstrahlung radiations) and discrete line emissions gate delay, with the optimal value identified to be around
[35, 37]. These emissions originate and decay at different 300–500 ns. It should be noted that a similar optimal gate
times and rates [35]. To capture an optimum LIBS sig- delay value is observed for K. In contrast, Mg and Ca
nal, it is required to properly select an optimum detec- required shorter gate delays (10–20 ns) for optimal signal
tion window. In general, when a nanosecond laser pulse capture.
induced plasma is formed, the continuum background Following the optimization of the LIBS signals, the
dominates in the first several microseconds, which proposed nutrient monitoring system was calibrated

Fig. 3 a The intensity variation of the atomic line signal of Na (589.14 nm) and b the corresponding S/B ratio with the delay between the laser pulse
and detector gating. The laser pulse energy was kept at the optimum value of 15 mJ

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 6 of 10

for the elements K, Na, Ca, and Mg as representative whereas, LOQ defines the lowest concentration of ana-
constituents of the nutrient solution. The calibration lyte that can be quantitatively determined with accept-
was done using known concentrations of the salt solu- able precision and accuracy. The LOD and LOQ can be
tions in DI water. For Ca and Mg, this ranged from 200 estimated using the equations [28, 38]:
to 1000 ppm, for Na from 1 to 100 ppm, and for K from
1 to 200 ppm. The calibration curves at the optimized
LOD = 3σ/S, (1)
experimental conditions are generated by recording the
LIBS signals of these elements across various concen- LOD = 10σ/S, (2)
trations. Figure 4 shows the calibration curves for K
where σ is the standard deviation of the background and
(766.5 nm), Na (589.14 nm), Ca (422.64 nm), and Mg
S is the sensitivity, which is given by the ratio of the LIBS
(518.37 nm). Each data point represents an average
signal intensity to the sample concentration. The param-
of 200 measurements and the error bars indicate the
eter S can be determined from the slope of the calibration
standard deviations. The solid lines represent linear fits
curve [28, 32]. Using these equations, the LOD (LOQ)
to the data points. These results indicate that the LIBS
values for K (766.5 nm), Na (589.14 nm), Ca (422.64 nm),
signal intensity has a linear dependence on the ana-
and Mg (518.37 nm) were found to be 660 ppb (2.2 ppm),
lyte concentration in the concentration ranges investi-
439 ppb (1.46 ppm), 102 ppm (339 ppm), and 78 ppm
gated. The high values of the determination coefficient
(263 ppm), respectively. The LOD and LOQ values
(R2) (values close to 1.0) for the linear fits demonstrate
observed in this investigation are appropriate for the
the reliability of the LIBS-based system in measuring
proposed application and are comparable to the values
the concentrations of these nutrients in a hydropon-
reported in similar works in the literature. For instance,
icnutrient solution. The limit of detection (LOD) and
Zhang et al. reported LOD values for Na in aqueous solu-
the limit of quantitation (LOQ) of the system are the
tions in the range of 1 ppm [39]. Other investigations
most important parameters for any detection system.
such as those by Cremers et al. reported LOD values for
The LOD defines the lowest concentration of the ana-
Ca and Mg in the range of 1–100 ppm [40]. It may be
lyte that can be detected with the developed LIBS sys-
noted that the typical concentration range of nutrients in
tem but is not necessarily quantified as an exact value;

Fig. 4 Calibration curves of K (766.5 nm), Na (589.14 nm), Ca (422.64 nm), and Mg (518.37 nm)

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 7 of 10

indoor farms falls within the detection range of the pro- where AC is the actual concentration and EC is the
posed system. estimated concentration using the proposed LIBS sys-
The feasibility and accuracy of the proposed system for tem. The relative error for these elements were found
measuring the concentration of various elements in a solu- to be between 6 and 13% (K ~ 11 %, Na ~ 8 %, Ca ~ 6 %,
tion is assessed using a representative complex nutrient Mg ~ 13 %), which is comparable to or better than the val-
solution containing known concentrations of K, Na, Ca, ues measured in previously reported nutrient monitoring
and Mg. The specific concentrations chosen were as fol- systems [8, 9, 23]. The low relative error values indicate
lows: Na and K at 100 ppm, and Ca and Mg at 600 ppm. the proposed system’s high sensitivity and low variability
This mixed salt solution allowed us to ensure comprehen- in measurements. These results show that the proposed
sive detection even in a complex nutrient mixture. Matrix- nutrient monitoring system can be used in the develop-
matching was not employed in this measurement as our ment of unmanned large-scale hydroponic farms.
goal was only to evaluate the LIBS performance in a simple Figure 6 illustrates the conceptual framework of the
DI water matrix. Figure 5a shows the LIBS spectra (aver- proposed LIBS-based automated real-time on-site nutri-
aged over 200 acquisitions) of the complex nutrient solu- ent monitoring system for implementation in smart
tion, where the atomic emission lines from K, Na, Ca, and unmanned hydroponic farms. The algorithm for the
Mg are identified. From the acquired LIBS spectra, the S/B overall monitoring process and control systems is illus-
ratio values of the elemental emission lines are calculated, trated. The automated nutrient replenishment system
and the concentration of each element is estimated using will be primarily based on the difference between the
the corresponding calibration curves. (crop specific) reference library values and current meas-
Figure 5b shows a comparison of the concentrations of K, ured values. In the algorithms being developed, it is
Na, Ca, and Mg determined by the proposed system and important to implement proper thresholding conditions
the actual concentration values. The estimated concen- and revise these thoroughly to make sure that the error
trations of K, Na, Ca, and Mg are 89 ± 3 ppm, 92 ± 4 ppm, margin is eliminated from the replenishment regulation
564 ± 11 ppm, and 520 ± 13 ppm, respectively. It can be criterion. Also, it is to be noted that for several plant spe-
seen that the estimated concentrations are very close to the cies, the optimal elemental composition encompasses a
actual values. From these results, the relative error can be reasonably broad range, and the system may only need
calculated using the equation: to be activated if the measured values are beyond this
    range (and not for a minor deviation from a mean value).
(AC − EC) Farm users should be able to set optimal nutrient values
Relative error (%) = × 100, (3)
AC for each crop type at specific growth stages through the
user interface. For reliable measurements, the sampling
will need good filter systems to make sure that the debris

Fig. 5 a LIBS spectra of the mixed solution containing K, Na, Ca, and Mg. Atomic emission lines from these elements are identified. b Comparison
of the concentrations of the elements measured using the proposed monitoring system with the actual concentration values. The error bars
indicate standard deviation

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 8 of 10

Fig. 6 Block diagram and algorithm of the proposed LIBS-based automated real-time on-site nutrient monitoring system

does not affect the measurements and good isolation and or growth stages. By utilizing such monitoring systems
environmental control would be required at the sampling to adjust nutrient levels, hydroponic growers can achieve
zone in the measurement system. After each measure- higher yields, better quality crops, and embrace more
ment, the cell can be cleaned by flushing it with a small sustainable production practices. Additionally, the inte-
volume of DI water to prevent errors caused by trace gration of data logging systems to continuously monitor
elements or calcium deposition on the cell walls in sub- nutrient levels and environmental conditions within the
sequent measurements. The proposed system could be hydroponic system can enable optimum nutrient dosing.
integrated to both indoor and outdoor hydroponic farms. It is envisaged that this automated real-time monitoring
Being a non-invasive inline measurement technique, the system would be a better alternative to existing technolo-
proposed liquid LIBS-based approach can help in nutri- gies that require complex sample preparation for pre-
ent replenishing without waste generation. In addition cisely analyzing the individual nutrients.
to the liquid cell demonstrated, the use of different sam-
pling configurations such as a microfluidic channel could Conclusions
improve the detection sensitivity. In hydroponic systems In summary, we have proposed and demonstrated a real-
utilizing drip irrigation, automated nutrient injection time, on-site nutrient monitoring system for hydroponic
systems can be programmed to deliver specific nutrient cultivation utilizing liquid LIBS. The developed system
solutions tailored to the requirements of various plants stands apart from conventional monitoring systems that

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Lim et al. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric. (2024) 11:111 Page 9 of 10

focus solely on pH and electroconductivity values or rely (Theme 1: Sustainable Urban Food Production) Grant Call (SFS_RND_
SUFP_001_03). The authors also acknowledge the support received through
on labor-intensive wet chemical methods. It provides COLE-EDB funding at COLE, NTU.
a distinct advantage by enabling rapid, on-site assess-
ment of precise levels of individual nutrients within the Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analyzed in this article are available from the cor-
hydroponic solution. This capability facilitates accurate responding author upon reasonable request.
estimation of the required application loads of variable-
rate fertilizers in hydroponic cultivation, thereby enhanc- Declarations
ing the efficient utilization of crop fertilizers. The system
allows for reliable measurement of all essential nutrients Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
and its sensitivity covers the typical concentration range
found in commonly used hydroponic nutrient solutions. Consent for publication
With relative errors for different elements ranging from Not applicable.
6 to 13% (K ~ 11 %, Na ~ 8 %, Ca ~ 6 %, Mg ~ 13 %), the Competing interests
system demonstrates improved accuracy compared to The authors declare that they have submitted a patent application covering
previously reported nutrient monitoring methods. The some of the technological aspects presented in this paper.
proposed system can be applied in various hydroponic Author details
setups, from small-scale indoor farms to large commer- 1
Centre for Optical and Laser Engineering (COLE), School of Mechanical
cial operations, offering particular benefits in urban envi- and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang
Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore. 2 Present Address: Department of Phys-
ronments where precise nutrient management is crucial. ics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education,
The current system can be further improved in terms Manipal 576104, India.
of detection sensitivity and refining sampling methods
Received: 26 March 2024 Accepted: 5 August 2024
to ensure consistency and accuracy for micronutrients.
Future research should focus on these improvements and
explore integration with automated hydroponic tech-
nologies to create a fully automated nutrient manage-
ment system. By enhancing detection sensitivity, refining
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