SYSTEM ANALYST AND DESIGN

Characteristics and properties of the system

1. Components
2. Interrelationship/interdepdence
3. Boundary
4. Environment
5. Input and output
6. Processing
7. Feedback
8. Control
9. Modularity
10. Goals and objectives
11. Subsystems
12. Complexity
13. Open vs close system
14. Synergy
Synergy occurs when the components of a system work together in such a way that
the combined output is greater than the sum of their individual outputs.
Example: In a team-based project management system, collaboration among team
members can lead to better results than if each member worked in isolation.
15. Entropy
Entropy refers to the natural tendency of systems to lose order and become inefficient over
time if not properly managed or maintained.
16. Hierarchy
17. Adaptability

Elements of the system

In Systems Analysis and Design (SAD), a system is composed of several key elements that
work together to achieve specific objectives. Each element plays a critical role in how the
system functions. Below are the main elements of a system:

1. Input:

 Definition: Inputs are the resources, data, or information that are fed into the system for
processing.
 Role: Inputs initiate the system’s processes and are transformed into outputs by the system.
 Examples: In a payroll system, inputs could include employee work hours, tax information,
and wage rates.

2. Processing:

 Definition: Processing is the mechanism or set of actions that the system performs on the
inputs to generate outputs.
 Role: This element represents the operations, calculations, and transformations applied to
the inputs to achieve a desired outcome.
 Examples: In a banking system, processing might involve calculating interest rates or
updating account balances.

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3. Output:

 Definition: Outputs are the final products, information, or results produced by the system
after processing the inputs.
 Role: The output is the goal or objective of the system, providing results to the users or
stakeholders.
 Examples: In an inventory management system, outputs could include stock reports, reorder
alerts, or sales summaries.

4. Control:

 Definition: Control refers to the rules, guidelines, or policies that regulate the system's
behavior and performance.
 Role: Controls ensure that the system functions correctly, efficiently, and according to its
design. They help monitor the system’s activities, identify errors, and maintain proper
operation.
 Examples: A budget limit in an accounting system or user authentication in a security system
are examples of controls.

5. Feedback:

 Definition: Feedback is the information that is returned to the system to help monitor,
adjust, or improve its performance.
 Role: Feedback allows the system to make corrections or optimizations based on the results
of its outputs. It plays a critical role in control and helps in maintaining system stability and
accuracy.
 Examples: In a climate control system, temperature sensors provide feedback that adjusts
the heating or cooling.

6. Environment:

 Definition: The environment consists of all external factors, entities, or conditions that
interact with the system but are not part of the system itself.
 Role: The environment can influence the system, provide inputs, or receive outputs. Systems
must adapt to changes in their environment to stay relevant.
 Examples: A company’s regulatory environment, competitors, and market conditions are
part of its business system’s external environment.

7. Boundaries:

 Definition: The boundary of a system defines the scope of the system, separating what is
part of the system from what is outside of it.
 Role: Boundaries clarify what the system is responsible for and differentiate the system from
its environment.
 Examples: In a retail store system, the boundary might include in-store operations but
exclude supply chain management.

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8. Interface:

 Definition: An interface is the point where the system interacts with its external
environment, including users, other systems, or devices.
 Role: The interface facilitates communication between the system and external entities,
ensuring smooth interaction and data exchange.
 Examples: The user interface of an ATM machine, or the API that connects an e-commerce
system with a payment gateway.

9. Subsystems:

 Definition: Subsystems are smaller, independent systems within the larger system that have
their own inputs, processing, and outputs, but contribute to the overall functioning of the
larger system.
 Role: Subsystems are integral parts of the system, handling specific tasks or functions while
still being connected to the main system.
 Examples: In an HR management system, subsystems could include payroll, recruitment, and
employee performance tracking.

10. Goals and Objectives:

 Definition: Goals and objectives are the intended outcomes or purposes of the system.
 Role: These define the system’s success and guide the design, development, and operation
of the system.
 Examples: In a customer service system, the goal might be to improve response times and
customer satisfaction.

Summary of Elements:

 Input: Data or resources fed into the system.

 Processing: Operations applied to inputs to generate outputs.
 Output: The results produced by the system.
 Control: Mechanisms to regulate and guide system behavior.
 Feedback: Information used to adjust and improve the system.
 Environment: External factors that influence the system.
 Boundaries: Define the system’s scope and separate it from the environment.
 Interface: Points of interaction between the system and external entities.
 Subsystems: Smaller systems that operate within a larger system.
 Goals and Objectives: The purposes the system is designed to achieve.

1. Which of the following is an example of input in a system?

a) Employee payroll details

b) Employee salary report
c) Tax return form
d) Payroll system performance feedback

Answer: a) Employee payroll details

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2. Processing in a system refers to:

a) Converting outputs into inputs

b) Transforming inputs into meaningful outputs
c) Monitoring system performance
d) Storing data in the system database

Answer: b) Transforming inputs into meaningful outputs

3. The boundary of a system:

a) Defines the scope of the system and separates it from its environment
b) Describes the interaction between different subsystems
c) Represents the rules and guidelines for the system
d) Identifies the inputs and outputs of the system

Answer: a) Defines the scope of the system and separates it from its environment

4. Feedback in a system is used to:

a) Produce system outputs

b) Provide information to improve or adjust system performance
c) Manage user access control
d) Define the goals and objectives of the system

Answer: b) Provide information to improve or adjust system performance

5. Which element of a system interacts with the environment to facilitate communication

between the system and external entities?

a) Subsystem
b) Interface
c) Feedback
d) Boundary

Answer: b) Interface

6. A subsystem can be best described as:

a) A smaller system operating independently without interaction with the larger system
b) A smaller system that is part of a larger system and contributes to its overall function
c) The environment surrounding the system
d) A control mechanism regulating system operations

Answer: b) A smaller system that is part of a larger system and contributes to its overall
function

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7. Which of the following represents the output of a system?

a) Customer order details

b) The total sales report generated by the system
c) Payment details entered by a user
d) Employee work hours logged into the system

Answer: b) The total sales report generated by the system

8. Control in a system refers to:

a) Ensuring that the system meets its objectives by following predefined guidelines
b) Transforming inputs into outputs
c) Separating the system from the environment
d) Communicating with subsystems

Answer: a) Ensuring that the system meets its objectives by following predefined guidelines

9. The environment of a system consists of:

a) The inputs and outputs of the system

b) The external factors and entities that interact with the system
c) The internal processes of the system
d) The users who operate the system

Answer: b) The external factors and entities that interact with the system

10. A goal of a system can be defined as:

a) The purpose or objective the system is designed to achieve

b) The specific input provided to the system
c) The physical boundaries of the system
d) The feedback mechanism in the system

Answer: a) The purpose or objective the system is designed to achieve

11. Modular design of a system means:

a) The system has a single, monolithic structure

b) The system is divided into smaller subsystems that can operate independently
c) The system does not interact with its environment
d) The system has no control mechanisms

Answer: b) The system is divided into smaller subsystems that can operate independently

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12. An example of processing in a system could be:

a) User login credentials entered into the system

b) A report generated based on employee work hours
c) Adjusting a feedback loop based on system performance
d) A customer viewing a sales catalog

Answer: b) A report generated based on employee work hours

13. Which of the following is an example of control in a system?

a) System processing payroll information

b) Authentication of a user login
c) Data entered into the system
d) The system interface with external users

Answer: b) Authentication of a user login

14. Entropy in a system refers to:

a) The natural degradation or loss of efficiency in a system over time

b) The feedback loop that helps maintain system stability
c) The communication process between a system and its environment
d) The number of inputs and outputs a system has

Answer: a) The natural degradation or loss of efficiency in a system over time

15. An example of an open system is:

a) A system that does not interact with its environment

b) A system that interacts with external factors like users, other systems, or market conditions
c) A system with no feedback mechanism
d) A system that is completely self-contained

Answer: b) A system that interacts with external factors like users, other systems, or market
conditions

TYPES OF SYSTEM

1. Physical vs. Abstract Systems:

 Physical System:
o These systems consist of tangible elements that can be seen and touched.
o Examples: Machines, hardware, computer systems, manufacturing plants.
 Abstract System:
o These systems consist of concepts, theories, or algorithms. They are intangible and
exist only in the form of ideas or representations.
o Examples: Software programs, organizational structures, mathematical models.

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2. Open vs. Closed Systems:

 Open System:
o Open systems interact with their external environment by receiving inputs and
generating outputs.
o They are influenced by external factors and must adapt to changes in their
environment.
o Examples: A business organization, an information system that interacts with users.
 Closed System:
o Closed systems have minimal or no interaction with their environment.
o These systems are self-contained and operate independently of external factors.
o Examples: An isolated scientific experiment or a completely self-contained process
control system.

3. Deterministic vs. Probabilistic Systems:

 Deterministic System:
o In deterministic systems, the output is predictable, and the system operates in a
predefined and orderly manner. Given the same input, the output will always be the
same.
o Examples: Mathematical models, payroll systems, simple algorithms.
 Probabilistic System:
o Probabilistic systems operate in a manner where the outcome is not certain, and the
behavior involves some degree of randomness or uncertainty.
o Examples: Weather forecasting systems, stock market systems, risk assessment
models.

4. Man-Made vs. Natural Systems:

 Man-Made System:
o These systems are created by humans and designed to fulfill specific purposes.
o Examples: Information systems, transportation systems, financial systems.
 Natural System:
o Natural systems are found in nature and occur without human intervention.
o Examples: Ecosystems, the solar system, biological systems (such as the human
body).

5. Simple vs. Complex Systems:

 Simple System:
o Simple systems have few components and limited interactions. They are easy to
understand and manage.
o Examples: Basic accounting systems, simple mechanical devices.
 Complex System:
o Complex systems have many interconnected components, subsystems, and
variables. They are difficult to understand due to the interdependency of the
components.
o Examples: Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, national power grids, climate
models.

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6. Adaptive vs. Non-Adaptive Systems:

 Adaptive System:
o Adaptive systems can change or adjust in response to their environment or internal
changes.
o These systems have feedback mechanisms and can evolve to meet new challenges
or conditions.
o Examples: Machine learning models, autonomous robots, dynamic business systems.
 Non-Adaptive System:
o Non-adaptive systems do not change in response to environmental conditions. They
remain fixed in their structure and behavior.
o Examples: Traditional manufacturing systems, older computer programs with no
ability to self-correct.

7. Permanent vs. Temporary Systems:

 Permanent System:
o Permanent systems are designed to exist and operate indefinitely.
o Examples: Information management systems in organizations, production systems in
factories.
 Temporary System:
o Temporary systems are established for a specific purpose or project and are
dismantled after fulfilling their objective.
o Examples: Project management systems, event management systems for one-time
events.

8. Stable vs. Dynamic Systems:

 Stable System:
o Stable systems are designed to function consistently over time, maintaining the
same structure and behavior with little change.
o Examples: Fixed assembly lines, basic record-keeping systems.
 Dynamic System:
o Dynamic systems are constantly changing in response to inputs or environmental
factors.
o Examples: E-commerce platforms, real-time monitoring systems, stock exchange
systems.

9. Formal vs. Informal Systems:

 Formal System:
o Formal systems are well-defined and operate according to established rules,
procedures, or algorithms.
o These systems are often documented and follow strict guidelines.
o Examples: Accounting systems, legal systems, government procedures.
 Informal System:
o Informal systems are flexible and may not follow a specific set of rules. They rely on
human relationships, social interactions, and are often undocumented.
o Examples: Informal communication networks within an organization, word-of-mouth
decision-making processes.

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10. User-Machine System:

 This type of system involves a combination of humans and machines working together.
 Examples: Air traffic control systems, medical diagnostic systems where humans and
computers collaborate.

11. Information Systems:

 These systems focus on the collection, processing, and dissemination of data to support
decision-making.
 Examples: Management Information Systems (MIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS),
databases.

12. Distributed vs. Centralized Systems:

 Distributed System:
o A distributed system consists of multiple independent systems or components
located across different locations that work together as one coherent system.
o Examples: Cloud computing, distributed databases, the internet.
 Centralized System:
o In a centralized system, all processing and decision-making are done by a central
unit, and there is minimal distribution of resources.
o Examples: Mainframe systems, traditional IT infrastructure.

Summary of System Types:

 Physical vs. Abstract

 Open vs. Closed
 Deterministic vs. Probabilistic
 Man-Made vs. Natural
 Simple vs. Complex
 Adaptive vs. Non-Adaptive
 Permanent vs. Temporary
 Stable vs. Dynamic
 Formal vs. Informal
 User-Machine System
 Information Systems
 Distributed vs. Centralized

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