Electric Motors (18EE44)

Module-1
D.C. Motors

Introduction
A motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy . The
energy conversion process is exactly opposite to that involved in a d.c. generator. In a generator
the input mechanical energy is supplied by a prime mover while in a d.c. motor, input electrical
energy is supplied by a d.c. supply. The construction of a d.c. machine is same whether it is a
motor or a generator.

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor

The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as 'when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field' it experiences a mechanical force'. In a
practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors
play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force.
As a conductors are placed in the slots which are in the periphery, the individual force
experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the armature which is called
a torque. The torque is the product of force and the radius at which this force acts. So overall
armature experiences a torque and starts rotating. Let us study this motoring action in detail.
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The
magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by
the field winding when it carries a current.

Fig. 1
Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular
direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the Fig. 1(b). Any
current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it. hence this conductor also
produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb
rule. For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise.
For simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not shown
in the Fig. 1(b).

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Fig.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both
the fluxes are in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the
flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two
fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the
flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on
the right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2

This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards
low flux density area. i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 3

Key point : In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding
which produces the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on
the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall
armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Direction of Rotation of D.C. Motor

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,
F = B l I Newton (N)
B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
l = Active length of the conductor.
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by
Fleming's left hand. So Fleming's right hand rule is to determine direction of induced e.m.f. i.e.
for generating action while Fleming's left hand rule is to determine direction of force experienced
i.e. for motoring action.

Fleming's left hand rule

The rule states that, 'Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger,
middle finger and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the
first finger in the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current
then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor'. The Fleming's left
hand rule can be diagrammatically shown as in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Apply the rule to crosscheck the direction of force experienced by a single conductor, placed in
the magnetic field, shown in the Fig. 2(a), (b), (c) and (d).

Fig. 2

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

It can be seen from the Fig. 2 that if the direction of the main field in which current carrying
conductor is placed, is reversed, force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction.
Similarly keeping main flux direction unchanged, the direction of current passing through the
conductor is reversed. The force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction. However if
both the directions are reversed, the direction of the force experienced remains the same.

Key point : So in a practical motor, to reverse its direction of rotation, either direction of main
field produced by the field winding is reversed or direction of the current passing through the
armature is reversed.

The direction of the main field can be reversed by changing the direction of current passing
through the field winding, which is possible by interchanging the polarities of supply which is
given to the field winding . In short, to have a motoring action two fluxes must exist, the
interaction of which produces a torque.

Significance of Back E.M.F.

It is seen in the generation action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets
induced in the conductor. The question is obvious that in a d.c. motor, after a motoring action,
armature starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. So is there a generating
action existing in a motor ? The answer to this question is 'Yes'.
After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced e.m.f. in the
rotating armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This
induced e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This is
according to the Lenz's law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always so as to
oppose the cause producing it. In a d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause
and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage. This e.m.f. tries to set up a current
through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is forcing
through the conductor.
So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f. and denoted as
Eb. Though it is obtained as Eb, basically it gets generated by the generation action which we
have seen earlier in case of generation. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f.
equation which is derived earlier. So,

where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier in case of generators.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1

This e.m.f. is shown schematically in the Fig. 1(a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and
Ra is the value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in the
Fig. 1(b).

Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor

In case of a generator, generated e.m.f. has to supply armature resistance drop and remaining part
is available across the load as a terminal voltage. But in case of d.c. motor, supply voltage V has
to overcome back e.m.f. which is opposing V and also various drops as armature resistance drop,
brush drop etc. Infact the electrical work done in overcoming the back e.m.f. gets converted into
the mechanical energy developed in the armature. Hence the voltage equation of a d.c. motor can
be written as,

Neglecting the brush drop, the generalized voltage equation is,

V = Eb + Ia Ra
The back e.m.f. is always less than supply voltage (E b < V). But is very small hence under
normal running conditions, the difference between back e.m.f. and supply voltage is very small.
The net voltage across the armature is the difference between the supply voltage and back e.m.f.
which decides the armature current. Hence from the voltage equation we can write,

Key Point : Voltage equations gets changed a little bit depending upon the type of the motor,
which is discussed later.

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Examples 1 ; A 220 V , d.c. motor has an armature resistance of 0.75 Ω. It is drawing an

armature current of 30 A, driving a certain load. Calculate the induced e.m.f. in the motor under
this condition.
Solution : V = 200 V, = 30 A, = 0.75 Ω are the given values.
For a motor, V = Eb + Ia Ra
220 = Eb + 30 x 0.75
Eb = 197.5 volts
This is the induced e.m.f. called back e.m.f. in a motor.

Example 2 ; A 4 pole, d.c. motor has lap connected armature winding. The flux per pole is 30
mWB. The number of armature conductors is 250. When connected to 230 V d.c. supply it draws
an armature current of 40 A. Calculate the back e.m.f. and the speed with which motor is
running. Assume armature resistance is 0.6 Ω.
Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4 as lap, V = 230 V, Z = 250
Φ = 30 mWB = 30 x 10-3 WB
Ia = 40 A
From voltage equation, V = Eb + Ia Ra
230 = Eb + 40 x 0.6
Eb = 206 V
And Eb = ΦPNZ/ 60A
206 = (30 x 10-3 x 4 x N x 250)/ (60 x 4)
N = 1648 r.p.m.

Back E.M.F. as a Regulation Mechanism

Due to the presence of back e.m.f. the d.c. motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor
adjusts itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand. The basic
principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, Eb α N.
When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the motor
reduces due to which back e.m.f. also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature (V-
Eb) increases and motors draws more armature current. As F= B l I, due to increased current,
force experienced by the conductors and hence the torque on the armature increases. The
increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy increased load demand. The motor speeds stops
decreasing when the armature current is just enough to produce torque demand by the new load.
When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back
e.m.f. increases. This causes (V- Eb) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by
the armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to
produce the less torque required by the new load.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Key Point : So back e.m.f. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the back
e.m.f.

Power Equation of a D.C. Motor

The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is given by,
V = Eb + Ia Ra
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Ia we get,

This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor.

VIa = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts.
Ia2Ra = Power loss due the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.
So difference between VIa and Ia2Ra i.e. input - losses gives the output of the armature.
So Eb Ia is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature.
This is denoted as Pm.
... Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power
developed in the armature.
Condition for Maximum Power
For a motor from power equation it is known that,
Pm = Gross mechanical power developed = Eb Ia
= VIa - Ia2Ra
For maximum Pm, dPm/dIa = 0
.
.. 0 = V - 2IaRa
.
.. Ia = V/2Ra i.e. IaRa = V/2
Substituting in voltage equation,
V = Eb + IaRa = Eb + (V/2)
.
.. Eb = V/2 ............................ Condition for maximum power

Key Point : This is practically impossible to achieve as for this, current required is much more
than its normal rated value. Large heat will be produced and efficiency of motor will be less than
50 %.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor:

It is seen that the turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of
radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then angular speed of the wheel is,
ω = (2πN)/60 rad/sec
So workdone in one revolution is,
W = F x distance travelled in one revolution
= F x 2 R joules
And P = Power developed = Workdone/Time
= (F x 2πR) / (Time for 1 rev) = (F x 2πR) / (60/N) = (F x R) x (2πN/60)
.
.. P = T x ω watts
Where T = Torque in N - m
ω = Angular speed in rad/sec.
Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature
torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E bIa, as seen from the power
equation. So if speed of the motor is N r.p.m. then,
Power in armature = Armature torque x ω

... Eb Ia = x (2N/60)
but Eb in a motor is given by,
Eb = (ΦPNZ) / (60A)
... (ΦPNZ / 60A) x Ia = Ta x (2πN/60)

This is the torque equation of a d.c. motor.

Example 1 : A 4 pole d.c. motor takes a 50 A armature current. The armature has lap connected
480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate the gross torque developed by the
armature of the motor.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4, Z = 480
Φ = 20 mWb = 20 x 10-3 Wb, Ia = 50 A
Now Ta = 0.159 x ΦIa . (PZ/A) = 0.159 x 20 x 10-3 x 50 x (4x480/4)
= 76.394 N-m
Types of Torque in the Motor
Basically the torque is developed in the armature and hence gross torque produced is
denoted as Ta.

Fig. 2 Type of torque

The mechanical power developed in the armature is transmitted to the load through the shaft
of the motor. It is impossible to transmit the entire power developed by the armature to the load.
This is because while transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss due the
friction, windage and the iron loss. The torque required to overcome the losses is called lost
torque, denoted as Tf. These losses are also called stray losses.
The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque
or shaft torque denoted as Tsh.

The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the armature torque, (Tsh < Ta).
The speed of the motor remains same all along the shaft say N r.p.m. Then the product of
shaft torque Tsh and the angular speed ω rad/sec is called power available at the shaft i.e. net
output of the motor. The maximum power a motor can deliver to the load safely is called output
rating of a motor. Generally it is expressed in H.P. It is called H.P. rating of a motor.

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No Load Condition of a Motor

On no load, the load requirement is absent. So T sh = 0. This does not mean that motor is at
hault. The motor can be rotate at a speed say r.p.m. on no load. The motor draws an armature
current of Ia0.

Where Eb0 is back e.m.f. on no load, proportional to speed N0.

Now armature torque Ta for a motor is,
Ta α ΦIa
As flux is present and armature current is present, hence T a0 i.e. armature torque exists on no
load.
Now Ta = Tsh + Ta
but on no load, Tsh = 0

So on no load, motor keeps on rotating at a speed of N0 r.p.m. drawing an armature current

of Ia0. This is just enough to produce a torque T a0 which satisfies the friction, windage and iron
losses of the motor. On no load, speed of the motor is large hence Eb0 is also large hence (V -
Eb0) is very small hence armature current Ia0is also small. So motor draws lees current on no
load and takes more and more current as motor load increases.
So on no load,
Torque developed = Torque required to overcome friction, windage, iron losses.

Where Eb0 = Back e.m.f. on no load.

and Ia0 = Armature current drawn on no load.
This component of stray losses i.e. is E b0 Ia0 practically assumed to be constant through the
load on the motor is changed from zero to the full capacity of the motor. So T f is practically
assumed constant for all load conditions.

Example 2 : A 4 pole, lap wound d.c. motor has 540 conductors. Its speed found to be 1000
r.p.m. when it is made to run light. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. It is connected to
i) Induced e.m.f. ii) Armature current iii) Stray losses iv) Lost torque
Solution : P = 4, A = P = 4
Running light means it is on no load.

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... N0 = 1000 r.p.m.

Z = 540 and Φ = 25 x 10-3 Wb
... = (ΦPN0 Z)/(60A) = (25 x 10-3 x 4 x 1000 x 540)/(60 x 4) = 225 V

i) Induced e.m.f., Eb0 = 225 V

ii) From voltage equation, V = Eb + Ia Ra

... V = Eb0 + Ia0 Ra
... 230 = 225 + Ia0 x 0.8
... Ia0 = 6.25 A

iii) On no load, power developed is fully the power required to overcome stray losses.
... Stray losses = Eb0 Ia0 = 225 x 6.25 = 1406.25 W
iv) Lost torque = (Eb0 Ia0)/ ωa0 = 1406.25/(2πN0 /60) = (1406.25 x 60)/(2x1000) = 13.428 N-m.

Types of D.C. Motors

Similar to the d.c. generators, the d.c. motors are classified depending upon the way of
connecting the field winding with the armature winding. The difference types of d.c. motors are ;
1. Shunt motor
2. Series motors
3. Compound motors
The compound motors are further classified as ;
1. Short shunt compound
2. Long shunt compound

D.C. Shunt Motor

In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. shunt motor

Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding.

Ra be the resistance of armature winding.

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The value of Ra is very small while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more
number of turns with less cross-sectional area.

Voltage and Current Relationship:

The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal to the supply voltage V.
The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current IL.
IL = Ia + Ish
Ish = V/Rsh
and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush
Vbrush is generally neglected.
Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it i.e.
Ish.

Note : As long as supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced
is constant. Hence d.c. shunt motor is called constant flux motor.

D.C. Series Motor

In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the
supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. series motor

Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding. The value of Rse is very small and it is
made of small number of turns having large cross-sectional area.
1.1 Voltage and Current Relationship
Let IL be the total current drawn from the supply.
So IL = Ise = Ia
and V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush
Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to Eb and
drop across armature winding.

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Note : In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So flux
produced is proportional to the armature current.

D.C. Compound Motor

The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part of the
field winding connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified as long shunt compound
and short shunt compound motor.
Long Shunt Compound Motor
In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature and the
series field winding as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Long shunt compound motor

Let Rse be the resistance of series field and R sh be the resistance of shunt field winding. The total
current drawn from supply is IL.
So IL = Ise + Ish
But Ise = Ia
.
.. IL = Ia+ Ish
And Ish = V/Rsh
And V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + Vbrush
But as Ise = Ia ,
... V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush

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Short Shunt Compound Motor

In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with this combination shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Short shunt compound motor

IL = Ise
The entire line current is passing through the series field winding.
and IL = Ia + Ish
Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage equation.
So V = Eb + Ise Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush
but Ise = IL
... V = Eb + IL Rse + Ia Ra + Vbrush
.
. . Drop across shunt field winding is,
= V - IL Rse = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Apart from these two, compound motor can be classified into two more types,
i) Cumulatively compound motors and ii) Differential compound motors.

Note : If the two field windings are wound in such a manner that the fluxes produced by the two
always help each other, the motor is called cumulatively compound. If the fluxes produced by
the two field windings are trying to cancel each other i.e. they are in opposite direction, the
motor is called differential compound.

A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short
shunt compound motor can be cumulative or differential type.

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Torque and Speed Equations:

Before analyzing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and speed
equations are applied to various types of motors.
... T α Φ Ia from torque equation.
This is because, 0.159(PZ)/A is a constant for a given motor.
Now Φ is the flux produced by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing
through the field winding.
Φ α Ifield
But for various types of motors, current through the field winding is different. Accordingly
torque equation must be modified.
For a d.c. shunt motor, Ish is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence Φ flux is
also constant.
... T α Ia for shunt motors
For a d.c. series motor, Ise is same as Ia. Hence flux Φ is proportional to the armature
current Ia.
... T α Ia α Ia2 for series motors.
Similarly as Eb = (ΦPNZ)(60A), we can write the speed equation as,
Eb α Φ N
.
.. N α Eb/Φ
But V = Eb + Ia Ra neglecting brush drop
.
.. Eb = V - Ia Ra
... Speed equation becomes,
N α (V-Ia Ra)/Φ
So for shunt motor as flux is constant,
.
.. N α V - Ia Ra
While for series motor, flux Φ is proportional to Ia.

These relations play an important role in understanding the various characteristics of

different types of motors.

Speed Regulation:
The speed regulation for a d.c. motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed
corresponding to no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

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D.C. Motor Characteristics:

The performance of a d.c. motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristics
i) Torque - Armature current characteristics (T Vs Ia ) :
The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is called a
torque-armature current characteristic. These are also called electrical characteristics.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia ) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current characteristic.
iii) Speed - Torque characteristics(N Vs T) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is called
speed-torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical characteristic.
The nature of these characteristics can easily be obtained by using speed and torque
equations derived in previous post. These characteristics play a very important role in selecting a
type of motor for a particular application.

Characteristics of D.C. Shunt Motor

i) Torque - Armature current characteristics
For a d.c. motor T α Φ Ia
For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also constant and hence flux is also
constant.
... Ta α Φ Ia
The equation represents a straight line, passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig. 1.
Torque increases linearly with armature current. It is seen earlier that armature current is decided
by the load. So as load increases, armature current increases, increasing the torque developed
linearly.

Fig. 1 T Vs Ia for shunt motor

Now if shaft torque is plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque is less
than the armature torque and the difference between the two is loss torque Tf as shown. On no
load Tsh = 0 but armature torque is present which is just enough to overcome stray losses shown

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as Ta0. The current required is Ia0 on no load to produce Ta0 and hence Tsh graph has an intercept
of Ia0 on the current axis.
To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature
current at start. This may damage the motor hence d.c. shunt motors can develop moderate
starting torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting torque requirement is
moderate.

ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics

From the speed equation we get,
N α (V - Ia Ra)/Φ
α V - Ia Ra as Φ is constant
So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop Ia Ra also increases.
Hence for constant supply voltage, V - Ia Ra decreases and hence speed reduces. But as Ra
is very small, for change in Ia from no load to full load, drop Ia Ra is very small and hence drop in
speed is also not significant from no load to full load.

Fig. 2 N Vs Ia for shunt motor

So the characteristics is slightly drooping as shown in the Fig. 2.
But for all practical purposes these type of motors are considered to be a constant speed motors.

iii) Speed - Torque characteristics

These characteristics can be derived from the above two characteristics. This graph is similar
to speed-armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to the armature current. This
curve shows that the speed almost remains constant through torque changes from no load to full
load conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 3.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 3 N Vs T for shunt motor

Characteristics of D.C. Series Motor

i) Torque - Armature current characteristics
In case of series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current. So
flux produced is proportional to the armature current.
... Φ α Ia
Hence Ta α Φ Ia α Ia2
Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current. This
relation is parabolic in nature as shown in the Fig. 1.

As load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases proportional to
the square of the armature current upto a certain limit.
As the entire Ia passes through the series field, there is a property of an electromagnet called
saturation, may occur. Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the
flux produced remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics take the place of
straight line as flux becomes constant, as shown. The difference between T a and Tsh is loss
torque Tf which is also shown in the Fig. 2.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

At start as Ta α I a 2 , these types of motors can produce high torque for small amount of
armature current hence the series motors are suitable for the applications which demand high
starting torque.

ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics

From the speed equation we get,
N α (Eb/Φ) ) αV - Ia Ra - Ia Rse)/ Ia as Φ α Ia in case of series motor
Now the values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of change in Ia on speed overrides
the effect of change in V - Ia Ra - Ia Rse on the speed.
Hence in the speed equation, Eb ≈ V and can be assumed constant. So speed equation reduced
to,
N α 1/Ia
So speed-armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the Fig. 2

iii) Speed - Torque characteristics

In case of series motors, T α Ia2 and N α 1/Ia
Hence we can write, N α 1/√T
Thus as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases. On no load, torque is
very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high value. Thus the nature of the speed-
torque characteristics is similar to the nature of the speed-armature current characteristics.
The speed-torque characteristics of a series motor is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 N Vs T for series motor

Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load ?

It is seen earlier that motor armature current is decided by the load. On light load or no load, the
armature current drawn by the motor is very small.
In case of a d.c. series motor, Φ α Ia and
on no load as Ia is small hence flux produced is also very small.
According to speed equation,
N α 1/Φ as Eb is almost constant.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

So on very light load or no load as flux is very small, the motor tries to run at dangerously
high speed which may damage the motor mechanically. This can be seen from the speed-
armature current and the speed-torque characteristics that on low armature current and low
torque condition motor shows a tendency to rotate with dangerously high speed.
This is the reason why series motor should never be started on light loads or no load
conditions. For this reason it is not selected for belt drives as breaking or slipping of belt causes
to throw the entire load off on the motor and made to run motor with no load which is dangerous.

Characteristics of D.C. Compound Motor

Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is cumulatively
compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the compound motor are the
combination of the shunt and series characteristic.
Cumulative compound motor is capable of developing large amount of torque at low speeds
just like series motor. However it is not having a disadvantages of series motor even at light or
no load. The shunt field winding produces the definite flux and series flux helps the shunt field
flux to increase the total flux level.
So cumulative compound motor can run at reasonable speed and will not run with
dangerously high speed like series motor, on light or no load condition.
In differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux decreases
as load increases, thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the load. This property
is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed. So
differential compound motor is generally not used in practice.
The various characteristics of both the types of compound motors cumulative and the
differential are shown in the Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c).

Fig. 1 characteristics of d.c. compound motor

The exact shape of these characteristics depends on the relative contribution of series and shunt
field windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant then the characteristics take the shape
of the shunt motor characteristics. While if the series field winding is more dominant then the
characteristics take the shape of the series characteristics.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Applications of D.C. Motors

Instead of just stating the applications, the behaviour of the various characteristics like speed,
starting torque etc., which makes the motor more suitable for the applications, is also stated in
the Table .1

Table 1

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motor :

1. Flux Control
As indicated by the speed equation, the speed is inversely proportional to the flux. The flux
is dependent on the current through the shunt field winding. Thus flux can be controlled by
adding a rheostat (variable resistance) in series with the shunt field winding, as shown in the Fig.

Fig. 1 Flux control of shunt motor

At the beginning the rheostat R is kept at minimum indicated as start in the Fig. 1. The
supply voltage is at its rated value. So current through shunt field winding is also at its rated
value. Hence the speed is also rated speed also called normal speed. Then the resistance R is
increased due to which shunt field current Ish decreases, decreasing the flux produced. As
N α (1/Φ), the speed of the motor increases beyond its rated value.
Thus by this method, the speed control above rated value is possible. This is shown in the
Fig. 2, by speed against field current curve. The curve shows the inverse relation between N and
Φ as its nature is rectangular hyperbola.

It is mentioned that the rated values of electrical parameters should not be exceeded but the
speed which is mechanical parameter can be increased upto twice its rated value.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Advantages of Flux Control Method

1. It provides relatively smooth and easy control.
2. Speed control above rated speed is possible.
3. As the field winding resistance is high, the field current is small. Hence power loss (R) in the
external resistance is very small, which makes the method more economical and efficient.
4. As the field current is small, the size of rheostat required is small.

Disadvantages of Flux Control Method

1. The speed control below normal rated speed is not possible as flux can be increased only upto
its rated value.
2. As flux reduces, speed increases. But high speed affects the commutation making motor
operation unstable. So there is limit to the maximum speed above normal, possible by this
method.

2. Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control

The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. As the supply
voltage is normally constant, the voltage across the armature can be controlled by adding a
variable resistance in series with the armature as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Rheostat control of shunt motor

The field winding is excited by the normal voltage hence I sh is rated and constant in this
method. Initially the rheostat position is minimum and rated voltage gets applied across the
armature. So speed is also rated. For a given load, armature current is fixed. So when extra
resistance is added in the armature circuit, I a remains same and there is voltage drop across the
resistance added (Ia R). Hence voltage across the armature decreases, decreasing the speed below
normal value. By varying this extra resistance, various speeds below rated value can be obtained.
So far a constant load torque, the speed is directly proportional to the voltage across the
armature. The relationship between speed and voltage across the armature is shown in the Fig. 2.

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 Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 N Vs voltage across armature

Potential Divider Control

The main disadvantages of the above method is, the speed up to zero is not possible as it
requires a large rheostat in series with the armature which is practically impossible. If speed
control from zero to the rated speed is required, by rheostatic method then voltage across the
armature can be varied by connecting rheostat in a potential divider arrangement as shown in the
Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Potential divider arrangement

When the variable rheostat position is at 'start' point shown, voltage across the armature is
zero and hence speed is zero. As rheostat is moved towards 'maximum' point shown, the voltage
across the armature increases, increasing the speed. At maximum point the voltage is maximum
i.e. rated hence maximum speed possible is rated speed. The relationship is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 N Vs V

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

When the voltage across the armature starts increasing, as long as motor does not overcome
inertial and frictional torque, the speed of the motor remains zero. The motor requires some
voltage to start hence the graph of voltage and the speed does not pass through the origin as
shown in the Fig.4.

Advantages of Rheostat Control

1. Easy and smooth speed control below normal is possible.
2. In potential divider arrangement, rheostat can be used as a starrer.

Disadvantages of Rheostat Control

1. As the entire armature current passes through the external resistance, there are tremendous
power losses.
2. As armature current is more than field current, rheostat required is of large size and capacity.
3. Speed above rated is not possible by this method.
4. Due to large power losses, the method is expensive, wasteful and less efficient.
5. The method needs expensive heat dissipation arrangements.

3. Applied Voltage Control

Multiple voltage control : In this technique the shunt field of the motor is permanently
connected to a fixed voltage supply, while the armature is supplied with various voltages by
means of suitable switch gear arrangements.
The Fig. 1 shows a control of motor by two different working voltages which can be applied
to it with the help of switch gear.

Fig. 1 Multiple voltage control

In large factories, various values of armature voltages and corresponding arrangement can be
used to obtain the speed control.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Advantages of Applied Voltage Control

1. Gives wide range of speed control.
2. Speed control in both directions can be achieved very easily.
3. Uniform acceleration can be obtained.

Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Control

1. Arrangement is expensive as provision of various auxiliary equipments is necessary.
2. Overall efficiency is low.

General steps to solve problems on speed control

1. Identify the method of speed control i.e. in which of the motor, the external resistance is to be
inserted.
2. Use the torque equation, T α Φ Ia to determine the new armature current according to the
condition of the torque given. Load condition indicates the condition of the torque.
3. Use the speed equation N α Eb/Φ to find the unknown back e.m.f. or field current.
4. From the term calculated above and using voltage current relationship of the motor, the value
of extra resistance to be added, can be determined. The above steps may vary little bit according
to the nature of the problem but are always the base of any speed control problem.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

DC Motor Starters:

1) Three Point Starter

The Fig. 1 shows this type of starter.
The starter is basically a variable resistance, divided into number of sections. The contact
points of these sections are called studs and brought out separately shown as OFF, 1, 2, ... upto
RUN. There are three main points of this starter :
1. 'L' Line terminal to be connected to positive of supply.
2. 'A' To be connected to the armature winding.
3. 'F' To be connected to the field winding.

Fig. 1 Three point starter

Point 'L' is further connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR). The second
end of 'OLR' is connected to a point where handle of the starter is provided. This handle is free to
move from its other side against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to the
OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud
'1', given to the another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC). The NVC is further connected
to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC
are the two protecting devices of the starter.
Operation : Initially the handle is in the OFF position. The d.c. supply to the motor is
switched on. Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

No. 1. At this point, field winding gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting
resistance, through NVC. While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature and
armature current which is high at start, gets limited. As the handle is moved further, it goes on
making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., cutting out the starting resistance gradually from the
armature circuit. Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire starting
resistance gets removed from the armature circuit and motor starts operating with normal speed.
The handle is moved manually, and the obvious question is how handle will remain in the 'RUN'
position, as long as motor is running ?
Let us see the action of NVC which will give the answer to this question along with some
other functions of NVC.
Function of No Volt Coil:
1. The supply to the field winding is derived through NVC. So when field current flows, it
magnetizes the NVC. When the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece connected to the
handle gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC. Design of NVC is such that it
holds the handle in 'RUN' position against the force of the spring as long as supply to the motor
is proper. Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.
2. Whenever there is supply failure or if field circuit is broken, the current through NVC gets
affected. It looses its magnetism and hence not in a position to keep the soft iron piece on the
handle, attracted. Under the spring force, handle comes back to OFF position, switching off the
motor. So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter handle always comes back
to OFF position whenever there is any supply problems. The entire starting resistance comes
back in series with the armature when attempt is made to start the motor everytime. This
prevents the damage of the motor caused due to accidental starting.
3. NVC performs the similar action under low voltage conditions and protects the motor from
such dangerous supply conditions as well.

Action of Overload Release:

The current through the motor is taken through the OLR, an electromagnet. Under overload
condition, high current is drawn by the motor from the supply which passes through OLR. Below
this magnet, there is an arm which is fixed at its fulcrum and normally resting in horizontal
position. Under overloading, high current through OLR produces enough force of attraction to
attract the arm upwards. Normally magnet is so designed that up to a full load value of current,
the force of attraction produced is just enough to balance the gravitational force of the arm and
hence not lifting it up. At the end of this arm, there is a triangular iron piece fitted. When the arm
is pulled upwards the triangular piece touches the two points which are connected to the two
ends of NVC. This shorts the NVC and voltage across NVC becomes zero due to which NVC
looses its magnetism. So under the spring force, handle comes back to the OFF position,
disconnecting the motor from the supply. Thus motor gets saved from the overload conditions.
In this starter, it can be observed that as handle is moved from different studs one by one, the
part of the starting resistance which gets removed from the armature circuit, gets added to the

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field circuit. As the value of starting resistance is very small as compared to the field winding
resistance, this hardly affects the field winding performance. But this addition of the resistance in
the field circuit can be avoided by providing a brass are or copper are connected just below the
stud, the end of which is connected to NVC, as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Three point starter with brass arc

The handle moves over this arc, supplying the field current directly bypassing the starting
resistance. When such an arc is provided, the connection used earlier to supply field winding, is
removed.
Disadvantage
In this starter, the NVC and the field winding are in series. So while controlling the speed of
the motor above rated, field current is reduced by adding an extra resistance in series with the
field winding. Due to this, the current through NVC also reduced. Due to this, magnetism
produced by NVC also reduces. This may release the handle from its RUN position switching off
the motor. To avoid the dependency of NVC and the field winding, four point starter is used, in
which NVC and the field winding are connected parallel.

2) Four PointStarter
The basic difference between three point and four point starter is the connection of NVC. IN
three point, NVC is in series with the field winding while in four point starter NVC is connected
independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F'
and 'A'.
Hence any change in the field current does not affect the performance of the NVC. Thus it is
ensured that NVC always produce a force which is enough to hold the handle in 'RUN' position,
against force of the spring, under all the operating conditions. Such a current is adjusted through

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

NVC with the help of fixed resistance R connected in series with the NVC using fourth point 'N'
as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Four point starter

Disadvantage
The only limitation of the four point starter is, it does not provide high speed protection to
the motor. If under running condition, field gets opened, the field current reduces to zero. But
there is some residual flux present and N α 1/Φ the motor tries to run with dangerously high
speed. This is called high speeding action of the motor. In three point starter as NVC is in series
with the field, under such field failure, NVC release handle to the OFF position. But in four point
starter NVC is connected directly across the supply and its current is maintained irrespective of
the current through the field winding. Hence it always maintains handle in the run position, as
long as supply is there. And thus it does not protect the motor from field failure conditions which
result into the high speeding of the motor.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Losses and Efficiency

Losses in a D.C. Machine
The various losses in a d.c. machine whether it is a motor or a generator are classified into three
groups as :
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron or core losses.
3. Mechanical losses.

Copper Losses
The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a winding. There
are basically two windings in a d.c. machine namely armature winding and field winding. The
copper losses are proportional to the square of the current flowing through these windings. Thus
the various copper losses can be given by,

where Ra = Armature winding resistance.

and Ia = Armature current.

where Rsh = Shunt field winding resistance.

and Ish = Shunt field current

where Rse = Series field winding resistance

and Ise = Series field current

In a compound d.c. machine, both shunt and series field copper losses are present. In addition to
the copper losses, there exists brush contact resistance drop. But this drop is usually included in
the armature copper loss.
There are few losses which vary with the load but their relationship with the load current can
not be identified in simple manner. Such losses are called stray load losses and are the part of
variable losses. These occur in the windings and the core. These include copper stray load loss
and iron stray load loss. These stray load losses are difficult to measure or mathematically
calculate hence practically taken as 1% of the output for the d.c.machines. Many times these
losses are neglected.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Iron or Core Losses

These losses are also called magnetic losses. These losses include hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss.
The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency and the maximum flux density in the air
gap and is given by,

η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient.

where V = Volume of core in m3.
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
This loss is basically due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core.
The eddy current loss exists due to eddy currents. When armature core rotates, it cuts the
magnetic flux and e.m.f. gets induced in the core. This induced e.m.f. sets up eddy currents
which cause the power loss. This loss is given by,

where K = Constant
t = Thickness of each lamination.
V = Volume of core.
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
The hysteresis loss is minimized by selecting the core material having low hysteresis
coefficient. While eddy current loss is minimized by by selecting the laminated construction for
the core. These losses are almost constant for the d.c. machines.

Mechanical Losss
These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required to overcome
mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. This loss is nothing but the friction and
windage loss. The mechanical losses are also constant for a d.c. machine.
The magnetic and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. For the shunt and
compound d.c. machines where field current is constant, field copper losses are also constant.
Thus stray losses along with constant field copper losses are called constant losses. While the
armature current is dependent on the load and thus armature copper losses are called variable
losses.
Thus for d.c. machine,
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The Fig. 1 shows the various types of losses taking place in a d.c. machine.

Fig. 1 Losses in a d.c. machine

Power Flow in D.C. Machines

The power flow and energy transformation diagrams at various stages, which takes place in
a d.c. machine are represented diagrammatically in Fig. 2(a) and (b).

Fig. 2

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Efficiency of a D.C. Machine

For a d.c. machine, its overall efficiency is given by,

Let Pout = total output of a machine

Pin = total input of a machine
Pcu = variable losses
Pi = constant losses
then Pin = Pout + Pcu + Pi

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

In case of a d.c. generator the output is given by,
Pout = VI
Pcu = variable losses = I2 Ra = I2 Ra
Ia = I .............................................. neglecting shunt field current

The efficiency is maximum, when the denominator is minimum. According to maxima-

minima theorem,

Thus for the maximum efficiency, the condition is,

Variable losses = Constant losses

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Current at Maximum Efficiency

From the condition of maximum efficiency, the current through the d.c. machine at the time
of maximum efficiency can be obtained.
For shunt machines : The Ish is constant and the loss VIsh is treated to be the part of constant
losses. The variable losses are Ia2 Ra.

At maximum efficiency,
Ia2 Ra = Pi = (Stray + shunt field losses)

This is the armature current at maximum efficiency. Neglecting Ish, Ia = IL is the line current
of the machine.

For series machines : The current through series field is same as armature current which is same
as line current. Hence the constant losses are only mechanical losses while the variable losses are
the copper losses in armature as well as series field winding due to the armature current.
At maximum efficiency,
2
Ia ( Ra + Rse) = Pi = Mechanical losses

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Module-2
Testing of D.C. Motors

The efficiency of a d.c. motor is given by,

The various losses taking place in a d.c. motor and efficiency can be calculated carrying out
testing of d.c. motors. There are different methods of testing d.c. motors.
These methods are broadly classified as ;
i) Direct method of testing.
ii) Indirect method of testing

Direct Method of Testing

In this method the d.c. motor which is to be tested is actually loaded and input and output are
measured. The efficiency is given by

Generally this method is employed to small motors. The motor is loaded by means of a
brake applied to the water cooled pulleys.
The main drawback of this method is that the accuracy in determining the mechanical power
output of the motor is limited. Alternately it is difficult to provide full load for the large capacity
motor.

Indirect Method of Testing

In these methods the motor is not loaded directly but the losses and efficiency at different
loads can be estimated. Out of the different methods available for testing of d.c. motors,
Swinburne's test and Hopkinson's test are commonly used in practice on shunt-motors. Since
series motors cannot be started without load, the no load tests cannot be performed on d.c. series
motor.

Brake Test
Another method of testing the d.c. motor is brake test method. This is a direct method of testing
the motor. In this method, the motor is put on the direct load by means of a belt and pulley
arrangement. Bu adjusting the tension of belt, the load is adjusted to give the various values of
currents. The load is finally adjusted to get full load current. The power developed gets wasted

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

against the friction between belt and shaft. Due to the braking action of belt the test is called
brake test.
The Fig. 1(a) shows the experimental setup for performing brake test on a d.c. shunt motor
while the Fig. 1(b) shows the belt and pulley arrangement mounted on the shaft of the motor.

Fig. 1 Brake test

The tension in the belt can be adjusted using the handle. The tension in kg can be obtained
from the spring balance readings.
Let R = Radius of pulley in meter
N = Speed in r.p.m.
W1 = Spring balance reading on tight side in kg
W2 = Spring balance reading on slack side in kg
So net pull on the belt due to friction at the pulley is the difference between the two spring
balance readings.

As radius R and speed N are known, the shaft torque developed can be obtained as,

Hence the output power can be obtained as,

Now let, V = Voltage applied in volts

I = Total line current drawn in amps.

Thus if the readings are taken on full load condition then the efficiency can be obtained as,

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Adjusting the load step by step till full load, number of readings can be obtained. The speed
can be measured by tachometer. Thus all the motor characteristics can be plotted.
Advantages
The advantages of brake test,
1. Actual efficiency of the motor under working conditions can be found out.
2. The method is simple and easy to perform.
3. Can be performed on any type of d.c. motor.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of brake test,
1. Due to friction, heat generated and hence there is large dissipation of energy.
2. Some type of cooling arrangement is necessary
3. Convenient only for small machines due to limitations regarding heat dissipation
arrangements.
4. The power developed gets wasted hence method is expensive.
5. The efficiency observed is on lower side.

Example :
In a brake test conducted on a d.c. shunt motor the full load readings are observed as,
Tension on tight side = 9.1 kg
Tension on slack side = 0.8 kg
Total current = 10 A
Supply voltage = 100 V
Speed = 1320 r.p.m.
The radius of the pulley is 7.5 cm.
Calculate its full load efficiency.

Solution :
W1 = 9.1 kg, W2 = 0.8 kg, I = 10 A, V = 110 V, R = 7.5 cm
Tsh = (W1 - W2) 9.81 x R = (9.1 - 0.8) x 9.81 x 0.075
= 6.1067
Pout = Tsh x ω = Tsh x (2πN/60)
= (6.1067 x 2π x 1320/ 60) = 844.133 W
Pin = VI = 110 x 10 = 110 W
%η = (/) x 100 = (844.133/1100 ) x 100
=76.74 %

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Swinburne's Test or No Load Test

This is indirect method of testing d.c. motors in which flux remains practically constant i.e.
specially in case of shunt and compound motors. Without actually loading the motor the losses
and hence efficiency at different loads can be found out.
The motor is run on no load at its rated voltage. At the starting some resistance is connected
in series with the armature which is cut when motor attains sufficient speed.
Now the speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of shunt field
rheostat as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Swinburnes's Test Experimental Set Up

The no load armature current Ia is measured by ammeter A1 whereas the shunt current is
measured by ammeter A2.
If V is the supply voltage then motor input at no load will be,

There will be Cu loss in the field winding which will be given as,

Let Ra be the resistance of armature,

Thus the stray losses which includes iron, friction and windage losses can be obtained as,
Stray lossses = Input at no load - Field copper losses - No load armature copper losses

In the field and armature windings there will be copper loss due to flow of current which will
increase the temperature of the field and armature winding when the motor is loaded. This
increase in temperature will affect their resistance.
Thus the new value of field resistance R'sh and that of armature R'a can be found by
considering that rise in temperature as about 40 oC.
If α1 = Resistance temperature coefficient of copper at room temperature

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

At room temperature the shunt field winding resistance will be,

Rsh = V/ Ish

Now shunt winding current, I'sh = V/R'sh

Now if we want to find the efficiency of the motor at say 1/4 th full load. It can be calculated
as follows,
Let IF.L. = Full load current of motor
WF = Field copper loss
W = Stray losses
Load current at 1/4 th full load = IF.L./4
.
. . Motor input at 1/4 th full load = V x ( IF.L./4) watts.
Armature current at 1/4 th full load, I'a = ( IF.L./4) - I'sh

This is the efficiency of motor when the load on motor is 1/4 th of full load which can be
found without loading the motor. The efficiencies at other loads can be calculated similarly.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Advantages
1. Since constant losses are known, the efficiency can be estimated at any load.
2. The method is convenient and economical as less power is required for testing even a large
motor i.e. only no load power is to be supplied.
3. The motor is not required to be loaded i.e. only test to be carried out is the no load test.

Disadvantages
1. In this method, the iron losses are assumed to be constant which is not the true case as they
change from no load to full load. Due to armature reaction at full load there will be distortion in
flux which will increase the iron loss.
2. The only test which is carried out is the no load test. Hence it is difficult to know whether
there will be satisfactory communication at full load.
3. We have assumed that there is rise in temperature of 40 oC at full load which can not be
checked actually as we are not actually loading the motor.
4. As it is a no load test it cannot be performed on a series motor.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Retardation Test or Running Down Test:

This method is generally employed to shunt generators and shunt motors. From this method we
can get stray losses. Thus if armature and shunt copper losses at any given load current are
known then efficiency of a machine can be easily estimated.
The connections required for conducting this test are shown in the Fig. 1.
The machine whose test is to be taken is run at a speed which is slightly above its normal
speed. The supply to the motor is cut off while the field is kept excited. The armature
consequently slows down and its kinetic energy is used in supplying the rotational or stray losses
which includes iron, friction and winding loss.
If I is the amount of inertia of the armature, ω is the angular velocity.
Kinetic energy of armature = 0.5 Iω2
... Rotational losses, W = Rate of change of kinetic energy

Fig. 1 Retardation test Experimental Set Up

Angular velocity, ω = (2πN)/60

Thus if we if to find the rotational losses, the moment of inertia I and dN/dt must be known.
These quantities can be found as follows ;-
Determination of dN/dt
The voltmeter V1 which is connected across the armature will read the back e.m.f. of the
motor. We know that back e.m.f. is proportional to speed so that voltmeter is calibrated to read
the speed directly.
When motor is cut off from the supply, the speed decrease in speed is noted with the help of
stop watch. A curve showing variation between time and speed which is obtained from voltmeter
which is suitably calibrated is shown in the Fig. 2.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2
At any point C corresponding to normal speed, a tangent AB is drawn. Then

The value obtained from above can be substituted in the expression for W which can give
the rotational looses.

Determination of moment of inertia (I)

Method (a) Using Flywheel
The armature supply is cut off and time required for definite change in speed is noted to
draw the corresponding curve as we have drawn in previous case. This curve is drawn
considering only armature of the machine. Now a flywheel with known moment of the inertia
say is I1 keyed onto the shaft and the same curve is drawn again. The slowing down time will be
extended as combined moment of inertia of the two is increased.
For any given speed (dN/dt 1) and (dN/dt2) are determined same as previous case. It can be
seen that the losses in both the cases are almost same as addition of flywheel will not make much
difference to the losses.
In the first case where flywheel is not there then,

Adding the flywheel to the motor armature in second case we get,

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Method (b) Without using Flywheel

In this method time is noted for the machine to slow down by say 5 % considering the
armature alone. The a retarding torque either mechanical or electrical is applied. Preferably
electrical retarding torque is applied and time required to slow down by 5% is noted again. The
method by which electrical torque can be provided is shown in the Fig. 1 in which the switch S
after disconnecting from the supply is thrown to terminals 1'2'. The machine then gets connected
to a non-inductive load resistance RL. The power drawn by this resistance will acts as a retarding
torque on the armature which will make it slow more quickly.
The additional loss in the resistance will be equal to product of ammeter reading and the
average reading of the voltmeter (for a fall of 5% of voltmeter reading, the time is noted.) The
ammeter reading is also changing so its average reading is taken. Thus the additional losses is
Ia2 (Ra + R). Let t1 be the time when armature is considered alone and t 2 be the time when
armature is connected across a load resistance, V be average voltage across R and Ia be the
average current and W' is additional retarding electrical torque supplied by motor.

If dN i.e. change in speed is same in two cases then

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Here dN/dt1 is rate of change in speed without extra load whereas dN/dt 2 is rate change in
speed with extra electrical load which provides retarding torque.

Example :
A retardation test is made on a separately excited d.c. machine as a motor. The induced voltage
falls from 240 V to 220 V in 25 seconds on opening the armature circuit and in 6 seconds on
suddenly changing the armature connection from supply to a load resistance which takes average
current of 10 A. Find the efficiency of the machine when running as a motor taking a current of
25 A on a supply of 250 V. The resistance of its armature is 0.3 Ω and that of its field winding is
200 Ω.
Solution :
Iav = 10 A
Average voltage across load = (240+220) / 2 = 230
Power absorbed, W' = Vav Iav = 230 x 10 = 2300 W
t1 = 25 sec
t2 = 6 sec

Stray losses = 726.31 W

Motor in input current, IL = 25 A
Shunt current, Ish = V/Rsh = 250/200 = 1.25A
Armature current, Ia = IL - Ish = 25-1.25 = 23.75 A
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (23.75)2 x 0.3 = 169.21 W
Shunt copper loss = Ish2 Rsh = (1.25)2 x 200 = 312.5 W
Total losses = 169.21 + 312.5 + 726.31 = 1208.02 W
Input to the motor = V .I = 250 x 25 = 6250 W
Output of motor = Input - Losses = 6250 - 1208.02 = 5041.98 W
%Efficiency of motor ηm = (Output/Input) x 100 = (5041.98/6250) x 100 = 80.67
ηm = 80.67 %

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Hopkinson's Test:
This test is called regenerative test or to back test which can be carried out on two identical d.c.
machines mechanically coupled to each other and simultaneously tested. Thus the full load test
can be carried out on two identical shunt machines without wasting their outputs. One of the
machines is made to act as a motor while the other as a generator. The mechanical output
obtained from the motor drives the generator whose electrical output supplies the greater part of
input to the motor. The motor is connected to the supply mains only to components for losses
since in absence of losses, the motor-generator set would have run without any external power
supply. But due to losses, the generator output is not sufficient to drive the motor. Thus motor
takes current from the supply to account for losses.
The Fig. 1 shows the connection diagram for Hopikinson's test. The two shunt machines are
connected in parallel. One of the machines is then started as a motor. Here the stator connections
are not shown for simplicity.

Fig. Hopkinson's test Experimental Set Up

The switch S is kept open. The other machine which is coupled to first will act as load on
first which is acting as motor. Thus second machine will act as a generator. The speed of motor
is adjusted to normal value with the help of the field rheostat. The voltmeter reading is observed.
The voltage of the generator is adjusted by its field rheostat so that voltmeter reading is zero.
This will indicate that the generator voltage is having same magnitude and polarity of that of
supply voltage. This will prevent heavy circulating current flowing in the local loop of armatures
on closing the switch. Now switch S is closed. The two machines can be put into any load by
adjusting their field rheostats. The generator current I2 can be adjusted to any value by increasing
the excitation of generator or by reducing the excitation of motor. The various reading shown by
different ammeters are noted for further calculations.
The input to the motor is nothing but the output of the generator and small power taken from
supply. The mechanical output given by motor after supplying losses will in turn drive the
generator.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Let V = Supply Voltage

I1 = Current taken from the supply
I2 = Current supplied by generator
I3 = Exciting current of generator
I4 = Exciting current of motor
Ra = Resistance of armature of each machine
η = Efficiency of both generator and motor.
Input to the motor = V (I1 + I2 )
Output of motor = η x input = V (I1 +I2 )
The output of motor will be given as input to the generator.
Input to generator = η V (I1 +I2 )
Output of generator = η x input = η .η V (I1 + I2 )
= η2 V (I1 + I2 ) .............................. (I)
The output of generator can also be given as,
Output of generator = V . I2 .......................................................... (II)
From equations (i) and (ii),
η2 V (I1 + I2 ) = I2

But the assumption of equal efficiencies of two machines is true in case of only large output
machines where difference in armature currents of two machines is not large. Also the difference
in excitation current required to circulate full load current in the armature will not affect the iron
losses. But in case of small machines the difference between armature and field currents is large.
So efficiencies cannot be assumed to be same. Here the stray losses are assumed to be equal
whereas armature and field copper losses are separately determined for estimating the
efficiencies separately.
Armature copper loss in generator = (I2 + I3 )2 Ra
Armature copper loss in motor = (I1 + I2 - I4 )2
Copper loss in field winding of motor = V I3
Copper loss in field winding of motor = V I4
But total losses in generator and motor are equal to the power supplied by the mains.
Power drawn from supply = V I1
The stray loss for both the machines = V I2 - {{I2 + I3 )2 Ra + (I1 + I2 - I4 )2 Ra + V I3 + V I4 }
= Ws (say)
Assuming that stray losses are equally divided between the two machines.
Stray loss for each machine = Ws /2

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The machine which is acting as a motor

Total losses = (I1 + I2 - I4 )2 Ra + V I4 + Ws /2
Input to motor = (I1 + I2 )

Efficiency of motor, ηm = Output/Input = (Input - Losses)/Input

The machine which is acting as a generator,

Total losses = (I2 + I3)2 Ra + V I3 + Ws /2
Output of generator = V I2
Efficiency of generator, ηg = Output/Input = Output/(Output + Losses)

Advantages
The various advantages of Hopkinson's test are,
1. The power required for conducting the test is small compared to full load powers of the two
machines.
2. Since the machines are operated at full load conditions, change in iron loss due to distortion in
flux at full load will be included in the calculations.
3. As the machines are tested under full load conditions, the temperature rise and quality of
communication of the two machines can be observed.
4. The test is economical as power required to conduct the test is very small which is just
sufficient to meet the losses.
5. There is no need for arranging any actual load. Similarly by changing the field currents of two
machines, the load can be easily changed and a load test over complete range of load can be
taken.
Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of Hopkinson's test are,
1. There is difficulty in availability of two identical machines.
2. The iron losses in the two machines cannot be separated. The iron losses are different in both
the machines because of different excitations.
3. The machines are not loaded equally in case of small machines which may lead to difficulty in
analysis.

This test is better suited in case of large machines.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Field Test:
This is one of the methods of testing the d.c. series motors. Unlike shunt motors, the series
motor cannot be tested by the methods which area available for shunt motors as it is impossible
to run the motor on no load. It may run at dangerously high speed on no load. In case of small
series motors brake test may be employed.
The series motors are usually tested in pairs. The field test is applied to two similar series
motors which are coupled mechanically. The connection diagram for the test is shown in the Fig.
1.

Fig. 1 Field test Experimental Set Up

As shown in the Fig. 1 one machine is made to run as a motor while the other as a generator
which is separately excited. The field of the two machines are connected in series so that both the
machines are equally excited. This will make iron losses same for the two machines. The two
machines are running at the same speed. The generator output is given to the variable resistance
R.
The resistance R is changed until the current taken by motor reaches full load value. This
will be indicated by ammeter A1. The other readings of different meters are then recorded.
Let V = Supply voltage
I1 = Current taken by motor
I2 = Load current
V2 = Terminal p.d. of generator
Ra, Rse = Armature and series field resistance of each machine
Power taken from supply = VI1
Output obtained from generator = V2 I2
Total losses in both the machines, WT = VI1 - V2 I2
Armature copper and field losses, WCU = ( Ra + 2 Rse ) I12 + I22 Ra
Total stray losses = WT - WCU

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Since the two machines are equally excited and are running at same speed the stray loses are
equally divided.

For Motor ;
Input to motor = V1 I1
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss
= I12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws
Output of motor = Input - Total losses = V1 I1 - [ I 12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws ]

For Generator :
Efficiency of generator is of little importance because it is running under conditions of
separate excitation. Still it can be found as follows.
Output of generator = V2 I2
Field Cu loss = I12 Rse
Armature Cu loss = I22 Ra
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss
= I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws
Input to generator = Output + Total losses = V2 I2 + [ I22 Ra + I 12 Rse + Ws ]

The important point to be noted is that this is not regenerative method though the two
machines are mechanically coupled because the generator output is not fed back to the motor as
in case of Hopkinson's test but it is wasted in load resistance.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Module-3
Three Phase Induction Motors
Review Portion Begins….

Three Phase Induction Motor:

Introduction
An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy.
The motors operating on a.c. supply are called a.c. motor. As a.c. supply is commonly available,
the a.c. motors are very popularly used in practice. The a.c. motors are classified as three phase
induction motors, single phase induction motor, universal motors, synchronous motors etc. The
three phase induction motors are widely used for various industrial application. The important
features of three phase induction motors are self starting, higher power factor, good speed
regulation and robust construction. This chapter explains the construction, working principle and
characteristics of three phase induction motors as well as universal motors. The working of three
phase induction motors is based on the principle of rotating magnetic field. Let us discuss, the
production of rotating magnetic field.

Rotating Magnetic field (R.M.F.)

The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but
whose axis is continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed. So if the arrangement is made
to rotate a permanent magnet, then the resulting field is a rotating magnetic field. But in this
method, it is necessary to rotate a magnet physically to produce rotating magnetic field.
But in three phase induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by supplying
currents to a set of stationary windings, with the help of three phase a.c. supply. The current
carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction of three phase
fluxes produced due to three phase supply, resultant flux has a constant magnitude and its axis
rotating in space, without physically rotating the windings. This type of field is nothing but
rotating magnetic field. Let us study how it happens.

Production of R.M.F.
A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part called
stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The three phase windings are
displaced from each other by 120o. The windings are supplied by a balanced three phase a.c.
supply. This is shown in the Fig. 1. The three phase windings are denoted as R-R' , Y-Y' and B-
B'.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1 Star or delta connected 3phase winding

The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displaced from each
other by 120o electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux which is sinusoidal.
So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by 120o. If the phase
sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations for the instantaneous values of
the three fluxes ΦR , ΦY and ΦB can be written as,

ΦR = Φm sin(ωt) = Φm sin θ ................................................. (1)

ΦY = sin (ωt - 120o) = Φm sin (θ - 120o) ........................... (2)
ΦB = Φm sin (ωt - 240o) = Φm sin (θ - 240o) ..................... (3)
As winding are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is Φ m. Due to
phase sequence R-Y-B, flux lags behind ΦR by 120o and ΦB lags ΦY by 120o. So ΦB ultimately
lags ΦR by 240o. The flux ΦR is taken as reference while writing the equations.

The Fig. 2(a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig.2(b) shows the
phasor diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux. Assumed
positive direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be represented along the direction
shown and whenever the flux is negative it must be represented along the opposite direction to
the assumed positive direction.
Let ΦR, ΦY and ΦB be the instantaneous values of the three fluxes. The resultant flux Φ T is
the phasor addition of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB.

Let us find ΦT at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 2(a) which represents the
values of θ as 0o, 60o, 120o and 180o respectively. The phasor addition can be performed by
obtaining the values of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB by substituting values of θ in the equation (1), (2) and (3).

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2

Case 1 : θ = 0o
Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
ΦR = Φm sin 0o = 0
ΦY = Φm sin(-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-240o) = + 0.866 Φm

Fig. 3(a) Vector diagram of θ = 0o

The phasor addition is shown in the Fig. 3(a). The positive values are shown in assumed
positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to the assumed positive
directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive directions shown in the Fig 3(b).
BD is drawn perpendicular from B on ΦT. It bisects ΦT.
... OD = DA = ΦT/2
In triangle ∟OBD = 30o
... cos 30o = OD/OB = (ΦT/2)/(0.866 Φm )
.
.. ΦT = 2 x 0.866 Φm x cos 30o
= 1.5 Φm
So magnitude of ΦT is 1.5 Φm and its position is vertically upwards at θ = 0o.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Case 2 θ = 60o
Equation (1),(2) and (3) give us,
ΦR = Φm sin 60o = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φm sin (-60o) = -0866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-180o) = 0
So ΦR is positive and ΦY is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions we get
phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(b).

Fig 3(b) Vector diagram of θ = 60o

Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on at D we get the same result
as,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 Φm it has rotated through 60oin space, in
clockwise direction, from its previous position.

Case 3 : θ = 120o
Equations (1),(2) and (3) give us,
ΦR = Φm sin 120o = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φm sin 0o = 0
ΦB = Φm sin (-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
So ΦR is positive and ΦB is negative. showing ΦR and ΦB in the appropriate directions, we get
the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig . 3(c).

Fig. 3(c) Vector diagram of θ = 120o

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

After doing the construction same as before i.e. drawing perpendicular from B on Φ T, it can
be provided again that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
But the position of ΦT is such that it has rotated further through 60o from its previous
position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at θ = 0o, it has rotated through 120o in
space, in clockwise direction.

Case 4 : θ = 180o
From equations (1),(2) and (3),
ΦR = Φm sin (180o) = 0
ΦY = Φm sin (60o) = +0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-60o)
= -0.866 Φm

Fig. 3(d) Vector diagram of θ = 180o

So ΦR = 0 , ΦY is positive and ΦB is negative. Drawing ΦY and ΦB in the appropriate
directions, we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(d).
From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
Thus the magnitude of ΦT once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has further
rotated through 60o from its previous position in clockwise direction.
So for an electrical half cycle of 180o, the resultant ΦT has also rotated through . This is
applicable for the windings from the above discussion we have following conclusions :

a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by , has a constant
amplitude of 1.5 Φm where Φm is maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any phase.
b) The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Key point : This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by balanced
three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic field. Though
nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having constant amplitude.

Speed of R.M.F.
There exists a fixed relation between frequency f of a.c. supply to the windings, the number
of poles P for which winding is wound and speed N r.p.m. of rotating magnetic field. For a
standard frequency whatever speed of R.M.F. results is called synchronous speed, in case of
induction motors. It is denoted as .

= (120 f)/P = speed of R.M.F.

Where f = Supply frequency in Hz
p = Number of poles for which winding is wound
This is the speed which R.M.F rotates in space. Let us see how to change direction of
rotation of R.M.F.

Direction of R.M.F.

Fig. 4

The direction of the R.M.F. is always from the axis of the leading phase of the three phase
winding towards the lagging phase of the winding. In a phase sequence of R-Y-B, phase R leads
Y by 120o and Y leads B by120o. So R.M.F. rotates from axis of R to axis of Y and then to axis
of B and so on. So its direction is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 4(a). This direction can be
reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the three phase windings while connecting to the

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

three phase supply. The terminals Y and B are shown interchanged in the Fig. 4(b). In such case
the direction of R.M.F. will be anticlockwise.
As Y and B of windings are connected to B and Y from winding point of view the phase
sequence becomes R-Y-B. Thus R.M.F. axis follows the direction from R to B to Y which is
anticlockwise.

Key point : Thus by interchanging any two terminals of three phase winding while connecting it
to three phase a.c. supply, direction of rotation of R.M.F. gets reversed.

Working Principle of 3-Phase Induction Motor:

Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic
field of constant magnitude is produced as discussed earlier. The speed of this rotation magnetic
field is synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.

Where f = supply frequency.

p = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound.

This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of
rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1(a).

Fig. 1

Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious that
there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the R.M.F. gets cut
by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductors cuts the flux,
e.m.f. gets induced in it. So e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f.
This is electro-magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

current through rotor called rotor current as shown in the Fig.1(b). Let direction of this current is
going into the paper denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 1(b).
Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor
flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise as shown in
the Fig. 1(c). This direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are
two fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as shown in the
Fig. 1(d). On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As
flux lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor
towards low flux density area. So rotor conductor experiences a force from left to right in this
case, as shown in the Fig. 1(d), due to interaction of the two fluxes.
As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and
starts rotating. So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring action. As seen
from the Fig. 1(d), the direction of force experienced is same as that of rotating magnetic field.
Hence rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field.

Fig 1.d

Alternatively this can be explained as :

According to Lenz's law the direction of induced current in the rotor is so as to oppose the cause
producing it. The cause of rotor current is the induced e.m.f. which is induced because of relative
motion present between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Hence to oppose
the relative motion i.e. to reduce the relative speed, the rotor experiences a torque in the same
direction as that of R.M.F. and tries to catch up the speed of the rotating magnetic field.
So, Ns = Speed of rotating magnetic field in r.p.m.
N = Speed of rotor i.e. motor in r.p.m.
Ns - N = Relative speed between the two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductors.
Thus rotor always rotates in same direction as that of R.M.F.

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 Electric Motors (18EE44)

Can N = Ns ?
When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch the speed of rotating magnetic field.
If it catches the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the relative motion between rotor and
the rotating magnetic field will vanish ( Ns - N = 0). In fact the relative motion is the main cause
for the induced e.m.f. in the rotor. So induced e.m.f. will vanish and hence there cannot be rotor
current and the rotor flux which is essential to produce the torque on the rotor. Eventually motor
will stop. But immediately there will exist a relative motion between rotor and rotating magnetic
field and it will start. But due to inertia of rotor, this does not happen in practice and motor
continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic
field in the steady state. The induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed. The speed at
which it rotates is hence called sub synchronous speed and motor sometimes called synchronous
motor.s
... N < Ns
So it can be said that rotor slips behind the rotating magnetic field produced by stator. The
difference between the two is called slip speed of the motor.
Ns - N = Slip speed of the motor in r.p.m.
This speed decides the magnitude of the induction e.m.f. and the rotor current, which in turn
decides the torque produced. The torque produced is as per the requirements of overcoming the
friction and iron losses of the motor along with the torque demanded by the load on the rotor.

Construction of Three Phase Induction motor:

Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely

1. The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator.
2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor. Hence rotor
develops a driving torque and rotates.

Stator
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5
mm thick. The stampings are slotted in its periphery to carry the stator winding. The stampings
are insulated from each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses to a minimum
value. The number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The built up core
is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The choice of material for the stampings is
generally silicon steel, which minimizes the hysteresis loss. The slots in the periphery of the
stator core carries a three phase winding, connected either in star or delta. This three phase
winding is called stator winding. It is wound for definite number of poles. This winding when
excited by a three phase supply produces a magnetic rotating field as discussed earlier. The
choice of number of poles depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field required. The
radial ducts are provided for the cooling purpose. In some cases, all the six terminals of three

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 Electric Motors (18EE44)

phase stator winding are brought out which gives flexibility to the user to connect them either in
star or delta. The Fig. 1 shows a stator lamination.

Fig. 1 Stator lamination

Rotor
The rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotor core is also laminated in construction and uses
cast iron. It is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or winding is placed
in the rotor slots. The two typed of rotor constructions which are used for induction motors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor and
2. Slip ring wound rotor

Squirrel Cage Rotor

The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of uninsulated copper
or aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the slots. These bars are
permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting copper ring called end ring. The
bars are usually brazed to the end rings to provide good mechanical strength. The entire structure
looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical circuit. So the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor.
The construction is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Squirrel cage rotor

As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor
resistance is very very small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor itself is

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

 Electric Motors (18EE44)

short circuited, no external resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance. Hence no
external resistance can be introduced in the rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush assembly is not
required for this rotor. Hence the construction of this rotor is very simple.
Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air through
the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap between stator and
rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.
In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but are skewed as
shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Skewing in rotor construction

The advantages of skewing are,

1. A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes the motor
operation quite.
2. It makes the rotor operation smooth.
3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of magnetic locking
gets reduced due to skewing.
4. It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.

Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor

In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor carries a
three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number of poles as that
of stator. The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain the rotor winding.
The three ends of three phase winding, available after connecting the winding in star or delta, are
permanently connected to the slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the same shaft. We have
seen that slip rings are used to connect external stationary circuit to the internal rotating circuit.
So in this type of rotor, the external resistances can be added with the help of brushes and slip
ring arrangement, in series with each phase of the rotor winding. This arrangement is shown in
the Fig. 1.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1 Slip rings or wound rotor

Key point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase can be controlled. This helps us to
control some of the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc.

In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal
collar which gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same time
brushes are also lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due to
friction. The possibility of addition of an external resistance in series with the rotor, with the help
of slip sings is the main feature of this type of rotor.

Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly:

Whenever there is a need of connecting the rotating member of the machine to the stationary
external circuit, then slip rings and brush assembly is used.
Consider a three phase rotating star connected winding as shown in the Fig. 1. It is required
to connect external three stationary star connected resistances to this windings. The winding
must keep on rotating and external resistance must remain stationary and still there should be
contact between the two. This is possible by slip rings and brushes.

Fig. 1 Concept of slip rings and brush

The three rings made up of conducting material called slip rings are mounted on the same
shaft with which winding is rotating. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip
ring, permanently. Thus three ends R-Y-B of winding are available at the three rotating slip
rings. The three brushes are then used. Each brush is resting on the corresponding slip ring,
making contact with the slip ring but the brushes are stationary. So rotating three ends R-Y-B are
now available at the brushes which are stationary as shown in the Fig. 1. Now stationary external
circuit can be connected to the brushes which are nothing but the three ends of the winding.
Thus the external stationary circuit can be connected to the rotating internal part of the
machine with the help of slip rings and brush assembly. Not only the external circuit can be
connected but the voltage also can be injected to the rotating winding, by connecting stationary
supply to the brushes externally.

Key point : Such slip rings and brush assembly plays an important role in the working of slip
ring induction motor.

Review Portion Ends….

Note: (No Question shall be set from the review potion)
Actual Syllabus Begins….

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Slip of Induction Motor:

We have seen that rotor rotates in the same direction as that of R.M.F. but in steady state attains
a speed less than the synchronous speed. The difference between the two speeds i.e. synchronous
speed of R.M.F. ( Ns ) and rotor speed (N) is called slip speed. This slip speed is generally
expressed as the percentage of the synchronous speed.
So slip of the induction motor is defined as the difference between the synchronous speed (Ns)
and actual speed of rotor i.e. motor (N) expressed as a friction of the synchronous speed(Ns).
This is also called absolute slip or fractional slip and is denoted as 's'.
Thus

The percentage slip is expressed as,

In terms of slip, the actual speed of motor (N) can be expressed as,

At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.

This is maximum value of slip s possible for induction motor which occurs at start. While s = 0
given us N = Ns which is not possible for an induction motor. So slip of induction motor cannot
be zero under any circumstances.
Practically motor operates in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05 i.e. 1% to 5%. The slip
corresponding to full load speed of the motor is called full load slip.

Example 1 : A 4 pole, 3 phase induction motor is supplied from Hz supply. Determine its
synchronous speed. On full load, its speed is observed to be 1410 r.p.m. calculate its full load
slip.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz , N = 1410 r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
Full load absolute slip is given by,

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

s = ( Ns - N)/ V2 = (1500-1410 )/ 1500 = 0.06

.
.. %s = 0.06 x 100 = 6 %

Example 2 : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has a full load slip of 4 %.
Calculate full load speed of the motor.
Solution : Given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, % sfl = 4%
sfl = Full load absolute slip = 0.04
Ns = 120f / P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
sfl = (Ns - Nfl ) / Ns = where = full load speed of motor
.
.. 0.04 = (1500 - Nfl )/ 1500
.
.. Nfl = 1440 r.p.m.

Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters

In case of a transformer, frequency of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary is same as the voltage
applied to primary. Now in case of induction motor at start N = 0 and slip s = 1. Under this
condition as long as s = 1, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is same as the voltage applied
to the stator. But as motor gathers speed, induction motor has some slip corresponding to speed
N. In such case, the frequency of induced e.m.f. in rotor is no longer same as that of stator
voltage. Slip affects the frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. Due to this some other rotor
parameters also get affected. Let us study the effect of slip on the following rotor parameters.
1. Rotor frequency 2. Magnitude of rotor induced e.m.f. 3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor and 5. Rotor current

1. Effect on rotor frequency

In case of induction motor, the speed of rotating magnetic field is,
Ns = (120 f )/P ......................................................... (1)
Where f = Frequency of supply in Hz
At start when N = 0, s = 1 and stationary rotor has maximum relative motion with respect to
R.M.F. Hence maximum e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor at start. The frequency of this induced
e.m.f. at start is same as that of supply frequency.
As motor actually rotates with speed N, the relative speed of rotor with respect R.M.F.
decreases and becomes equal to slip speed of N s - N. The induced e.m.f. in rotor depends on rate
of cutting flux i.e. relative speed Ns - N. Hence in running condition magnitude of induced e.m.f.
decreases so as to its frequency. The rotor is wound for same number of poles as that of stator
i.e. P. If fr is the frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition at slip speed N s - N then
there exists a fixed relation between (Ns - N), fr and P similar to equation (1). So we can write for
rotor in running condition,
(Ns - N) = (120 fr)/P , rotor poles = stator poles = P .......................... (2)

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Dividing (2) by (1) we get,

(Ns - N)/Ns = (120 fr / P)/(120 f / P) but (Ns - N)/Ns = slip s
s = fr/f
fr = s f
Thus frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition (fr) is slip times the supply
frequency (f).
At start we have s = 1 hence rotor frequency is same as supply frequency. As slip of the
induction motor is in the range 0.01 to 0.05, rotor frequency is very small in the running
condition.

Example : A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at a speed of 1470 r.p.m. speed. Find
the frequency of the induced e.m.f in the rotor under this condition.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, N = 1470 r.p.m.
Ns = (120 f )/ P = (120 x 50)/4 = 1500 r.p.m.
s = (Ns - N)/Ns = (1500-1470)/1500 = 0.02
fr = s f = 0.02 x 50 = 1 Hz
It can be seen that in running condition, frequency of rotor induced e.m.f. is very small.

2. Effect of Slip on Magnitude of Rotor Induced E.M.F

We have seen that when rotor is standstill, s = 1, relative speed is maximum and maximum
e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. Let this e.m.f. be,
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill condition
As rotor gains speed, the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field decreases
and hence induced e.m.f. in rotor also decreases as it is proportional to the relative speed N s - N.
Let this e.m.f. be,
E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in running condition
Now E2r α Ns while E2r α Ns - N
Dividing the two proportionality equations,
E2r/E2= ( Ns - N)/Ns but (Ns - N)/N = slip s
E2r/E2 = s
E2r = s E2
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f in the rotor also reduces by slip times the magnitude of
induced e.m.f. at standstill condition.

3. Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance

The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance. In case of squirrel cage rotor,
the rotor resistance is very very small and generally neglected but slip ring rotor has its own
resistance which can be controlled by adding external resistance through slip rings. In general let,
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase on standstill

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

X2 = Rotor reactance per phase on standstill

Now at standstill, fr = f hence if L2 is the inductance of rotor per phase,
X2 = 2πfr L2 = 2πf L2 Ω/ph
While R2 = Rotor resistance in Ω/ph
Now in running condition, fr = s f hence,
X2r = 2πfr L2 = 2πfs L2 = s .(2πf L2)
X2r = s X2
where X2r = Rotor reactance in running condition
Thus resistance as independent of frequency remains same at standstill and in running
condition. While the rotor reactance decreases by slip times the rotor reactance at standstill.
Hence we can write rotor impedance per phase as :
Z2 = Rotor impedance on standstill (N = 0) condition
= R2 + j X2 Ω/ph
Z2 = √( R22+ X2)2) Ω/ph .................. magnitude
While Z2r = Rotor impedance in running condition
= R2 + j X2r = R2 + j (s X2) Ω/ph
Z2r = √(R22+ (s X2)2) Ω/ph ............ magnitude

4. Effect on Rotor Power Factor

From rotor impedance, we can write the expression for the power factor of rotor at standstill
and also in running condition.
The impedance triangle on standstill condition is shown in the Fig1. From it we can write,
cos Φ2 = Rotor power factor on standstill
= R2/Z2 =R2/√(R22+ X22)
The impedance in running condition becomes Z2r and the corresponding impedance triangle
is shown in the Fig.2. From Fig. 2 we can write,
cos Φ2r = Rotor power factor in running condition
= R2/Z2r = R2/√(R22+ (s X2)2)
Key point : As rotor winding is inductive, the rotor p.f. is always lagging in nature.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

5. Effect on Rotor Current

Let I2 = Rotor current per phase on standstill condition
The magnitude of I2 depends on magnitude of E2 and impedance Z2 per phase.
I2 = (E2 per phase)/(Z2 per phase) A
Substituting expression of Z2 we get,
I2 = E2 /√(R 22+ X22) A
The equivalent rotor circuit on standstill is shown in the Fig.3. The Φ 2 is the angle between
E2 and I2 which determines rotor p.f. on standstill.

Fig. 3
In the running condition, Z2 changes to Z2r while the induced e.m.f. changes to E2r. Hence the
magnitude of current in the running condition is also different than on standstill. The equivalent
circuit on running condition is shown in the Fig. 4.
I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition
The value of slip depends on speed which inturn depends on load on motor hence X 2r is
shown variable in the equivalent circuit. From the equivalent we can write,
I2r = E2r/Z2r = (s E2)/√(R 22+ (s X2)2)
Φ2r is the angle between E2r and I2r which decides p.f. in running condition.

Fig. 4
Key point : Putting s = 1 in the expression obtained in running condition, the values at standstill
can be obtained.

Induction Motor as a Transformer

We know that, transformer is a device in which two windings are magnetically coupled and
when one winding is excited by a.c. supply of certain frequency, the e.m.f. gets induced in the
second winding having same frequency as that of supply given to the first winding. The winding
to which supply is given is called primary winding while winding in which e.m.f. gets induced is
called secondary winding. The induction motor can be regarded as the transformer.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

The difference is that the normal transformer is an alternating flux transformer while
induction motor is rotating flux transformer. The normal transformer has no air gap as against
this an induction motor has distinct air gap between its stator and rotor.
In an alternating flux transformer the frequency of induced e.m.f. and current in primary and
secondary is always same. However in the induction motor frequency of e.m.f. and current on
the stator side remains same but frequency of rotor e.m.f. and current depends on the slip and slip
depends on load on the motor. So we have a variable frequency on the rotor side. But it is
important to remember that at start when N = 0 the value of slip is unity (s = 1), then frequency
of supply to the stator and of induced e.m.f. in the rotor is same. The effect of slip on the rotor
parameters is already discussed in the previous section.
And last difference is that in case of the alternating flux transformer the entire energy
present in the secondary circuit, is in the electrical form. As against this, in an induction motor
part of its energy in the rotor circuit is in electrical form and the remaining part is converted into
mechanical form.

Fig. 1 Induction motor as a transformer

In general, an induction motor can be treated as a generalized transformer as shown in the

Fig. 1. In this, the slip ring induction motor with star connected stator and rotor is shown.
So if E1 = Stator e.m.f. per phase in volts.
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase in volts at start when motor is at standstill.
Then according to general transformer there exists a fixed relation between E1and E2 called
transformer ratio.
... At start when N =0 , s =1
and we get,

Key Point : So if stator supply voltage is known and ratio of stator to rotor turns per phase is
known then the rotor induced e.m.f. on standstill can be obtained.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Torque Equation
The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factors :
1. The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to produce
induced e.m.f. in rotor.
2. The magnitude of rotor current in running condition.
3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition.
Mathematically the relationship cab be expressed as,
T α Φ I2r cos Φ2r ...................................................................................(1)
where Φ = Flux responsible to produce induced e.m.f.
I2r = Rotor running condition
cos Φ2r = Running p.f. of motor
The flux Φ produced by stator is proportional to i.e. stator voltage.
.
.. Φ α E1.................................................................................................. (2)
while E1 and E2 are related to each other through ratio of stator turns to rotor turns i.e. k.
.
.. E2/E1 = K................................................................... (3)
Using (3) in (2) we can write,
Thus in equation (1), Φ can be replaced by E2.
While I2r = E2r /Z2r = (s E2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2).............................. (5)
and cos Φ2r = R2/Z2r = R2/√(R 22 +(s X2)2) ...........................(6)
Using (4), (5), (6) in equation (1),

... T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)........................................ (7)

where k = Constant of proportionality
The constant k is provided to be 3/2 for three phase induction motor.
.
.. k =3/(2 π ns) ................................................................. (8)

Key Point : ns = synchronous speed in r.p.s. = Ns/60

Using (8) in (7) we get the torque equation as,

So torque developed at any load condition can be obtained if slip at that load is known and
all standstill rotor parameters are known.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Starting Torque
Starting torque is nothing but the torque produced by an induction motor as start. At start,
N= 0 and slip s = 1. So putting s = 1 in the torque equation we can write expression for the
starting torque Tst as,

Key Point : From the equation (10), it is clear that by changing the starting torque can be
controlled.

The change in R2 at start is possible in case of slip ring induction motor only. This is the
principle used in case of slip induction motor to control the starting torque Tst.

Example 1 : A 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has star connected stator winding.
The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 Ω and 1 Ω respectively. The full load speed is 1440
r.p.m. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor.
Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2 :1.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.1 Ω, X2 = 1 Ω, N = 1440 r.p.m.
Stator turns/Rotor turns = 2/1
... K = E2 /E1 = Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 = 0.5
Ns=120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
E1line = 400 V ................................................... Stator line voltage given
.
.. E1ph = E1line /√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V
But E2ph /E1ph = 0.5 = K
.
.. E2ph = 0.5 x 230.94 = 115.47 V
Full load slip, s = (Ns-N)/Ns = (1500-1400)/1500 = 0.04
ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
= Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.

= 87.81 N-m

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Condition of Maximum Torque:

From the torque equation, it is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is running. The
supply voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed ratio between
E1 and E2. Hence E2 is also constant. Similarly R2, X2 and ns are constants for the induction
motor.
Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque, remember that the only parameter
which controls the torque is slip s.
Mathematically for the maximum torque we can write,
dT/ds = 0
where T = (k s E 2 R )/(R 2 +(s X )2)
2 2 2 2
While carrying out differential remember that E 2, R2, X2 and k are constants. The only
variable is slip s. As load on motor changes, its speed changes and hence slip changes. This slip
decides the torque produced corresponding to the load demand.
T = (k s E22 R2)/(R22 + s2 X 22) ................... Writing (s X2)2 = s2 X22
As both numerator and denominator contains s terms, differential T with respect to s using
the rule of differentiation for u/v.

... k s E22 R 2(2s X 22) - (R 2 2+ s2 X 2)(k 2

2 E R2 ) =2 0
... 2 s2 k X 22 E 22 R -2 R 2 k2 E 2 R2 - k2 s2 X 2 E 2 2R = 20 2
... k s2 X 22 E 22R - 2R 2 k2 X 2 R2 = 02
.... s22 X2 2 2- R2 22 = 0 Taking k E 22 R 2common.
.. s = R /X
2 2
.
.. s = R2/X2 Neglecting negative slip
This is the slip at which the torque is maximum and is denoted as sm.
... sm= R2/X2
It is the ratio of standstill per values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when the torque
produced by the induction motor is at its maximum.

Magnitude of Maximum Torque

This can be obtained by substituting sm = R2/X2 in the torque equation. It is denoted by Tm.
Tm = (k sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sm X2)2)

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

From the expression of Tm, it can be observed that

1. It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance.
2. It is directly proportional to the square of the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill.
3. The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on the rotor
resistance R2. But the slip at which it occurs i.e. speed at which it occurs depends on the value of
rotor resistance R2.

Example 1 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected induction motor has a rotor
resistance and reactance per phase equal to 0.01 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. Determine i) Starting
torque ii) slip at which maximum torque will occur iii) speed at which maximum torque will
occur iv) maximum torque v) full load torque if full load slip is 4 %. Assume ratio of stator to
rotor turns as 4.
Solution : The given values are,
P = 4, f = 50 Hz, stator turns/ rotor turns = 4, R2 = 0.01 Ω, X2 = 0.1 Ω
E1line = stator line voltage = 400 V
E1ph = E1line/√3 = 400/√3 = 230.94 V............................ star connection
K = E2ph/E1ph = Rotor turns/ Stator turns = 1/4
.
.. E2 = (1/4) x E1ph = 230.94/4 = 57.735 V
Ns = 120f/P = 120x50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m.
i) At start, s =1
... Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 +( X2)2) where k = 3/(2 π ns)
ns = Ns/60 = 1500/60 = 25 r.p.s.
... k = 3/(2π x 25) = 0.01909
.
.. Tst = ( 0.01909 x 57.7352 x 0.01 )/( 0.012 + 0.12 ) = 63.031 N-m

ii) Slip at which maximum torque occurs is,

sm = R2/X2 = 0.01/0.1 = 0.1
%sm = 0.1 x 100 = 10%

iii) Speed at which maximum torque occurs is speed corresponding to,

N = Ns (1 - sm ) = 1500 (1 - 0.1) = 1350 r.p.m.

iv) The maximum torque is,

Tm = (k E22)/(2 X2) = (0.01909 x 57.7352)/(2 x 0.1) = 318.16 N-m

v) Full load slip, sf = 0.04 as % sf = 4 %

... Tf.l. = (k sf E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2) = (0.01909 x 0.04 x 57.7352 x 0.01)/( 0.012 + (0.04 x 0.1)2)
= 219.52 N-m

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Torque-Slip Characteristics
As the induction motor is located from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip
increases. Due to the increased load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load demand.
The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier. The behaviour of motor can be easily
judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting torque produced against slip of induction
motor. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s = 0 (at
synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction motor. It is very
interesting to study the nature of torque-slip characteristics.
We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E 2 is also constant. So we can write torque
equations as,

Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s = 0 to s = 1)
into two parts and analyze them independently.

i) Low slip region :

In low slip region, 's' is very very small. Due to this, the term (s X 2)2 is so small as compared
to R22 that it can be neglected.

Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed
decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies the load demand.
Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = Ns, motor stops if it tries to
achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low slip values.

ii) High slip region :

In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be assumed that the
term R22 is very very small as compared to (s X2)2. Hence neglecting from the denominator, we
get

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its nature is like
rectangular hyperbola.
Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decreases,
slip increases. In high slip region as T α1/s, torque decreases as slip increases.
But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases, due to extra
loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque decreases as
T α1/s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed
further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to
rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called unstable region of
operation.
So torque - slip characteristics has two parts,
1. Straight line called stable region of operation
2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.

Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque - slip characteristics represents
stable operation ?
In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly. Every
motor has its own limit to produce a torque. The maximum torque, the motor can produces as
load increases is Tm which occurs at s = sm. So linear behaviour continues till s = sm.
If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high
slip region. Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a load. Hence
i.e. maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown torque or pull out
torque. So range s = 0 to s = sm is called low slip region, known as stable region of operation.
Motor always operates at a point in this region. And range s = sm to s = 1 is called high slip
region which is rectangular hyperbola, called unstable region of operation. Motor can not
continue to rotate at any point in this region.
At s = 1, N = 0 i.e. start, motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as T st.
The entire torque - slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Torque speed characteristics

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Full load torque

When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases and
slip increases. The increases torque demand is satisfied by drawing motor current from the
supply.
The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such load,
the current drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor. When current
increases, due to heat produced the temperature rises. The safe limit of current is that which
when drawn for continuous operation of motor, produces a temperature rise well within the
limits. Such a full load point is shown on the torque-slip characteristics torque as TF.L.
The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till
maximum torque condition. But due to high current and hence high temperature rise there is
possibility of damage of winding insulation, if motor is operated for longer time duration in this
region i.e. from point C to B. But motor can be used to drive loads more than full load,
producing torque upto maximum torque for short duration of time. Generally full load torque is
less than the maximum torque.
So region OC upto full load condition allows motor operation continuously and safely from
the temperature point pf view. While region CB is possible to achieve in practice but only for
short duration of time and not for continuous operation of motor. This is the difference between
full load torque and the maximum or breakdown torque. The breakdown torque is also called
stalling torque.

Generating and Braking Region:

When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 ≤s ≤1, the machine runs as a motor
which is the normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of rotating field which is
developed by stator currents. In this region it takes electrical power from supply lines and
supplies mechanical power output. The rotor speed and corresponding torque are in same
direction.
When the slip is greater than 1, the machine works in the braking mode. The motor is rotated
in opposite direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator terminals are
interchanged which changes the phase sequence which in turn reverses the direction of rotation
of magnetic field. The motor comes to quick stop under the influence of counter torque which
produces braking action. This method by which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging.
Only care is taken that the stator must be disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor to
rotate in other direction
To run the induction machine as a generator, its slip must be less than zero i.e. negative. The
negative slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed above the synchronous speed. When
running as a generator it takes mechanical energy and supplies electrical energy from the stator.
Thus the negative slip, generation action takes place and nature of torque - slip characteristics
reverses in this generating region.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The Fig.2 shows the complete torque - slip characteristics showing motoring, generating and
the braking region.

Fig. 2 Regions of torque - slip characteristics

Torque Ratios
The performance of the motor is sometimes expressed in terms of comparison of various torques
such as full load torque, starting torque and maximum torque. The comparison is obtained by
finding out ratios of these torques.

Full load and Maximum Torque Ratio

In general, Tα (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
Let sf = Full load slip
.
.. TF.L. α (sf E 22 R2)/(R 22 +(sf X2)2)
and sm = Slip for maximum torque Tm
.
.. Tm α (sm E22 R2)/(R22 +(sf X2)2)

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

But R2/X2 = sm
TF.L./Tm = (s f x 2 s 2)/(sm x (s 2+m s 2))
m f
2 2
TF.L./Tm = (2 sf sm)/(s m+ s )f

Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio:

Against starting with torque equation as,
T α (s E 2 R )/(R 2 +(s X )2)
2 2 2 2
Now for Tst, s =1
Tst α (E22 R2)/(R 22 +( X2)2)
While for Tm, s = sm

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22 we get,

Substituting R2/X2 = sm

Infact using the same method, ratio of any two torques at two different slip values can be
obtained.
Sometimes using the relation, R2 = a X2 the torque ratios are expressed interms of constant a
as,
TF.L./Tm = (a sf )/(a2+ s f2)

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

and Tst/Tm = 2 a/ (1 + a2)

where a = R2/X2 = sm

Example 1 : A 24 pole, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.016 Ω
per phase and rotor reactance of 0.265 Ω per phase at standstill. It is achieving its full load torque
at a speed of 247 r.p.m. Calculate the ratio of
i) Full load torque to maximum torque ii) starting torque to maximum torque
Solution : Given values are,
P = 24, f = 50 Hz, R2 = 0.016 Ω, X2 = 0.265 Ω, N = 247 r.p.m.
Ns = 120f / P = (120x50)/24 = 250 r.p.m.
sf = (Ns - N)/Ns = (250-247)/250 = 0.012 = Full load slip
sm = R2/X2 = 0.016/0.265 = 0.06037

i) TF.L./Tm = (2 sm sf )/(s m2+ s 2f ) = (2 x 0.06037 x 0.012)/(0.060372 + 0.0122)

ii) Tst/Tm = (2 sm )/(1 + sm2) = (2 x 0.06037)/(1 + 0.060372) = 0.1203

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Speed Torque Characteristics:

Uptill now, we have seen torque - slip characteristics of an induction motor. To compare the
performance of induction motor with d.c. shunt and series motors, it is possible to plot speed-
torque curve of an induction motor.
At N = Ts, the motor stops as it cannot produce any torque, as induction motor cannot rotate
at synchronous motor.
At N = 0, the starting condition, motor produces a torque called starting torque.

Fig. 1 Speed Torque characteristics

For low slip region, i.e. speed near the region is stable and the characteristics is straight in
nature. Fall in speed from no load to full load is about 4 to 6 %. The characteristics is shown in
the Fig.1. It can be seen from that the figure that for the stable region of operation, the
characteristics is similar to that of d.c. shunt motor. Due to this, three phase induction motor is
practically said to be 'constant speed' motor as drop in speed from no load to full load is not
significant. The unstable region of operation is shown dotted in the Fig.1.

Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque:

It is shown that in slip ring induction motor, externally resistance can be added in the rotor. Let
us see the effect of change in rotor resistance on the torque produced.
Let R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
Corresponding torque, T α (s E22 R2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
Now externally resistance is added in each phase of rotor through slip rings.
Let R2' = New rotor resistance per phase
Corresponding torque T' α (s E22 R2' )/√(R2'2 +(s X2)2)
Similarly the starting torque at s = 1 for R2 and R2' can be written as
Tst α (E22 R2 )/√(R22 +(X2)2)
and T'st α (E22 R'2 )/√(R'22 +(X2)2)
Maximum torque Tm α (E22)/(2X2)

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Key Point : It can be observed that Tm is independent of R2 hence whatever may be the rotor
resistance, maximum torque produced never change but the slip and speed at which it occurs
depends on R2.
For R2, sm = R2/X2 where Tm occurs
For R2', sm' = R2'/X2' where same Tm occurs

As R2' > R2, the slip sm' > sm. Due to this, we get a new torque-slip characteristics for rotor
resistance . This new characteristics is parallel to the characteristics for with same but
Tm occurring at sm'. The effect of change in rotor resistance on torque-slip characteristics shown
in the Fig. 1.
It can be seen that the starting torque T'st for R2' is more than Tst for R2. Thus by changing
rotor resistance the starting torque can be controlled.
If now resistance is further added to rotor to get resistance as R2' and so on, it can be seen
that Tm remains same but slip at which it occurs increases to sm' and so on. Similarly starting
torque also increases to T'st and so on.

Fig. 1 Effect of rotor resistance on torque-slip curves

If maximum torque Tm is required at start then sm = 1 as at start slip is always unity, so

sm = R2/X2 = 1
R2 = X2 Condition for getting Tst = Tm

Key Point : Thus by adding external resistance to rotor till it becomes equal to X 2, the maximum
torque can be achieved at start.

It is represented by point A in the Fig. 1.If such high resistance is kept permanently in the circuit,
there will be large copper losses (I2 R) and hence efficiency of the motor will be very poor.
Hence such added resistance is cut-off gradually and finally removed from the rotor circuit, in
the normal running condition of the motor. So this method is used in practice to achieve higher

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

starting torque hence resistance in rotor is added only at start. Thus good performance at start
and in the running condition is ensured.

Key Point : This is possible only in case of slip type of induction motor as in squirrel cage due to
short circuited rotor, extra rotor resistance cannot be added.

Example : Rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase of a 3 phase induction motor are
0.04 Ω and 0.2 Ω respectively. What should be the external resistance required at start in rotor
circuit to obtain.
i) maximum torque at start ii) 50% of maximum torque at start.
Solution :
R2 = 0.04 Ω, X2 = 0.2 Ω
i) For Tm = Tst , sm = R2'/X2 =1
... R2' = X2 = 0.2
Let Rex = external resistance required in rotor.
R2' = R2 + Rex
...
Rex = R2' - R2 = 0.2 - 0.04 = 0.16 Ω per phase
ii) For Tst = 0.5 Tm,
Now Tm= (k E22)/(2 X2) and
Tst = (k E22 R2)/(R22 + X22)
But at start, external resistance Rex is added. So new value of rotor resistance is say R2'.
R2' = R2 + Rex
.
.. Tst = (k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) with added resistance
but Tst = 0.5Tm required.
Substituting expressions of T st and Tm, we get
(k E22 R2')/(R2'2 + X22) = 0.5 (k E22)/ (2X2)
... 4 R2' X2= (R2'2 + X22)
... (R2'2) - 4 x 0.2 x R2' + 0.22 = 0
... (R2'2) - 0.8 R2' + 0.04 = 0
...
R2' = {0.8 + √(0.82 - 4 x 0.04)}/2
... R2' = 0.0535 , 0.7464 Ω
But R2' can not greater than X2 hence,
R2' = 0.0535 = R2 + Rex
.
.. 0.0535 = 0.04 + Rex
...
Rex = 0.0135 Ω per phase
This is much resistance is required in the rotor externally to obtain Tst = 0.5 Tm.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Module-3
Performance of three phase induction motors

Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor:

The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded transformer. The only
difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and short circuited while transformer
secondary is stationary and connected to load. The load on induction motor is mechanical while
load on transformer is electrical. Still by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the
motor, the phasor diagram of induction motor can be developed.
Let Φ = Magnetic flux links with both primary and secondary.
There is self induced e.m.f. E1 in the stator while a mutually induced e.m.f. E2r in the rotor.
Let R1 = Stator resistance per phase.
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
The stator voltage per phase V1 has to counter balance self induced e.m.f. E 1and has to
supply voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X1. So on stator side we can write,

The rotor induced e.m.f. in the running condition has to supply the drop across impedances
as rotor short circuited.

The value of E2r depends on the ratio of rotor turns to stator turns.
The rotor current in the running condition is I 2r which lags E2r by rotor p.f. angle Φ2r.
The reflected rotor current I2r' on stator side is the effect of load and is given by,
I2r' = K I2r
The induction motor draws no load current I o which is phasor sum of Ic and Im. The total
stator current drawn from supply is,
Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r'
The Φ1 is angle between V1 and I1 and cosΦ1 gives the power factor of the induction motor.
Thus using all above relations the phasor diagram of induction motor on load can be
obtained.
The steps to draw phasor diagram are,
1. Takes Φ as reference phasor.
2. The induced voltage E1 lags Φ by 90o.
3. Show - E1 by reversing voltage phasor.
4. The phasor E2r is in phase with E1. So I2r show lagging E2r i.e. E1 direction by Φ2r.
5. Show I2r R2 in phase with I2r and I2r X2r leading the resistive drop by 90o, to get exact location
of.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

6. Reverse I2r to get I2r'.

7. Im is in phase with Φ while Ic is at leading with. Add Im and Ic to get Io.
8. Add Io and I2r' to get I1.
9. From tip of - E1 phasor, add I1 R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 90o leading to I1 to V1 get
phasor.
10. Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 On load phasor diagram of induction motor

Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor :

We have already seen that the induction motor can be treated as generalized transformer.
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The induction motor also
works on the same principle. The energy transfer from stator to rotor of the induction motor
takes place entirely with the help of a flux mutually linking the two. Thus stator acts as a primary
while the rotor acts as a rotating secondary when induction motor is treated as a transformer.
If E1 = Induced voltage in stator per phase
E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill
k = Rotor turns / Stator turns

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

then k = E2/ E1
Thus if V1 is the supply voltage per phase to stator, it produces the flux which links with
both stator and rotor. Due to self induction E 1, is the induced e.m.f. in stator per phase
while E2 is the induced e.m.f. in rotor due to mutual induction, at standstill. In running condition
the induced e.m.f. in rotor becomes E2r which is s E2.
Now E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition per phase
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase
X2r = Rotor reactance per phase in running condition
R1 = Stator resistance per phase
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
So induction motor can be represented as a transformer as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Induction motor as a transformer

When induction motor is on no load, it draws a current from the supply to produce the flux
in air gap and to supply iron losses.
1. Ic = Active component which supplies no load losses
2. Im = Magnetizing component which sets up flux in core and air gap
These two currents give us the elements of an exciting branch as,
Ro = Representing no load losses = V1 /Ic
and Xo = Representing flux set up = V1/Im
Thus, Īo = Īc +Īm
The equivalent circuit of induction motor thus can be represented as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Basic equivalent circuit

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The stator and rotor sides are shown separated by an air gap.
I2r = Rotor current in running condition
= E2r /Z2r = (s E2)/√(R 22 +(s X2)2)
It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the motor speed changes. Thus slip
changes. As slip changes the reactance X2r changes. Hence X2r = sX2 is shown variable.

Representing of rotor impedance :

It is shown that, I2r = (sE2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2) = E2 /√((R2/s)2 + X 22)
So it can be assumed that equivalent rotor circuit in the running condition has fixed
reactance X2, fixed voltage E2 but a variable resistance R2/s, as indicated in the above equation.
Now R2/s = R2 + (R2/s) - R2

So the variable rotor resistance R2/s has two parts.

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents copper loss.
2. R2(1 - s)/s which represents load resistance RL. So it is electrical equivalent of mechanical
load on the motor.

Key Point : Thus the mechanical load on the motor is represented by the pure resistance of value
R2(1 -s)/s.
So rotor equivalent circuit can be shown as,

Fig. 3 Rotor equivalent circuit

Now let us obtain equivalent circuit referred to stator side.

Equivalent circuit referred to stator :

Transfer all the rotor parameters to stator,
k = E2/E1 = Transformation ratio
E2' = E2/ k
The rotor current has its reflected component on the stator side which is I2r'.
I2r' = k I2r = (k s E2 )/√(R22 +(s X2)2)
X2' = X2/K2 = Reflected rotor reactance
R2' = R2/K2 = Reflected rotor resistance

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

RL' = RL/K2 = (R2/K2)(1-s / s)

= R2' (1-s / s)
Thus RL' is reflected mechanical load on stator.
So equivalent circuit referred to stator can be shown as in the Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit referred to stator

.
The resistance R2' (1 -s)/ s = RL' is fictitious resistance representing the mechanical load on
the motor.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Similar to the transformer the equivalent circuit can be modified by shifting the exciting
current (Ro and Xo) purely across the supply, to the left of R1 and X1. Due to this, we are
neglecting the drop across R1 and X1 due to Io, which is very small. Hence the circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit. The circuit is shown in the Fig.5.

Fig. 5 Approximate equivalent circuit

Now the resistance R1 and R2' while reactance X1 and X2' can be combined. So we get,
R1e = Equivalent resistance referred to stator = R1 + R2'
X1e = Equivalent reactance referred to stator = X1 + X2'
R1e = R1 + (R2/K2)
and X1e = X1 + (X2/K2)
While Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r' ...................... phasor diagram
and Īo = Īc + Īm
Thus the equivalent circuit can be shown in the Fig.6.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 6

Power Equations from Equivalent Circuit

With reference to approximate equivalent circuit shown in the Fig. 6, we can write various
power equations as,
Pin = input power = 3 V1 I1 cos Φ
where V1 = Stator voltage per phase
I1 = Current drawn by stator per phase
cos Φ = Power factor of stator
Stator core loss = I m2 R o
Stator copper loss = 3 I12 Ro
where R1 = Stator resistance per phase
P2 = Rotor input = (3 I2r'2 R2')/s
Pc = Rotor copper loss = 3 I2r'2 R2'
Thus Pc = s P2
Pm = Gross mechanical power developed

T = Torque developed

where N = Speed of motor

But N = Ns (1-s) =, so substituting in above

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

and I2r' = V1 /(( R1e + RL') + j X1e )

where RL' = R2' (1-s)/s
I2r' = V1/√(( R1e + RL')2 + X1e2 )

Key Point : Remember that in all the above formula all the values per phase values.

Maximum Power Output

Consider the approximate equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig.7
In this circuit, the exciting current Io is neglected hence the exciting no load branch is not
shown.
... I1 = I2r'
The total impedance is given by,
ZT = (R1e + RL')+ where RL' = R2' (1-s)/s
I1 = V1 /√((R1e + RL') +(X1e)2)
2

The power supplied to the load i.e. Pout per phase is,
Per phase Pout = I12 RL' watts per phase
... Total = 3 I12 RL'

To obtain maximum output power, differentiate the equation of total P out with respect to
variable RL' and equal to zero.

But Z1e = √(R 1e

2
+X 21e) = Leakage impedance referred to stator
... Z 2= R ' 2
1e L

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Thus the mechanical load on the induction motor should be such that the equivalent load
resistance referred to stator is equal to the total leakage impedance of motor referred to stator.

Slip at maximum Pout : This can be obtained as,

RL' = Z1e = R2'(1-s)/s where RL' = R2/K2
... s Z1e = R2' - sR2'
.
.. s(Z1e + R2') = R2'

This is slip at maximum output.

Expression for maximum Pout : Using the condition obtained in expression of total P out , we can
get maximum Pout.
... (Pout)max = 3 I12 Z1e as RL' = Z1e

But R 2+ X 2= Z
1e 1e 1e

Maximum Torque
In case of induction motor, the speed of the motor decreases with increase in load. Thus the
maximum power output is not obtained at a slip which corresponds to maximum torque. In the
previous section we have seen the condition for maximum power output. In this section we will
find the condition which gives maximum torque.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The expression for torque is given by,

The condition for maximum torque can be obtained from maximum power transfer theorem.
When I2r'2 R2'/s is maximum consider the approximate equivalent circuit of induction motor as
shown in The Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

The value of Ro is assumed to be negligible. Hence the circuit will be reduced as shown
below.

Fig. 9

The thevenin's equivalent circuit for the above network is shown in the Fig.10 across the
terminals x and y.

Fig. 10

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The mechanical torque developed by rotor is maximum if there is maximum power transfer
to the resistor R2'/s. This takes place when R2'/s equals to impedance looking back into the
supply source.

This is the slip corresponding to the maximum torque. The maximum torque is given by,

Substituting,

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

From the above expression, it can be seen that the maximum torque is independent of rotor
resistance.

Synchronous Watt:
The torque produced in the induction motor is given by,

Thus torque is directly proportional to the rotor input. By defining new unit of torque which
is synchronous watt we can write,
T = P2 synchronous-watts
If torque is given in synchronous-watts then it can be obtained in N-m as,

Key Point : Unit synchronous watt can be defined as the torque developed by the motor such
that the power input to the rotor across the air gap is 1 W while running at synchronous speed.

Losses in Induction Motor:

The various power losses in an induction motor can be classified as,
i) Constant losses
ii) Variable losses
i) Constant losses :
These can be further classified as core losses and mechanical losses.
Core losses occur in stator core and rotor core. These are also called iron losses. These losses
include eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The eddy current losses are minimizsed by
using laminated construction while hysteresis losses are minimized by selecting high grade
silicon steel as the material for stator and rotor.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The iron losses depends on the frequency. The stator frequency is always supply frequency
hence stator iron losses are dominate. As against this in rotor circuit, the frequency is very small
which is slip times the supply frequency. Hence rotor iron losses are very small and hence
generally neglected, in the running condition.
The mechanical losses include frictional losses at the bearings and windings losses. The
friction changes with speed but practically the drop in speed is very small hence these losses are
assumed to be the part of constant losses.

ii) Variable losses :

This include the copper losses in stator and rotor winding due to current flowing in the
winding. As current changes as load changes as load changes, these losses are said to be variable
losses.
Generally stator iron losses are combined with stator copper losses at a particular load to
specify total stator losses at p2 articular load condition.
Rotor copper loss = 3 I R ............................. Analysed separately
2r 2
where I2r = Rotor current per phase at a particular load
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase

Power Flow in an Induction Motor

Induction motor converts an electrical power supplies to it into mechanical power. The various
stages in this conversion is called power flow in an inductor motor.
The three phase supply given to the stator is the net electrical input to the motor. If motor
power factor is cos Φ and VL, IL are line values of supply voltage and current drawn, then net
electrical supplied to the motor can be calculated as,

This is nothing but the stator input.

The part of this power is utilized to supply the losses in the stator which are stator core as
well as copper losses.
The remaining power is delivered to the rotor magnetically through the air gap with the help
of rotating magnetic field. This is called rotor input denoted as P2.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The rotor is not able to convert its entire input to the mechanical as it has to supply rotor
losses. The rotor losses are dominantly copper losses as rotor iron losses are very small and
hence generally neglected. So rotor losses are rotor copper losses denoted as Pc.

where I2r = Rotor current per phase in running condition

R2 = Rotor resistance per phase.
After supplying these losses, the remaining part of P 2 is converted into mechanical which is
called gross mechanical power developed by the motor denoted as Pm.

Now this power, motor tries to deliver to the load connected to the shaft. But during this
mechanical transmission, part of Pm is utilized to provide mechanical losses like friction and
windage.
And finally the power is available to the load at the shaft. This is called net output of the
motor denoted as Pout. This is also called shaft power.

The rating of the motor is specified in terms of value of Pout when load condition is full load
condition.
The above stages can be shown diagrammatically called power flow diagram of an induction
motor.
This is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Power flow diagram

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

From the power flow diagram we can define,

= Pm / P2

Relation between P2, Pc, and Pm:

The rotor input P2, rotor copper loss Pc and gross mechanical power developed Pm are related
through the slip s. Let us derive this relationship.
Let T = Gross torque developed by motor in N-m.
We know that the torque and power are related by the relation,
P=Txω
where P = Power
and ω = angular speed
= (2πN)/60 , N = speed in r.p.m.
Now input to the rotor P2 is from stator side through rotating magnetic field which is rotating
at synchronous speed Ns.
So torque developed by the rotor can be expressed interms of power input and angular speed
at which power is inputted i.e. ωs as,
P2 = T x ωs where ωs = (2πNs)/60 rad/sec
P2 = T x (2πNs)/60 where Ns is in r.p.m ..................... (1)
The rotor tries to deliver this torque to the load. So rotor output is gross mechanical power
developed Pm and torque T. But rotor gives output at speed N and not Ns. So from output side
Pm and T can be related through angular speed ω and not ωs.
Pm= T x ω where ω = (2πN)/60
Pm = T x (2πN)/60 .............(2)
The difference between P2 and Pm is rotor copper loss Pc.
Pc = P2 - Pm = T x (2πNs/60) - T x (2πN/60)
Pc = T x (2π/60)(Ns - N) = rotor copper loss ...........(3)

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Dividing (3) by (1),s

Pc/P2 = s as (Ns - N)/Ns = slip s

Rotor copper loss Pc = s x Rotor input P2
Thus total rotor copper loss is slip times the rotor input.

Now P2 - Pc = Pm
P2 - sP2 = Pm
(1 - s)P2 = Pm
Thus gross mechanical power developed is (1 - s) times the rotor input
The relationship can be expressed in the ratio from as,

The ratio of any two quantities on left hand side is same as the ratio of corresponding two
sides on the right hand side.

This relationship is very important and very frequently required to solve the problems on the
power flow diagram.
Key Point : The torque produced by rotor is gross mechanical torque and due to mechanical
losses entire torque cannot be available to drive load. The load torque is net output torque called
shaft torque or useful torque and is denoted as Tsh. It is related to Pout as,

and Tsh < T due to mechanical losses.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Derivation of k in Torque Equation

We have seen earlier that

T = (k s E22 R2)/(R 22 +(s X2)2)
and it mentioned that k = 3/(2π ns) . Let us see its proof.
The rotor copper lo2sses can be expressed as,
Pc = 3 x I x R2
2r
but I2r = (s E2)/√(R22 +(s X2)2), hence substituting above

Now as per P2 : Pc : Pm is 1 : s : 1-s ,

Pc/Pm = s/(1-s)
Now Pm = T x ω
= T x (2πN/60)

Now N = Ns (1-s) from definition of slip, substituting in above,

but Ns/60 = ns in r.p.m.

So substituting in the above equation,

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Comparing the two torque equations we can write,

Efficiency of an Induction Motor:

The ratio of net power available at the shaft (P out) and the net electrical power input (Pin) to the
motor is called as overall efficiency of an induction motor.

The maximum efficiency occurs when variable losses become equal to constant losses. When
motor is on no load, current drawn by the motor is small. Hence efficiency is low. As load
increases, current increases so copper losses also increases. When such variable losses achieve
the same value as that of constant losses, efficiency attains its maximum value. If load is
increased further, variable losses becomes greater than constant losses hence deviating from
condition for maximum, efficiency starts decreasing. Hence the nature of the curve of efficiency
against output power of the motor is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Efficiency curve for an induction motor

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

No Load Test:
In this test, the motor is made to run without any load i.e. no load condition. The speed of the
motor is very close to the synchronous speed but less than the synchronous speed. The rated
voltage is applied to the stator. The input line current and total in put power is measured. The
two wattmeter method is used to measure the total input power. The circuit diagram for the test is
shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 No load test

As the motor is on no load, the power factor is very low which is less than 0.5 and one of the
two wattmeters read negative. It is necessary to reverse the current coil or pressure coil
connections of such a wattmeter to get the positive reading. This reading must be taken negative
for the further calculations.
The total power input Wo is the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings. The
observation table is,

The calculations are,

Wo = √3Vo Io cosΦo

This is no load power factor.

Thus we are now in a position to obtain magnitude and phase angle of no load current I o,
which is required for the circle diagram.
From the knowledge of Io and Φo, the parameters of the equivalent circuit can be obtained as,
Ic = Io cosΦo = Active component of no load current
Im = Io sinΦo = Magnetising component of no load current
Ro = Vo (per phase) / Ic (per phase) = No load branch resistance
Xo = Vo (per phase)/ Im (per phase) = No load branch resistance
The power input Wo consists of following losses,
1. Stator copper loss i.e. 3 Io2 R12where Io is no load per phase current and R1 is stator resistance
per phase.
2. Stator core loss i.e. iron loss.
3. Friction and windage loss.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The no load rotor current is very small and hence rotor copper loss is negligibly small. The
rotor frequency is s times supply frequency and on no load it is very small. Rotor iron losses are
proportional to this frequency and hence are negligibly small.

Key Point : Under no load condition, Io is also very small and in many practical cases it is also
neglected.
Thus Wo consists of stator iron loss and friction and windage loss which are consists for all load
condictions. Hence Wo is said to give fixed losses of the motor.
... Wo = No load power input

Separating No Load Losses:

The no load losses are the constant losses which include core loss and friction and windage
loss. The separation between the two can be carried out by the no load test conducted from
variable voltage, rated frequency supply.
When the voltage is decreased below the rated value, The core loss reduces as nearly square
of voltage. The slip does not increase significantly the friction and windage loss almost remains
constant.
The voltage is continuously decreased till the machine slip suddenly begins to increase and
the motor tends to stall. At no load, this takes place at a sufficiently reduced voltage. The graph
showing no load losses PN.L. versus as shown in the Fig. is extrapolated to V = 0 which gives
friction and windage loss as iron or core loss is zero at zero voltage.

Fig.3

Blocked Rotor Test

In this test, the rotor is locked and it is not allowed to rotate. Thus the slip s = 1 and RL' =
R2' (1-s)/s is zero. If the motor is slip ring induction motor then the windings are short circuited
at the slip rings.
The situation is exactly similar to the short circuit test on transformer. If under short circuit
condition, if primary is excited with rated voltage, a large shot circuit current can flow which is
dangerous from the windings point of view. So similar to the transformer short circuit test, the

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

reduced voltage (about 10 to 15 % of rated voltage) just enough such that stator carries rated
current is applied. Now the applied voltage Vsc, the input power Wsc and a short circuit
current Isc are measured.
As RL' = 0, the equivalent circuit is exactly similar to that of a transformer and hence the
calculations are similar to that of short circuit test on a transformer.
Vsc = Short circuit reduced voltage (line value)
Isc = Short circuit current (line value)
Wsc = Short circuit input power
Now Wsc = √3Vsc Isc cosΦsc........................................................ Line values

This gives us short circuit power factor of a motor.

Fig. 1

Now the equivalent circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.

where Isc = Per phase value

This is equivalent resistance referred to stator.

Z1e = Vsc (per phase)/ Isc (per phase) = Equivalent impedance referred to stator.

During this test, the stator carries rated current hence the stator copper loss is also dominant.
Similarly the rotor also carries short circuit current to produce dominant rotor copper loss. As the

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

voltage is reduced, the iron loss which is proportional to voltage is negligibly small. The motor is
at standstill hence mechanical loss i.e. friction and windage loss is absent. Hence we can write,
Wsc = Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss
But it is necessary to obtain short circuit current when normal voltage is applied to the
motor. This is practically not possible. But the reduced voltage test results can be used to find
current ISN which is short circuit current if normal voltage is applied.
If VL = Normal rated voltage (line value)
Vsc = Reduced short circuit voltage (line voltage)

where Isc = Short circuit current at reduced voltage

Thus, ISN = Short circuit current at normal voltage
Now power input is proportional to square of the current.
So WSN = Short circuit input power at normal voltage
This can be obtained as,

But at normal voltage core loss cannot be negligible hence,

WSN = Core loss + Stator and rotor copper loss

Circle Diagram :
Introduction
In a particular circuit, if one of the circuit elements is variable, then depending upon its value, the
circuit characteristics varies. As the value of the variable element is changed, the circuit
parameters like current, power factor, power losses etc. also change. The locus of the extremity
of the current phasor, obtained for various values of a variable element is called a locus diagram.
From the equivalent circuit of an induction motor, the motor can be treated as series R-L
circuit where the element resistance of the circuit is variable which varies as slip s. Thus for
variable load conditions, the resistance changes and hence the current drawn by the motor also
changes. The locus diagram of such a current phasor is circular in nature and hence called circle
diagram of a three phase induction motor. Using this diagram, all the performance characteristics
of an induction motor like power factor, efficiency, stator losses, rotor losses, maximum output,
maximum torque etc. can be predicted. Thus, a circle diagram is a graphical approach of
predetermining the operation characteristics of an induction motor.
Let us prove that the locus diagram obtained for a current phasor is a circle, for a series R-L
circuit with an element R as variable.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Circle Diagram for a Series R-L Circuit:

Consider a series R-L circuit with a variable R as shown in the Fig. 1. It is excited by an
alternating source of V volts. The frequency of the source is f Hz.

Fig. 1

Let I = Current flowing through the circuit

Z = Impedance of the circuit
Z = R + j XL where XL = 2∏fL
Now R is variable while XL is fixed.

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2(a). The current I lags voltage V by angle as the
circuit is inductive. The impedance triangle is shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2

From the impedance triangle we can write,

sin Φ = XL/Z
Substituting in the expression for I,
I = (V/XL) sinΦ ......................................................... (1)
This is the equation of a circle in polar co-ordinates with a diameter equal to (V/XL).
When the resistance R =0, then Φ = 90o hence sin Φ = 1.
... I = Im = (V/XL)
This is the maximum value of current.
As R resistance, the phase angle decreases thus decreasing sin. Effectively current I also
decrease. When R→ ∞ the Φ→0o and current becomes zero.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The locus obtained of extremities of a current phasor plotted for various values of R is a
semicircle. The semicircle is shown in the Fig. 3. The voltage axis is taken as vertical axis as a
reference, with respect to which the various current phasors are plotted.

Fig. 3 Circle diagram

The power factors at various conditions are cosΦ 1, cosΦ2 etc. As Φ varies only from 0oto
90o, the diagram is semicircle, infact it is a half part of a circle hence it is known as circle
diagram.
This theory of series R-L circuit can be easily extended to a three phase induction motor.
Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase Induction Motor
The equivalent circuit of a 3 phase induction motor is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit of a 3 phase induction motor

All the values shown are per phase values. The circuit is similar to series R-L circuit. The
reactance X1e is fixed while the total resistance R1e + (R2'(1-s)/s) is variable. This is because the
slip s varies as load varies. The voltage across the parallel exciting branch is V 1. Hence we can
write the expression for the rotor current2 referred to stator as,
I2r' = V1/√((R1e + RL ) + X 2)
1e
Where RL' = R2' (1-s)/s = Variable equivalent load resistance
R1e = R1 + R2' = Equivalent resistance of motor referred to stator
X1e = X1 + X2' = Equivalent reactance of motor referred to stator

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Dividing and multiplying by,

... I2r' = Imax sin ................................................... (1)

where sinΦ = X/Z = X1e/√((R1e + RL' )2 + X1e2)
and Imax = V1/X1e

The I2r' will be at its maximum when R1e + RL' = 0 i.e., there exists an ideal short circuit. Hence
current Imax is called ideal short circuit current of an induction motor.
The equation (1) represents equation of a circle with as its diameter. Thus locus of extremely
of I2r' is a circle, as shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Circle diagram of I2r'

But the total stator current I1 per phase is a vector addition of current I o and I2r'.
I1 = Io + I2r' ................................. Vector addition
For and induction motor, Io has a fixed value and phase angle Φo which is decided by its
active component and magnetising component Im.
Īo = Īc + Īm
As Io has fixed magnitude and phase, the locus of extremities of I 1, which is Io + I2r' is also a
circle with a diameter still as V1/X1e. The only charge will be that the diameter V1/X1e will no
longer be along X-axis i.e. current axis but will get shifted at the tip of the I o phasor. All the
I2r' phasors are to be drawn from Io phasor to get I1, as has fixed magnitude and phase angle Φo.

Key Point : Thus the current locus for a stator current is also a semicircle which is truly called
circle diagram of a three phase induction motor. This diagram once obtained can be used to
predict the performance of an induction motor under variable load conditions.
The circle diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Circle diagram of a three phase induction motor

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Let us see, how to obtain the data for plotting the circle diagram.
Obtaining Data to Plot Circle Diagram
The data required to draw the circle diagram is obtained by conducting two testes which are,
1. No load test or open circuit test
2. Blocked rotor test or short circuit test

Construction of Circle Diagram:

By using the data obtained from the no load test and the blocked rotor test, the circle diagram can
be drawn using the following steps :
Step 1 : Take reference phasor V as vertical (Y-axis).
Step 2 : Select suitable current scale such that diameter of circle is about 20 to 30 cm.
Step3 : From no load test, Io and are Φo obtained. Draw vector Io, lagging V by angle Φo. This is
the line OO' as shown in the Fig. 1.
Step 4 : Draw horizontal line through extremity of Io i.e. O', parallel to horizontal axis.
Step 5 : Draw the current ISN calculated from Isc with the same scale, lagging V by angle Φsc,
from the origin O. This is phasor OA as shown in the Fig. 1.
Step 6 : Join O'A is called output line.
Step 7 : Draw a perpendicular bisector of O'A. Extend it to meet line O'B at point C. This is the
centre of the circle.
Step 8 : Draw the circle, with C as a center and radius equal to O'C. This meets the horizontal
line drawn from O' at B as shown in the Fig. 1.
Step 9 : Draw the perpendicular from point A on the horizontal axis, to meet O'B line at F and
meet horizontal axis at D.
Step 10 : Torque line.
The torque line separates stator and rotor copper losses.
Note that as voltage axis is vertical, all the vertical distances are proportional to active
components of currents or power inputs, if measured at appropriate scale.
Thus the vertical distance AD represents power input at short circuit i.e. WSN, now which
consists of core loss and stator, rotor copper losses.
Now FD = O'G
= Fixed loss
Where O'G is drawn perpendicular from O' on horizontal axis. This represents power input
on no load i.e. fixed loss.
Hence AF α Sum of stator and rotor copper losses
Then point E can be located as,
AE/EF = Rotor copper loss / Stator copper loss
The line O'E under this condition is called torque line.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Power scale : As AD represents WSN i.e. power input on short circuit at normal voltage, the
power scale can be obtained as,
Power scale = WSN/l(AD) W/cm
where l(AD) = Distance AD in cm

Location of Point E : In a slip ring induction motor, the stator resistance per phase R 1 and rotor
resistance per phase R2 can be easily measured. Similarly by introducing ammeters in stator and
rotor circuit, the currents I1 and I2 also can be measured.
... K = I1/I2 = Transformation ratio
Now AF/EF = Rotor copper loss / Stator copper loss = (I 22R2)/(I12R1) = (R2/R2)(I22/I1 2) =
(R2/R2).(1/K2)
But R2'= R2/K2 = Rotor resistance referred to stator
... AE/EF = R2'/R1
Thus point E can be obtained by dividing line AF in the ratio R2' to R1.
In a squirrel cage motor, the stator resistance can be measured by conducting resistance tset.
... Stator copper loss = 3ISN2 R1 where ISN is phase value.
. Neglecting core loss, WSN = S2tator Cu loss + Rotor Cu loss
. . Rotor copper loss = WSN - 3I R1
SN
.
.. AE/EF = (WSN - 3ISN R1)/(3ISN2 R1)
2

Dividing line AF in this ratio, the point E can be obtained and hence O'E represents torque
line.
Predicting Performance Form Circle Diagram:
Let motor is running by taking a current OP as shown in the Fig. 1. The various performance
parameters can be obtained from the circle diagram at that load condition.
Draw perpendicular from point P to meet output line at Q, torque line at R, the base line at S
and horizontal axis at T.
We know the power scale as obtained earlier.
Using the power scale and various distances, the values of the performance parameters can
be obtained as,
Total motor input = PT x Power scale
Fixed loss = ST x power scale
Stator copper loss = SR x power scale
Rotor copper loss = QR x power scale
Total loss = QT x power scale
Rotor output = PQ x power scale
Rotor input = PQ + QR = PR x power scale
Slip s = Rotor Cu loss = QR/PR
Power factor cos = PT/OP
Motor efficiency = Output / Input = PQ/PT
Rotor efficiency = Rotor output / Rotor input = PQ/PR

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Rotor output / Rotor input = 1 - s = N/Ns = PQ/PR

The torque is the rotor input in synchronous watts.
Maximum Quantities:
The maximum values of various parameters can also be obtained by using circle diagram.
1. Maximum Output : Draw a line parallel to O'A and is also tangent to the circle at point M.
The point M can also be obtained by extending the perpendicular drawn from C on O'A to meet
the circle at M. Then the maximum output is given by l(MN) at the power scale. This is shown in
the Fig. 1.
2. Maximum Input : It occurs at the highest point on the circle i.e. at point L. At this point,
tangent to the circle is horizontal. The maximum input given l(LL') at the power scale.
3. Maximum Torque : Draw a line parallel to the torque line and is also tangent to the circle at
point J. The point J can also be obtained by drawing perpendicular from C on torque line and
extending it to meet circle at point J. The l(JK) represents maximum torque in synchronous watts
at the power scale. This torque is also called stalling torque or pull out torque.
4. Maximum Power Factor : Draw a line tangent to the circle from the origin O, meeting circle
at point H. Draw a perpendicular from H on horizontal axis till it meets it at point I. Then angle
OHI gives angle corresponding to maximum power factor angle.
... Maximum p.f. = cos ∟{OHI}
= HI/OH
5. Starting Torque : The torque is proportional to the rotor input. At s = 1, rotor input is equal to
rotor copper loss i.e. l(AE).
... Tstart = l(AE) x Power scale ..............................in synchronous watts

Full load Condition:

The full load motor output is given on the name plates in watts or h.p. Calculates the
distance corresponding to the full load output using the power scale.
Then extend AD upwards from A onwards, equal to the distance corresponding to full load
output, say A'. Draw parallel to the output line O'A from A' to meet the circle at point P'. This is
the point corresponding to the full load condition, as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Locating full load point

Once point P' is known, the other performance parameters can be obtained easily as discussed
above.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Load Test on Three Phase Induction Motor:

By conducting the load test on three phase induction motor, the performance of the motor viz.
slip, power factor, input, efficiency etc. at various loads can be studied.
The induction motor is located by any of the following methods :
1. Brake test
2. By connecting a d.c. generator
In case of loading by connecting a d.c. generator, the induction motor is connected to a d.c.
generator. The generator is loaded by a lamp bank. Thus inturn an induction motor is loaded. The
Fig. 1 shows the experimental set up for conducting load test on three phase induction motor
using a d.c. generator.

Fig. 1 Load test on three phase induction motor

On induction motor side, ammeter reads line current and voltmeter reads line voltage VL. The
two wattmeters are connected as per the two wattmeter method hence,
Pin = Power input = W1 + W2
On generator side, the ammeter reads load current and voltmeter reads terminal voltage Vt.
By varying the lamp bank, load on generator i.e. load on induction motor can be varied. The
induction motor can be star or delta connected and can be squirrel cage or slip ring type. The
speed readings are taken using tachometer. The load is increased till induction motor carries
rated line current. The following observation table is prepared,

Calculations : The output of induction motor is input to a d.c. generator.

Output of d.c. generator = Vt x IL W
Assume ηgen = 80 %

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

... Pout of induction motor = Pin of d.c. generator

= Pout of d.c. generator / ηgen = (Vt IL )/ηgen W
Pin of induction motor = W1 + W2 W
cos Φ = Pin/(√3VL IL )= (W1 + W2)/(√3VL IL) = power
factor

where Ns = 120f / P for a given motor

For various loads above parameters are obtained.

As the load on the induction motor increases,
1. The output of motor increases.
2. The power factor increases.
3. The efficiency increase upto certain load and then decreases.
4. The speed decreases marginally.
5. The slip increases.
6. The input current increases.
The various performance characteristics can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

The graphs indicate the behaviour of various performance parameters against output of the
induction motor and not shown to the scale.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Effect of harmonics on Performance of 3-ph Induction Motor

The induction motor performance is affected by the harmonics in the time variation of the
impressed voltage. But its effect on the performance of the motor is not predominant hence it is
not considered here.

Fig. 1 Torque speed characteristics

The torque-slip characteristics as shown in Fig.1 is obtained when the space distribution of
flux wave along the air gap periphery is sinusoidal. But the air gap flux is not purely sinusoidal
as it contains odd harmonics (5th, 7th, 11th etc). Hence at low speeds, the torque-slip characteristic
is not smooth. The distribution of stator winding and variation of air gap reluctance due to stator
and rotor slots are main causes of air gap flux harmonics.
The harmonics caused due to variation of air gap reluctance are called tooth or slot
harmonics . Due to these harmonics produced in air gap flux, unwanted torque is developed
along with vibration and noise.
Now eventhough stator currents are sinusoidal, the stator m.m.f. is not sinusoidal as stator
winding has the number of slots not more than 3 to 4 per phase. If carry out analysis of stator
m.m.f. with the help of Fourier series it can be seen that in addition to fundamental wave it
contains odd harmonics m.m.f. waves.
The third harmonic flux waves produced by each of the three phases neutralize each other as
it differs in time phase by 120o. Thus air gap flux does not contain third harmonics and its
multiplies. The fundamental mmf wave produces flux which rotates at synchronous speed which
given as ns = 2f1/P rps where f1 is supply frequency and P is number of poles. Similarly fifth
harmonic mmf wave produces flux which rotates at 2f1/5P = ns/5 rps and in direction opposite to
the fundamental mmf wave. The seven harmonic mmf produces flux which rotates at ns/7 rps and
in the direction of fundamental m.m.f. wave.
Thus it can be seen that harmonic m.m.f. wave produces flux which rotates at 1/K times the
fundamental speed and in the direction of fundamental wave if K = 6m + 1 and in the reversed

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

direction if K = 6m - 1 where m is any integer. The most important and predominant harmonics
whose effects must be studied are 5th and 7thharmonics.
The electromagnetic torque that is developed in the induction motor is because of zero
relative speed between stator and rotor fields. This fact can be explained as follows :
When rotor is revolving in the same direction of rotation as the stator field, the frequency of
rotor currents is sf1 and the rotor field produced will have speed of sns rpm with respect to rotor
in the forward direction. But there is mechanical rotation of rotor at n rpm which is
superimposed on this. The speed of rotor field in space is thus given by sum of these speeds
sns + n = sns + ns(1-s) = ns
The stator and rotor fields are thus stationary with respect to each other which produces a
steady torque maintaining the rotation. This torque existing at any mechanical speed n other than
synchronous speed is called synchronous torque.
The fifth harmonic field rotates at ns/5 rps and in a direction opposite to direction of rotor.
Therefore slip of rotor with respect to fifth harmonic field speed is

Here -ns/5 represents fifth harmonic field rotating opposite to the rotor. The frequency of
rotor currents induced by fifth harmonic rotating field is
f2 fifth harmonic = s5 x Stator frequency
= (6 -5s) x f1
Now speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to rotor is given by

Now, speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to stator

Negative sign is used before ns/5 (6 - 5s) which indicates 5th harmonic field rotates opposite
to rotor movement. Thus it can be seen that speed of fifth harmonic stator field and rotor field is

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

equal and relative speed between the two is zero. Thus it produces 5th harmonic induction motor
torque similar to torque produced by fundamental component.
Similar analysis can be made on 7th harmonic to show 7th harmonic torque produced similar
to fundamental one. Thus each space harmonic can be considered to produces its own
asynchronous torque. The induction motor can be considered as equivalent to number of
induction motors in series having poles equal to number of harmonics multiplied by number of
poles. The torque produced by fundamental component and the harmonic are shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Presence of harmonics

Crawling:
As fifth harmonic field rotates opposite to the rotor rotation, the torque produced by fifth
harmonic opposes fundamental torque and it acts as braking torque on motor. The seventh
harmonic field rotates in the direction of rotor rotation, the torque produced by seventh harmonic
aids the fundamental torque. The resultant torque is shown in the Fig. 2 which shows the addition
of fundamental, fifth harmonic and seventh harmonic torque. The fifth harmonic torque is zero at
-ns/5 rps while seventh harmonic torque is zero at +ns/7.
There are two dips which can be seen in the resultant torque, one is near the slip 1.2 and
other near slip 6/7. The slip near s =6/7 is more important as torque here decreases with increase
in speed. The load torque is shown in figure. The rotor will run at ns/7 with X as the operating
point. Thus stable operation is obtained near sub-synchronous speed ns/7. This is called crawling
or synchronous crawling. Due to crawling there is much higher stator current accompanied by
noise and vibration. The torque obtained from induction motor here is called synchronous called.
When two harmonic fluxes of same order one because of stator and the rotor because of
rotor interact with each other at one particular speed and produces harmonic synchronous torque
just like that produced in synchronous motor. These torques are caused by tooth harmonics. The
stable operation at synchronous speed caused by slot harmonics is called synchronous crawling
which is associated with vibration and noise.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Cogging:
A special behaviour is shown by squirrel cage induction motor during starting for certain
combination of number of stator and rotor slots. If number of stator slots S1are equal to number
of rotor slots S2 or integral multiple of rotor slots S2 then variation of reluctance as a function of
space will have pronounced effect producing strong forces than the accelerating torque. Due to
this motor fails to start. This phenomenon is called cogging. Such combination of stator and rotor
slots should be avoided while designing the motor.
Let the slots of stator and rotor be 24. The stator-slotting produces its tooth harmonics of
order 2S1/P ±1 whereas the rotor-slotting produces its tooth harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 where
S1 and S2 are number of stator and rotor slots. The plus sign refers to the harmonic field rotation
in the direction of rotor.
Here S1 = S2 so stator and rotor slot harmonics are same and given by,
Let P=4
(2x24/ 4) ± 1 = 11 or 23
The harmonics of order 11 produce backward rotating field for both stator and rotor. The
harmonics of order 13 produces forward rotating field.
The two harmonics fields of same order say 11th harmonic would be stationary with respect
to each other only when
nr - (ns-nr / 11) = -ns/11
nr = 0
As the harmonic field due to 11th harmonic rotates backward with respect to stator hence
negative sign is used for ns/11.
Similarly, for 13th harmonic produced by stator and rotor would be stationary with respect to
each other when
= (ns-nr / 13) + nr = ns/13
nr = 0
Hence it can be seen that harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor speed. The
11 and 13th harmonic fields produced by stator and rotor and stationary with respect to each
th

other. The harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor speed and the motor will
remain at rest. This is called cogging. The torque speed characteristic with harmonic
synchronous torque as ns/7 is shown in the Fig.3.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 Cogging

The stator slot harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact with rotor slot harmonics of order
2S2/P ± 1 to develop the harmonic synchronous torques.
2S1/P + 1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1 = S2
And 2S1/P -1 = 2S2/P + 1
S1-S1 = P
It can be thus seen that if S1 = S2 or S1-S2 = P then cogging will be definitely observed in the
induction motor.
The cogging and crawling is not predominately in slip ring induction motor as these motors
are started with higher starting torques with external resistance in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be reduced by taking proper car during the design. Still if crawling
is observed then it can be overcome by applying a sudden external torque to the driven load in
the direction of rotor. If there is reduction in supply voltage then torque also decreases (Tα V 12).
Hence asynchronous crawling may be observed which is absent under rated voltage conditions.
Thus asynchronous torques cannot be avoided but can be reduced by proper choice of coil span
and by skewing the stator or rotor slots.

Key Point : The synchronous harmonics torques can be totally eliminated by proper combination
of stator and rotor slots.

Hence it can be seen that harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor speed. The
11 and 13th harmonic fields produced by stator and rotor and stationary with respect to each
th

other. The harmonic synchronous torque is produced at zero rotor speed and the motor will
remain at rest. This is called cogging. The torque speed characteristics with harmonic
synchronous torque as ns/7 is shown in the Fig..3.
The stator slot harmonics of order 2S1/P ±1 may interact with rotor slot harmonics of order
2S1/P ±1 to develop the harmonic synchronous torques.
2S1/P +1 = 2S2/P +1

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

S1 = S2
And 2S1/p -1 = 2S2/P +1
S1 - S1 = P
It can be thus seen that if S1= S2 or S1 - S2 = P then cogging will be definitely observed in the
induction motor.
The cogging and crawling is not predominately in slip ring induction motor as these motors
are started with higher starting torques with external resistance in rotor circuit.
The crawling effect can be reduced by taking proper care during the design. Still if crawling
is observed then it can be overcome by applying a sudden external torque to the driven load in
the direction of rotor. If there is reduction of in supply voltage then torque also decreases
(Tα V12). Hence asynchronous crawling may observed which is absent under rated voltage
conditions. Thus asynchronous torques cannot be avoided but can be reduced by proper choice of
coil span and by skewing the stator or rotor slots.

Key Point : The synchronous harmonics torques can be totally eliminated by proper combination
of stator and rotor slots.

High Torque Rotors:

Special Rotor Constructions and Applications

In case of slip ring induction motor an external resistance can be added in the rotor circuit
during starting which gives higher starting torque and lower starting line current at an improved
power factor. This resistance is then gradually cut from the rotor circuit which would otherwise
result in decrease of full load speed, poor speed regulation, more rotor losses and hence reduced
efficiency. With lower rotor resistance it gives constant speed, low slip, less losses and high
efficiency. This is the major advantage of slip ring induction motor that it gives high rotor
resistance at starting and low rotor resistance at normal operating speed.
In case of squirrel cage induction motor there is no provision made for adding external
resistance. If the resistance is designed in such a way that it gives better running performance
then it has high starting current and consequently low starting torque. This is major disadvantage
of squirrel cage induction motor although it is having the other qualities of low cost, ruggedness
and maintenance free operation. Thus the designer had found different ways of improving the
starting performance of the motor without affecting the running performance of the motor.
In squirrel cage induction motor high starting torque can be obtained by the use of deep bar
or double cafe rotors. Both these types of rotors make use of skin effect in which distribution of
current is not uniform but the alternating current has the tendency to concentrate near the surface
of the conductor. Due to this effect, effective area of cross section of the conductor is reduced
and hence resistance of the conductor is increased when carrying alternating current.
The solid conductor can be considered to be makeup of large number of strands each
carrying a small part of current. The inductance of each strand will vary according to the

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position. The strands in proximity of the centre are surrounded by greater magnetic flux and has
greater inductance than near the surface. Due to high reactance at the centre, the alternating
current flows near the surface of the conductor. The skin effect depends upon nature of material,
diameter of wire, shape of wire and frequency.
Thus the current in the rotor during starting is having the frequency of supply. While under
running condition the frequency of rotor current reduces to slip frequency. This variation in
frequency changes the rotor resistance as it depends on skin effect. During starting it gives high
resistance whereas it gives low resistance during running condition which is desirable. Thus the
variation in rotor resistance can be achieved by deep bar or double cage construction of rotor and
induction motor. Both these types of construction make use of skin effect phenomenon.

Deep Bar Rotor Construction:

There is no constructional difference between stator of deep bar motor and that of ordinary
induction motor. The rotor consists of deep bars, short circuited by two end rings one on each
side. The deep and narrow rotor bar of rectangular cross section is shown in the Fig. 1(a). The
other rotor bar shapes are shown in the Fig. 1(b). The magnetic leakage flux lines are shown by
dotted lines, Now consider that the bar consists of many number of layers of different depths.
The top and bottom layers are shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Deep bar rotor

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The leakage inductance of the bottom strips is greater than that of top strips as more flux
links with bottom strip compared to top strip. All the strips are in parallel electrically. The
bottom strip has greater leakage inductance than the top strip. During starting the rotor
frequency is equal to the stator frequency and hence leakage reactance of bottom strip is largest
and current in it is least. The top strip has low leakage reactance and current in it is large. Thus
the current in low reactance top strip will be greater than that in high reactance lower strip and
the current will be forced towards the top of the slot and phase of current in upper strip will lead
that of the current in lower one. Thus there is non-uniform distribution of current which is shown
in the Fig. 1. Due to this non-uniform distribution of current, and use to skin effect, effective are
of cross section decreases. Hence rotor resistance increases resulting i high starting torque.
As leakage reactance is proportional to frequency, the non-uniform distribution of current
depends upon the rotor frequency. The Fig. 2 shows a curve indicating a.c. effective resistance to
d.c. resistance with change in frequency for a copper bar of 2.5 cm deep. The skin effect is
maximum when rotor is at standstill.

Fig. 2
With the increase in rotor speed, the rotor frequency decreases and skin effect also
decreases. The reactances of different strips at this low frequency become almost equal and the
current density over the conductor cross section becomes uniform so its a.c. resistance is equal to
d.c. resistance. Thus with deep bar rotor has a low starting current with high starting torque
without affecting running performance of motor. The net reactance of deep bar rotor at standstill
is higher than that in a normal bar design, the breakdown or pull out torque in deep bar rotor is
lower. The torque-slip characteristics of deep bar motor and normal induction motor is shown in
the Fig.3.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 3 Torque slip characteristics of deep bar rotor

The equivalent circuit of induction motor is applicable to deep bar rotor also wherein proper
value of r2' and x2' must be determined for satisfactory running performance. During starting
their values should correspond to effective value at stator frequency. During running their values
should correspond to their effective values at low rotor frequency.

Double Cage Rotor Construction:

This is another way of obtaining improved starting performance without affecting its
running performance. Though it is more expensive it gives better performance than deep bar
rotor construction.
The stator of double cage rotor induction motor is same as that of ordinary induction motor
whereas its rotor consists of two cages or two layers of bars short circuited by end rings since the
upper cage is having smaller cross-sectional area than the lower cage, the upper cage is having
higher resistance than that of lower cage. With equal cross sectional areas of two cages the upper
cage is made up of high resistance material like brass, aluminium, bronze etc. and the lower cage
is made up of low resistance material like copper. The upper cage and lower cage are separated
by a narrow slit or constriction. This is shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Double cage rotor construction

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The slot leakage flux pattern is also shown in the Fig. 4 for the double cage rotor. Similar to deep
bar rotor construction the rotor bars in the upper cage have less leakage flux linkage and
therefore has lower reactance. The dimension of air construction controls the self leakage flux
linking upper and lower bars. If air constriction would have been absent then the main flux
would return via iron path between the two slots and thereby missing the bars in the lower cages
which will not contribute to production of torque in that case. Hence it can be seen that the upper
cage has high resistance and low reactance whereas the lower cage has low resistance and high
reactance.
During starting the rotor frequency is same as stator frequency or supply frequency. The
division of rotor current in upper and lower cage is inversely proportional to their leakage
impedances. At the time of starting the leakage reactance of lower cage is very high and
consequently its leakage impedance is several times greater than that of upper cage whose
leakage reactance is small. Hence most rotor current flows in upper cage having lower leakage
impedance. The upper cage having high resistance sharing the rotor current results in low
starting current at improved power factor giving high starting torque.
When rotor speeds up, the rotor frequency decreases which decreases the leakage reactance
of lower cage. At normal operating speed the reactance difference between the two cages is
negligibly small. Hence the division of rotor current in this case is mainly decided by the
resistances of the two cages. As resistance of upper cage is very high most of the current flows
through the lower cage giving excellent operating characteristics under running condition. It can
be noted that starting current is confined mainly with upper cage so if there is frequent starting of
motor then it would cause overheating and burning of upper cage.
The torque-slip characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Torque slip characteristics of double cage induction motor

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Another type of double cage rotor construction is also possible which is shown in the Fig. 6. The
slot-leakage flux pattern for this type of construction is also shown.

Fig. 6

The approximate equivalent circuit of double cage rotor induction motor is shown in the Fig. 7.
Though the two cages are somewhat coupled magnetically, they can be treated as independent
for simplicity and it gives approximately same results. The two cages are assumed to be parallel
while drawing the equivalent circuit.

Fig. 8 Equivalent circuit of double cage induction motor

I2ru' and I2r' are the currents in the upper and lower cages respectively referred to the stator
R2u'and R2e' are the resistance of upper and lower cages referred to the stator whereas and are
leakage reactances of the two cages referred to the stator of the motor.

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Comparison of Single Cage and Double Cage Motors

Application
i) Squirrel cage type of motors having moderate starting torque and constant speed
characteristics preferred for driving fans, blowers, water pumps, grinders, lathe machines,
printing machines, drilling machines.
ii) Slip ring induction motors can have high starting torque as high as maximum torque. Hence
they are preferred for lifts, hoists, elevators, cranes, compressor.

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Induction Generator :
The torque-slip or the torque-speed characteristics of the induction motor are shown in the Fig. 1.
The operating mode of induction machine as a generator or motor or braking depends on value of
slip s.

Fig. 1

When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0 ≤ s ≤1, the machines runs as a motor
which is the normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of rotating field which is
developed by stator currents. In this region it takes electrical power from supply lines and
supplies mechanical power output. The rotor speed and corresponding torque are in same
direction.
When the slip is greater than 1, the machines works in braking mode. The motor is rotated in
opposite direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator terminals are interchanged
which changes the phase sequence which in turn reverses the direction of rotation of magnetic
field. The motor comes to quick stop under the influence of counter torque which produces
braking action. This method by which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging. Only care is
taken that the stator must be disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor in other direction.
To run the induction machines as a generator, its slip must be less than zero i.e. negative.
The negative slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed above the synchronous speed.
When running as a generator it takes mechanical energy and supplies electrical energy from the
stator. As the speed of induction generator is not in synchronism with the line frequency, it is
often called asynchronous generator.
Thus when the slip of the induction motor is negative i.e. when the induction motor runs
faster than synchronous speed, the induction motor runs as a generator called induction
generator.
The stator of induction generator must be connected to a voltage source to produce the
necessary rotating magnetic field revolving at synchronous speed. When rotor is rotated above

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synchronous speed and the stator is disconnected from the supply, the generating action will not
take place.
When rotor of induction machine is driven above synchronous speed, the rotor conductors
cut the flux of rotating field in opposite direction to that when it is operating as a motor. The
rotor currents are also reversed. Due to the transformer action, currents are induced in the stator
and the induction motor can be runs as a generator.
The construction of induction generator is same as that of motor with the difference that the
direction of rotation of the motor and a generator is opposite for the same current direction.
The action of induction machine as a generator can be explained from the phasor diagram.

s
Fig. 2

Consider the phasor diagram of the induction motor on load.

Let us consider the speed of the induction machine is less than synchronous speed so that
machine takes current I1 from supply. This current I1 is phasor sum of no load current Io and
I2r' which is opposite of I2r and referred as reflected rotor current in stator. The rotor current can

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be resolved into two components, one in phase with rotor emf and the other one is quadrature
component.
The rotor current I2r is given by,

Rationalizing the denominator we get,

Let the real part of above current be denoted by A while the imaginary part of the current be
denoted by B. Thus the total rotor current I2r be assumed as A- jB.
Now let the speed of the induction machine is increased. With increase in speed of prime
mover i.e. of rotor of induction motor slip goes on reducing and hence the rotor current also as it
depends on it. Thus I2r decreases. At synchronous speed, it completely vanishes. Hence its
opposite current I2r' also vanished and the resultant stator current is nothing but the no load
current . The core losses are supplied from line whereas friction and windage losses are supplied
mechanically.
When the speed is increased further the machines enters in generating region. At zero power
factor no power is interchanged between machine and supply lines, But the machine generates
power to meet its core losses. When the speed is increased, the current I 2r increases in magnitude
but it changes the phase. The current supplied by the generator will be then vector sum of I o and
I2r' which is reversed in phase as indicated in the phasor diagram.
The rotor current is now given by

... I2r = - A - jB
It can be seen that the in phase component reverses while the quadrature component remains
in the same direction.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The phasor diagram of induction machine as generator is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

The current I2r leads the voltage - E2r which is opposite of E2r. The angle between V1 and
I1 is more than which shows that electrical power of the machine is negative i.e. it is supplying
the power. Thus when the rotor is rotated above synchronous speed with the rotating field
remaining in the same direction, then the direction of cutting of rotor is in opposite direction
which results in reversal of rotor emf, current and torque. The machine is said to be operating in
generating mode.
The induction generator is not self excited as it cannot generates its own exciting current.
Thus it must be always connected to an a.c. supply. Generally it is operated in parallel with
synchronous machines. It is shown in the Fig.3.

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Fig. 3

Consider an example of a load which requires a lagging current which can not be supplied
by induction generator alone as it supplies leading current.
But this current requirement is fulfilled with the help of synchronous generators operating
in parallel with induction generator. Consider the following phasor diagram.

Fig. 4
The load current IL can be resolved into two components one in phase component I m and the
other quadrature component Ie. The speed of the induction generator is adjusted in such a way
that it supplies current Ic which is leading one. The induction generator current I s is nothing but
vector sum of Ic and Im.
The synchronous generator which is in parallel with the induction generator must supply the
remaining part of load current. For this the induction generator current Is is subtracted vectorially
from IL (subtracting vectorially means reversing Is and adding it with IL ). This current is nothing
but algebraic sum of currents Ic and Ie. The synchronous generator supplies no power. The total
current supplied by synchronous generator is lagging quadrature current.
If the load requires a leading current then theoretically the quadrature component of current
can be supplied entirely by the induction generator. But for satisfactory operation it should be
run in parallel with synchronous generator.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

If the bank of delta connected capacitors is operated in parallel with induction generator then
the reactive power requirement of induction generator is met by capacitors. This arrangements is
shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
The induction generator in this case is said to be isolated induction generator supplying a
load. The external voltage source is not required in this case.
Unlike in synchronous generators, induction generators are not rotating at a definite speed at
a given frequency. The speed varies with load as the load is proportional to slip. The frequency
of the induction generator is same as the frequency of the line to which it is connected.

Circle Diagram of Induction Generator

Using circle diagram, the induction generators can also be analyzed.

Fig. 1

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

As the antiphase component of current reverses, direction of current also changes. It will be
below horizontal shown by OE. E is the operating point. As seen from circle diagram.
AB = Rotor Cu loss.
BC = Stator Cu loss
CD = Constant losses.
DE = Generator output.
BE = Rotor input.
The slip is given by,

Similarly other required quantities can be obtained from the circle diagram.

Comparison of Induction Generator and Synchronous Generator:

The distinct features of induction generator compared to synchronous generators are as
follows :
i) It will not require d.c. excitation.
ii) It is not self excited but external a.c. supply of fixed frequency is required.
iii) The frequency of induction generator is decided by the frequency of the excitation voltage
which is supplying current to it.
iv) Synchronization of generator is not required as no emf is generated until it is connected to the
line.

Advantages:
The following are the advantages of induction generator.
i) Synchronization for induction generator is required.
ii) The construction is rugged for rotating parts.
iii) Unlike in synchronous machine, there is no danger of hunting or drop out of synchronism for
induction generators.
iv) When it short circuited, it delivers small power as the excitation quickly reduces to zero.
v) Induction generators are more suitable for high speeds.
vi) With the help of excitation supply and frequency, the voltage and frequency of induction
generator are controlled.

Disadvantages:
Although induction generators are having above mentioned advantages, it has following
advantages.
i) It must be run in parallel with the synchronous machine.
ii) The load is not deciding the power factor of induction generator but the power factor depends
on slip.s

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Applications:
Because of distinct superiority of the synchronous generator, induction generators are rarely
used to supply commercial power.
One application of induction generator is in railway for braking purposes. When the train is
moving down a gradient, the induction generators runs above synchronism. As the torque in this
region is negative, the braking action is achieved in the train. In addition to this the energy
generated by induction generator is given to the line so that the load on main generating station is
somewhat relieved. In this case no complicated control apparatus is required.

Importance of Induction Generators in Wind Mill:

The induction generator is extremely important in wind power electricity generation system.
It is suitable because the stator frequency depends on that of the paralleled synchronous
machines and not on the rotor speed.
Induction generator is most commonly used in wind turbines because of low cost,
ruggedness, operates with slip (Synchronous not required), availability in many sizes and
advance technology available.
Induction generators have outstanding operation as either motor or generator. They have
robust construction features. It provides natural protection against short circuits. The abrupt
changes in speed are easily absorbed by its solid rotor. Also any surge in the current is damped
by the magnetization path of the core, avoiding the possibility of demagnetization which is
possible incase of permanent magnet generators.

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Module-4
Starting and Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motors

Necessity of Starter:
In a three phase induction motor, the magnitude of an induced e.m.f. in the rotor circuit depends
on the slip of the induction motor. This induced e.m.f. effectively decides the magnitude of the
rotor current. The rotor current in the running condition is given by,

But at start, the speed of the motor is zero and slip is at its maximum i.e. unity. So
magnitude of rotor induced e.m.f. is very large at start. As rotor conductors are short circuited,
the large induced e.m.f. circulates very high current through rotor at start.
The condition is exactly similar to a transformer with short circuited secondary. Such a
transformer when excited by a rated voltage, circulates very high current through short circuited
secondary. As secondary current is large, the primary also draws very high current from the
supply.
Similarly in a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high, consequently the
stator draws a very high current from the supply.
Similarly in a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high, consequently the
stator draws a very high current from the supply. This current can be of the order of 5 to 8 times
the full load current, at start.
Due to such heavy inrush current at start there is possibility of damage of the motor winding.
Similarly such sudden inrush of current causes large line voltage drop. Thus other appliances
connected to the same line may be subjected to voltage spikes which may affect their working.
To avoid such effects, it is necessary to limit the current drawn by the motor at start. The starter
is a device which is basically used to limit high starting current by supplying reduced voltage to
the motor at the limit of starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only for short period and
once rotor gets accelerated, full normal rated voltage is applied.
Not only the starter limits the starting current but also provides the protection to the
induction motor against overloading loading and low voltage situations. The protection against
single phasing is also provided by the starter. The induction motor having rating below 5 h.p. can
withstand starting currents hence such motors can be started directly on line. But such motors
also need overload, single phasing and low voltage protection which is provided by a starter.
Thus all the three phase induction motors need some or the other type of starter.

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Types of Starters:
From the expression of rotor current it can be seen that the current at start can be controlled
by reducing E2 which is possible by supplying reduced voltage at start or by increasing the rotor
resistance R2 at start. The second method is possible only on case of slip ring induction motors.

The various types of starters based on the above two methods of reducing the starting current are,
1. Stator resistance starter
2. Auto-transformer starter
3. Star-delta starter
4. Rotor resistance starter
5. Direct on line starter

Direct on Load Line Starter (D.O.L.):

In case of small capacity motors having rating less than 5 h.p., the starting current is not very
high and such motors can withstand such starting current without any starter. Thus there is no
need to reduce applied voltage, to control the starting current. Such motors use a type of starter
which is used to connect stator directly to the supply lines without any reduction in voltage.
Hence the starter is known as direct on line starter.
Though this starter does not reduce the applied voltage, it is used because it protects the
motor from various severe abnormal conditions like over loading, low voltage, single phasing
etc.
The Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of various components in direct on line starter.

Fig.1 D.O.L. starter

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The NO contact is normally open and NC is normally closed. At start, NO is pushed for
fraction of second due to which coil gets energized and attracts the contactor. So stator directly
gets supply. The additional contact provided, ensures that as long as supply is ON, the coil gets
supply and keeps contactor in ON position. When NC is pressed, the coil circuit gets opened due
to which coil gets de-energized and motor gets switched OFF from the supply.
Under over load condition, current drawn by the motor increases due to which is an
excessive heat produced, which increases temperature beyond limit. Thermal relays get opened
due to high temperature, protecting the motor from overload conditions.

Star - Delta Starter:

This is the cheapest starter of all and hence used very commonly for the induction motors. It uses
triple pole double throw (TPDT) switch. The switch connects the stator winding in star at start.
Hence per phase voltage gets reduced by the factor 1/√3. Due to this reduced voltage, the starting
current is limited.
When the switch is thrown on other side, the winding gets connected in delta, across the
supply. So it gets normal rated voltage. The windings are connected in delta when motor gathers
sufficient speed.
The arrangement of star-delta starter is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Star-delta starter

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The operation of the switch can be automatic by using relays which ensures that motor will
not start with the switch in Run position. The cheapest of all and maintenance free operation are
the two important advantages of this starter. While its limitations are, it is suitable for normal
delta connected motors and the factor by which voltage changes is 1/√3 which can not be
changed.

Ratio of Tst to TF.L.

We have seen in case of autotransformer that if x is the factor by which the voltage is
reduced then,

Now the factor x in this type of starter is 1/√3.

where Isc = Starting phase current when delta connection with rated voltage
IF.L. = Full load phase current when delta connection

Example : A three phase induction motor has a ratio of maximum torque to full load torque as
2.5 : 1. Determine the ratio of starting torque to full load torque if star-delta starter is used. The
rotor resistance and standstill reactance per phase are 0.4 and 4 respectively.
Solution : The given ratio is, Tm /TF.L. = 2.5
The rotor values are, R2 = 0.4Ω X2 = 4Ω
Now Tm = (kE22)/(2X2)
... TF.L. = Tm/2.5 =2 (kE22)/(5X 2
2) = (kE2 )/20 ................................. (1)
Now Tst = (k E R2)/(R 2 + X 2)
2 2 2
With star-delta starter E2 = E2/√3

Taking ratio of (2) and (1),

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Auto-transformer Starter:
A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage applied to the
stator. Such a starter is called an autotransformer starter. The schematic diagram of auto-
transformer starter. The schematic diagram of auto-transformer starter is shown in the Fig..1.

Fig. 1 Auto-transformer starter

It consists of a suitable change over switch.

When the switch is in the start position, the stator winding is supplied with reduced voltage.
This can be controlled by tappings provided with autotransformer.
The reduction in applied voltage by the fractional percentage tappings x, used for an
autotransformer is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig.2 Use of auto-transformer to reduce voltage at start

When motor gathers 80% of the normal speed, the change over switch is thrown into run
position.
Due to this, rated voltage gets applied to stator winding. The motor starts rotating with
normal speed. Changing of switch is done automatically by using relays. The power loss is much

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less in this type of starting. It can be used for both star and delta connected motors. But it is
expensive than stator resistance starter.

Relation between Tst and TF.L.

Let x be the fractional percentage tappings used for an autotransformer to apply reduced
voltage to the stator.
So if, Isc = Starting motor current at rated voltage
and Ist = Starting motor current with starter
then Ist = x Isc .....Motor side ........................ (1)
But there is exists a fixed ratio between starting current drawn from supply Ist(supply) and
starting moor current Ist (motor) due to autotransformer, as shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3
Autotransformer ratio x = Ist (supply)/ Ist (motor)
Ist (supply) = x Ist (motor) ............................................ (2)
Substituting Ist (motor) from equation (1),
. . Ist (supply) = x . x Isc = x2 Isc ...........................................................................(3)
.

Now Tst α Ist2 (motor) α x2 Isc2

and TF.L. α (IF.L.)2/sf

Note : Thus starting torque reduces by x2 where x is the transformer ratio.

Example : A squirrel cage induction motor has a full load slip of 5%. The motor starting current
at rated voltage is 6 times its full load current. Find the tapping on the autotransformer starter
which would give full load torque at start. Whet would then be the supply starting current ?
Solution : Starting current at rated voltage = Isc
... Isc = 6 IF.L. and sf = 5% = 0.05
Let x = Tapping on autotransformer
TF.L. = Tst

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

1 = x2 (6/1)2 x 0.05
x = 0.7453
Thus 74.53% tapping is required
Now Ist (supply) = x Ist (motor) = x (xIsc) = x2 Isc
= x2 x 6 = 3.33 IF.L.
Thus supply starting current is 3.33 times the full load current.

Rotor Resistance Starter:

To limit the rotor current which consequently reduces the current drawn by the motor from the
supply, the resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit at start. This addition of the resistance in
rotor in the form of 3 phase star connected rheostat. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Rotor resistance starter

The external resistance is inserted in each phase of the rotor winding through slip ring and
brush assembly. Initially maximum resistance is in the circuit. As motor gather speed, the
resistance is gradually cut-off. The operation may be manual or automatic.
We have seen that the starting torque is proportional to the rotor resistance. Hence important
advantage of this method is not only the starting current is limited but starting torque of the
motor also gets improved.
Note : The only limitation of the starter that it can be used only for slip ring induction
motors as in squirrel cage motors, the rotor is permanently short circuited.

Calculation of Steps of Rotor Resistance Starter:

The calculation of steps of rotor resistance starter is based on the assumptions that,
1. The motor starts against a constant torque
2. The rotor current fluctuates between two fixed values, a maximum and a minimum, denoted as
I2max and I2min.
The Fig. 2, shows a single phase of a three phase of a three phase rheostat to be inserted in
the rotor. The starter has n steps, equally divided into the section AB. The contact point after
each step is called stud. The total resistances upto each stud from the star point of star connected
rotor as denoted as R1, R2, Rn-1.

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Fig. 2 Steps of rotor resistance starter

It consists of rotor resistance r2 and the external resistances Rx1, Rx2...etc. At the time of
reaching to the next step, current is maximum . Then motor gathers speed, slip reduces and hence
while leaving a stud, the current is I2min.

Let E2 = Standstill rotor e.m.f. per phase

When handle is moved to stud 1, the current is maximum given by,

where s1 = Slip at start = 1

while moving to stud 2, the current reduces to I2min given by,

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Just reaching to stud 2, the current again increases to I2min as the part of external resistance
Rx1 gets cut-off.

While leaving stud 2, the slip changes to s3 and current again reduces to,

While just reaching to stud 3, Rx2 gets cut off completely and current again increases to,

Hence at the last nth stud, the maximum current is,

where sn = Slip under normal running condition

At nth stud no external resistance is in series with rotor.

From (1) and (2) we can write,

where K = Constant
From (1), R1 = s1r2/sn but s1 = 1 at start

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Once R1 is known, other resistances can be calculated.

R2 = KR1, R3 = K R2 = KKR1 = K2 R1
3
R4 = K R1, ............r2 = Kn-1 R1
From last expression of r2,

where n = Number of starter studs

Thus the resistances of various sections can be obtained as,

In this way the various steps of rotor resistance starter can be calculated.

Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor:

A three phase induction motor is practically a constant speed motor like a d.c. shunt motor. But
the speed of d.c. shunt motor can be varied smoothly just by using simple rheostats. This
maintains the speed regulation and efficiency of d.c. shunt motor. But in case of three phase
induction motors it is very difficult to achieve smooth speed control. And if the speed control is
achieved by some means, the performance of the induction motor in terms of its power factor,
efficiency etc. gets adversely affected.
For the induction motor we know that,

From this expression it can be seen that the speed of induction motor can be changed either
by changing its synchronous speed or by changing the slip s.
Similarly torque produced in case of three phase induction motor is given by,
N = Ns (1 - s)
So as the parameters like R2, E2 are changed then to keep the torque constant for constant
load condition, motor reacts by change in its slip. Effectively its speed changes.
Thus speed of the induction motor can be controlled by basically two methods :
1. From stator side and
2. From rotor side

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From stator side, it includes following methods :

a. Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f control.
b. Supply voltage control.
c. Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.
d. Adding rheostats in stator circuit.

From rotor side, it includes following methods :

a. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
b. Cascade control.
c. Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.

Supply Voltage Control:s

We know that, T α (k s E22 R2)/(R 22 +(s X2)2)
Now E2, the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill depends on the supply voltage V.
.
.. E2 α V
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (s X2)2<<R2 and
hence can be neglected.
... T α ( s E22 R2)/R 22) α sV2 for constant R2
Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as per above equation torque produced
also decreases. But to supply the same load it is necessary to develop the same torque hence
value of slip increases so that torque produced remains same. Slip increases means motor reacts
by running at lower speed, to decrease in supply voltage. So motor produces the required load
torque at a lower speed. The speed-torque characteristics for the motor using supply voltage
control are shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig.1 Speed-torque curves for motor with voltage control

But in this method, due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor increases. Large
change in voltage for small change in speed is required is the biggest disadvantage. Due to
increased current, the motor may get overheated. Additional voltage changing equipment is
necessary. Hence this method is rarely used in practice. Motors driving fan type of loads use this
method of speed control. Due to reduced voltage, E2 decreases, decreasing the value of maximum
torque too.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Supply Frequency Control or V / f Control:

The synchronous speed is given by,
Ns = 120f / Ps
Thus by controlling the supply frequency smoothly, the synchronous speed can be controlled
over a wide range. This gives smooth speed control of an induction motor.
But the expression for the air gap flux is given by,

This is according to the e.m.f. equation of a transformer where,

K1 = Stator winding constant
Tph1 = Stator turns per phase
V = Supply voltage
f = Supply frequency
It can be seen from this expression that if the supply frequency f is changed, the value of air
gap flux also gets affected. This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores. Such a
saturation leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetization) no load current of the motor. Hence
it is necessary to maintain air gap flux constant when supply frequency f is changed.
To achieve this, it can be seen from the above expression that along with f, V also must be
changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant. This ensures constant air gap flux giving speed
control without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is called V / f control.

Fig. 1 Electronic scheme for V/f control

Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is variable voltage variable
frequency supply and can be achieved by an electronic scheme using converter and inverter
circuitry. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.
The normal supply available is constant voltage constant frequency a.c. supply. The
converter converts this supply into a d.c. supply. This d.c. supply is then given to the inverter.
The inverter is a device which converts d.c. supply, to variable voltage variable frequency a.c.
supply which is required to keep V / f ratio constant. By selecting the proper frequency and
maintaining V / f constant, smooth speed control of the induction motor is possible.
If f is the normal working frequency then the Fig. 2 shows the torque-slip characteristics for
the frequency f1 > f and f2 < f i.e. for frequencies above and below the normal frequency.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 Torque-slip characteristics with variable f and constant (V/f)

Another disadvantages of this method is that the supply obtained cannot be used to supply
other devices which require constant voltage. Hence an individual scheme for a separate motor is
required which makes it costly.

Adding Rheostats in Stator Circuit:

We have seen that the reduced voltage can be applied to the stator by adding the rheostats in the
stator circuit. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1. The part of the voltage gets dropped across
the resistances and reduced voltage gets applied across the stator.
The reduction in stator voltage causes reduction in the speed. The rheostats can be varied
as per the required change in speed. But the entire line current flows through the rheostats and
hence there are large power losses. The method is not efficient from speed control point of view
hence used as a starter rather than as a speed control method.

Fig. 1 Stator resistance control

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Adding External Resistance in Rotor Circuit

We know, T α (s E22 R2)/(R22 +(sX 2)2)
For low slip region (s X2)2 << R2 and can be neglected and for constant supply voltage is
also constant.
... T α ( s R2)/R 2 α s/R2 2 2

Thus if the rotor resistance is increased, the torque produced decreases. But when the load
on the motor is same, motor has to supply same torque as load demands. So motor reacts by
increasing its slip to compensate decreases in T due to R2 and maintains the load torque constant.
So due to the additional rotor resistance R2, motor slip increases i.e. the speed of the motor
decreases. Thus by increasing the rotor resistance R2, speeds below normal value can be
achieved. Another advantage of this method is that the starting torque of the motor increases
proportional to rotor resistance. The Fig. 1 shows the torque-speed curves for rotor resistance
control.

But this method has following disadvantages :

1. The large speed changes are not possible. This is because for large speed change, large
resistance is required to be introduced in rotor which causes large rotor copper loss due to reduce
the efficiency.
2. The method cannot be used for the squirrel cage induction motors.
3. The speeds above the normal values cannot be obtained.
4. Large power losses occur due to large loss.
5. Sufficient cooling arrangements are required which make the external rheostats bulky be
expensive.
6. Due to large power losses, efficiency is low.
Thus the method is rarely used in the practice.

Fig. 1

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Single Phase Induction Motors

Introduction:

For general lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses, schools etc. Single phase a.c. supply is
commonly used. Hence instead of d.c. motors, the motors which work on single phase a.c.
supply are very popularly in use. These a.c. motors are called single phase induction motors. The
numerous domestic applications use single phase motors. The power rating of such motors is
very small. Some of them are even fractional horse power motors, which are used in applications
like small toys, small fans, hair dryers etc. This chapter explains the construction, working
principle and applications of various types of single phase induction motors.

Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors

Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main parts. one
rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called stator
while the rotating part is called rotor.
The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on
its periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding. This is excited by a
single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to minimum. The
stampings are made up of material like silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis loss. The
stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by single phase
a.c. supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain definite number
of poles. The number of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the synchronous speed
of the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed relation with supply
frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of uninsulated
copper or aluminium bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends
with the help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire structure looks like cage hence
called squirrel cage rotor. The construction and symbol is shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1

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As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very
very small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible. The
main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number of poles as that of
the stator winding.
The schematic representation of two pole single phase induction motor is shown in the Fig.2.

Working Principle of 1-phase Induction Motor:

For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each other to produce
the torque. In d.c. motors, field winding produces the main flux while d.c. supply given to
armature is responsible to produce armature flux. The main flux and armature flux interact to
produce the torque.
In the single phase induction motor, single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links with the rotor conductors and
due to transformer action e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. The induced e.m.f. drives current
through the rotor as rotor circuit is closed circuit. This rotor current produces another flux called
rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus second flux is produced according to induction
principle due to induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called induction motor. As against this in d.c.
motor a separate supply is required to armature to produce armature flux. This is an important
difference between d.c. motor and an induction motor.
Another important difference between the two is that the d.c. motors are self starting while
single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Let us see why single phase induction motors are not self starting with the help of a theory
called double revolving field theory.

Double Revolving Field Theory:

According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating components
which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the maximum
magnitude of the alternating quantity.
In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating
magnetic field having maximum magnitude of Φ1m.

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According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of the stator flux,
each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e. (Φ1m/2). Both these
components are rotating in opposite directions at the synchronous speed Ns which is dependent
on frequency and stator poles.
Let Φf is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while Φ b is the backward
component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two components at any instant
gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at the instant. So resultant of these two is the
original stator flux.

Fig. 1 Stator flux and its two components

The Fig. 1 shows the stator flux and its two components Φ f and Φb. At start both the
components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.1(a). Thus the resultant Φ R = 0. This is
nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at start. After 90 o, as shown in the Fig. 1(b),
the two components are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same direction. Hence
the resultant ΦR is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components. So ΦR = (Φ1m/2)
+ (Φ1m/2) =Φ1m. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at θ = 90 o as shown
in the Fig 1(c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the original alternating
stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to cutting
of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current produces
rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component Φ f to produce a torque in one particular
direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward component Φ b to
produce a torque in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise
torque is negative.
At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque tries
to rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start.
And hence the single phase induction motors are not self starting.

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Torque speed characteristics

The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively with
the help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Torque-speed characteristic

It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase
motors are not self starting.
However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant average torque
increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor starts rotating in that
direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally hence some
modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motors to make them self
starting.
Another theory which can also be used to explain why single phase induction motors is not
self starting is cross-field theory.

Types of Single Phase Induction Motors:

In practice some arrangement is provided in the single phase induction motors so as that the
stator flux produced becomes rotating type rather than the alternating type, which rotates in
particular direction only. So torque produced due to such rotating magnetic field is unidirectional
as there is no oppositely directed torque present. Hence under the influence of rotating magnetic
field in one direction, the induction motor becomes self starting. It rotates in same direction as
that of rotating magnetic field. Thus depending upon the methods of producing rotating stator
magnetic flux, the single phase induction motors are classified as,
1. Split phase induction motor
2. Capacitor start induction motor
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
4. Shaded pole induction motor
To produce rotating magnetic field, it is necessary to have minimum two alternating fluxes
having a phase difference between the two. The interaction of such two fluxes produces a

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resultant flux which is rotating magnetic flux, rotating in space in one particular direction. So an
attempt is made in all the single phase induction motors to produce an additional flux other than
stator flux, which has a certain phase difference with respect to stator flux.
Such two fluxes are shown in the Fig. 1 having phase difference of between them.

Fig. 1
More the phase difference angle α, more is starting torque produced. Thus production of
rotating magnetic field at start is important to make the single phase induction motors self
starting. Once the motor starts, then another flux Φ2 may be removed and motor can continue to
rotate under influence of stator flux or main flux alone.
Let us see how the rotating magnetic field is produced in various types of single phase
induction motors.

Split Phase Induction Motor:

This type of motor has single phase stator winding called main winding. In addition to this, stator
carries one more winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. The auxiliary winding
carries a series resistance such that its impedance is highly resistive in nature. The main winding
is inductive in nature.

Let Im = Current through main winding

and Ist = Current through auxiliary winding
As main winding is inductive, current Im lags voltage by V by a large angle Φ m while Ist
is almost in phase in V as auxiliary winding is highly resistive. Thus three exists a phase
difference of α between the two currents and hence between the two fluxes produced by the two
currents. This is shown in the Fig.1(c). The resultant of these two fluxes is a rotating magnetic
field. Due to this, the starting torque, which acts only in one direction is produced.

Fig. 1 Split phase induction motor

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The auxiliary winding has a centrifugal switch in series with it. When motor gather a speed
upto 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, centrifugal switch gets opened mechanically and in
running condition auxiliary winding remains out of the circuit. So motor runs only stator
winding. So auxiliary winding is designed for short time use while the main winding is designed
for continuous use. As the current Im and are splitted from each other by angle 'α ' at start, the
motor is commonly called split phase motor.
The torque-speed characteristics of split phase motors is shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

The starting torque Tst is proportional to the split angle 'α ' but split phase motors give poor
starting torque which is 125 to 150% of full load torque.
The direction of rotation of this motor can be reversed by reversing the terminals of either
main winding or auxiliary winding. This changes the direction of rotating magnetic field which
in turn changes the direction of rotation of the motor.
Applications
These motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. These are used for
easily started loads like fans, blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, oil
burners, office equipments etc. These are available in the range of 1/120 to 1/2 kW.

Capacitor Start Induction Motors:

The construction of this type of motors is similar to the resistance split phase type. The
difference is that in series with the auxiliary winding the capacitor is connected. The capacitive
circuit draws a leading current, this feature used in this type to increase the split phase
angle α between the two currents Im and Ist.
Depending upon whether capacitor remains in the circuit permanently or is disconnected
from the circuit using centrifugal switch, these motors are classified as,
1. Capacitor start motor and
2. Capacitor start capacitor run motors
The connection of capacitor start motor is shown in the Fig. 1(a). The current I m lags the
voltage by angle Φm while due to capacitor the current Ist leads the voltage by angle Φst. Hence

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there exists a large phase difference between the two currents which is almost 90o , which is an
ideal case. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.1(b).

Fig 1. Capacitor start motor

The starting torque is proportional to 'α 'and hence such motors produce very high starting torque
When speed approaches to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, the starting winding gets
disconnected due to operation of the centrifugal switch. The capacitor remains in the circuit only
at start hence it is called capacitor start motors.
Key point : In case of capacitor start capacitor run motor, there is no centrifugal switch and
capacitor remain permanently in the circuit. This improves the power factor.

The schematic representation of such motor is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Capacitor start capacitor run motor

The phasor diagram remains same as shown in the Fig.1(b). The performance not only at
start but in running condition also depends on the capacitor C hence its value is to be designed so
as to compromise between best starting and best running condition. Hence the starting torque
available in such type of motor is about 50 to 100% of full load torque.

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The direction of rotation, in both the types can be changed by interchanging the connection of
main winding or auxiliary winding. The capacitor permanently in the circuit improves the power
factor. These motors are more costly than split phase type motors.
The capacitor value can be selected as per the requirement of starting torque, the starting
torque can be as high as 350 to 400 % of full load torque. The torque-speed characteristics is as
shown in the Fig.3.

Fig.3 Torque speed characteristic of capacitor split phase motor

Applications
These motors have high starting torque and hence are used for hard starting loads. These are
used for compressors, conveyors, grinders, fans, blowers, refrigerators, air conditions etc. These
are most commonly used motors. The capacitor start capacitor run motors are used in celling
fans, blowers and air-circulations. These motors are available upto 6 kW.

Example : A 250 W, 230 V, 50 Hz capacitor start motor has the following impedances at
standstill.
Main winding, Zm = 7 + j5 Ω
Auxiliary winding, Za = 11.5 + j5 Ω
Find the value of capacitor to be connected in series with the auxiliary winding to give a
phase displacement between the currents in two windings. Draw the circuit and phasor diagram
for motor.

Solution : Let Xc be the capacitive reactance to be connected with auxiliary winding at start, as
shown in the Fig. 1(a).

Fig. 1(a)

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

... Za = 11.5 + j (5-Xc ) Ω

= 7 + j5 Ω = 8.6023
Now Ia and Im must have a phase difference of 90o. Im will lag the voltage by
35.5376o hence Ia must lead the voltage by (90o- 35.5376o ) i.e. 53.4624o , as shown in the Fig
1(b).

Fig. 1(b)

The phase angle of Za is,

Φa =tan-1((5 - Xc )/11.5) = -53.4624o
Key point :As leads, the phase angle of i.e. must be negative hence taken as
tan(-53.4624o ) = (5 - Xc )/11.5 i.e.
-1.34956 = (5 - Xc )/11.5
.
.. Xc = 20.52 Ω = 1/(2πfC)
.
.. C = 1/(2π x 50 x 20.52) = 155.1217μF

Shaded Pole Induction Motor:

This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of salient poles i.e.
projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a copper band on one of its unequally
divided part called shading ban Fig.1(a) shows 4 pole shaded pole construction while Fig. 1(b)
shows a single pole consisting of copper shading band.

Fig 1

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Key point : When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.
The production of rotating magnetic field can be explained as below :
The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces alternating flux. The
waveform of the flux is shown in the Fig. 2(a). The distribution of this flux in the pole area is
greatly influenced by the role of copper shading band. Consider the three instants say t1,
t2 and t3 during first half cycle of the flux as shown, in the Fig 2(a).

Fig. 2 (a) Waveform of stator flux

At instant t = t 1, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due to the transformer
action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band. This circulates current through
shading band as it is short circuited, producing its own flux. According to lenz's law, the
direction of this current is so as to oppose the cause i.e. rise in current. Hence shading ring flux is
opposing to the main flux. Hence there is crowding of flux in non-shaded part while weakening
of flux in shaded part. Overall magnetic axis shifts in non-shaded part as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 Production of rotating magnetic field

At instant t = t 2, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is almost zero as
flux almost reaches to its maximum value. So dΦ/dt = 0. Hence there is very little induced e.m.f.
in the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux is also negligible, hardly affecting the

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distribution of the main flux. Hence the main flux distribution is uniform and magnetic axis lies
at the centre of the pole face as shown in the Fig. 2(c).
At the instant t = t3, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of decrease is high
which again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This circulates current through the
ring which produces its own flux. Now direction of the flux produced by the shaded ring current
is so as to oppose the cause which is decrease in flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux means its
direction is same as that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux in the shaded
part as compared to non-shaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts to the middle of the
shaded part of the pole. This is shown in the Fig. 2(d).
This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently this produces an
effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from non-shaded part of the pole to the
shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor produces the starting torque is low which is about 40
to 50% of the full load torque for this type of motor. The torque speed characteristics is shown in
the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Torque-speed characteristics of shaded pole motor

Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but this type of
motor has a lot of lamination as :
1. The starting torque is poor.
2. The power factor is very low.
3. Due to I2R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the additional set of shading
rings is required. By opening one set and closing other, direction can be reversed but the method
is complicated and expensive.
5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are usually available in a
range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.

Application
These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor and low
efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, by motors, advertising displays,
film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers, photo copying machines etc.

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 Electric Motors (18EE44)

Module-5

Synchronous Motor
1. Introduction
If a three phase supply is given to the stator of a three phase alternator, it can work as a
motor. As is driven at synchronous speed, it is called synchronous generator. So if alternator is
run as a motor. It will rotate at a synchronous speed. Such a device which converts an electrical
energy into a mechanical energy running at synchronous speed is called synchronous motor.
Synchronous motor works only at synchronous speed and cannot work at a speed other than the
synchronous speed. Its speed is constant irrespective of load, no doubt, its speed changes for an
instant at the time of loading.
2. Types
The two types of synchronous motor are,
1. Three phase synchronous motors
2. Single phase synchronous motor
The single phase synchronous motors are further classified as reluctance motor and
hysteresis motor.
The three phase synchronous motor works on the concept of rotating magnetic field. The
field produced by stationary three phase winding, which rotates in space is called rotating
magnetic field. Its speed is always synchronous and given by,
Ns = 120f/P
Where P = Number of poles for which winding is wound
f = Frequency of the supply.

3. Rotating magnetic field (R.M.F.)

The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but
whose axis rotates in a plane at a certain speed. e.g. permanent magnet rotating in a space
produces a rotating magnetic field. Similarly if an arrangement is made to rotate the poles, with
constant excitation supplied, the resulting field is rotating magnetic field. So a field produced in
an air gap of a rotating field type alternator is of rotating type. But this is all about production of
R.M.F. by physically rotating poles or magnet. In practice such a rotating magnetic field can be
produced by exciting a set of stationary coils or wi9nding with the help of polyphase a.c. supply.
The resultant flux produced in such a case has constant magnitude and its axis rotates in space
without physically rotating the winding. Let us study how it happens.

Production of rotating magnetic field

Consider a three phase windings displaced in space by 120o, supplied by a three phase a.c.
supply. The three phase currents are also displaced from each other by 120o. the flux produced
by each phase current is also sinusoidal in nature and all three fluxes are separated from each

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

other by120o. If the phase sequence of the windings is 1-2-3, then the mathematical equation for
the instantaneous values of the fluxes Φ1, Φ2 and Φ3 can be given as,
Φ1 = Φm sin(ωt) = Φm sin θ ............................................. (1)
Φ2 = sin (ωt - 120o) = Φm sin (θ - 120o) .......................... (2)
Φ3 = Φm sin (ωt - 240o) = Φm sin (θ - 240o) ...................... (3)

As windings are identical and supply is balanced the amplitude of each flux is same i.e. Φ m .
The waveform of three fluxes are shown in the Fig.1(a) while the assumed positive directions of
these fluxes in space are shown in the Fig.1(b). Assumed positive direction means whenever the
instantaneous value of flux is positive, in vector diagram it must be represented along its
assumed positive direction. And if flux has negative instantaneous value then must be
represented in opposite direction to assumed positive direction, in the vector diagram.

Fig. 1

Let Φ1, Φ2 and Φ3 be the instantaneous values of the fluxes. The resultant flux Φ T at any
instant is given by phasor combination of Φ 1, Φ2 and Φ3 at that instant. Let us find out at four
different instant 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 1(a) i.e. respectively at θ = 0 o, 60o, 120o and
180o.
Case i) θ = 0o
Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
Φ1 = Φm sin 0o = 0
Φ2 = Φm sin(-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
Φ3 = Φm sin (-240o) = + 0.866 Φm

Show positive values in assumed positive directions and negative in opposite directions to
assumed positive directions.
Hence vector diagram looks like as shown in The Fig. 2(a).
BD is perpendicular drawn from B on ' ΦT '.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 a and b
.
.. OD = DA = ΦT/2
In triangle ∟OBD = 30o
... cos 30o = OD/OB = (ΦT/2)/(0.866 Φm )
... ΦT = 2 x 0.866 Φm x cos 30o
= 1.5 Φm

So magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 times the maximum value of an individual flux.

Case ii) θ = 60o

Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
Φ1 = Φm sin 60o = +0.866 Φm
Φ2 = Φm sin (-60o) = -0866 Φm
Φ3 = Φm sin (-180o) = 0
So Φ1 is positive and Φ2 is negative so vector diagram looks like as shown in the Fig. 2(b).
It can be seen that from the Fig. 2(b), that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
So magnitude of the resultant is same as before but is is rotated in space by 60oin clockwise
direction, from its previous position.

Case iii) θ = 120o

Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3), we get,
Φ1 = Φm sin 120o = +0.866 Φm
Φ2 = Φm sin 0o = 0
Φ3 = Φm sin (-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
So Φ1 is positive, Φ2 is zero and Φ3 is negative. So vector diagram looks like as shown in the
Fig. 2(c). From the Fig. 2(c), it can be proved easily that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 c and d

So magnitude of the resultant is once again 1.5 Φm, same as before. While it is further
rotated in space by from its previous position at θ = 60o
Case iv) θ = 180o
Substituting in equations (1), (2) and (3), we get,
Φ1 = Φm sin (180o) = 0
Φ2 = Φm sin (60o) = +0.866 Φm
Φ3 = Φm sin (-60o)
= -0.866 Φm
So Φ1 = 0, Φ2 is positive and Φ3 is negative. The vector diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2(d).
From the vector diagram, it can be proved that,
ΦT = 1.5 Φm
So magnitude of resultant flux is once again 1.5 Φm but is further rotated by 60 oin clockwise
direction from its position for θ = 120o
So for a half cycle of the fluxes, the resultant has rotated through180o. This is applicable for
2 pole winding. From this discussion we can have following conclusions :

a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by 120 o, has a constant
amplitude of 1.5 Φm where Φm is maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any phase.
b) The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.
This is nothing but satisfying the definition of a rotating magnetic field. Hence we can
conclude that the three phase stationary winding when connected to a three phase a.c. supply
produces a rotating magnetic field.
The speed of the resultant is in space, for electrical of the fluxes for a 2 pole winding as
discussed above.
Key Point : This is nothing but,
o
mechanical = oelectrical for 2 pole case.

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 Electric Motors (18EE44)

If winding is wound for P poles, then resultant will complete 2/P revolution for 360oelectrical of
the fluxes. The relation is exactly similar to what we have discussed earlier in case of alternator.
So resultant flux bears a fixed relation between speed of rotation, supply frequency and number
of poles for which winding is wound. The relation is derived while studying an alternator. So for
a standard supply frequency of f Hz of a three phase a.c. supply and 'P' poles of the three
windings, the speed of the rotating magnetic field is Ns r.p.m.

Key Point : So for a rotating magnetic field,

Ns = 120f/P r.p.m.

Direction of rotating magnetic field:

The direction of the rotating magnetic field is always from the axis of the leading phase of
the three phase winding towards the lagging phase of the winding. In the example above the
phase sequence is 1-2-3 i.e. phase 1 leads 2 by 120o and phase 2 leads 3 by 120 o. So rotating
magnetic field rotates from axis of 1 to axis of 2 and then to axis of e i.e. in the clockwise
direction as seen above. This direction can be reversed by changing any two terminals of three
phase winding while connecting them to the three phase supply. So in practice for a phase
sequence of R-Y-B, the rotating magnetic field is rotating in clockwise direction, then by
changing any two terminals of the winding it can be changed to anticlockwise, as shown in the
Fig. 3(a) and (b).

Fig.3 Reversal of direction R.M.F.

Principle of Working of 3-Phase Synchronous Motor:

Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two unlike poles are
brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a tremendous force of attraction
between those two poles. In such condition the two magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same direction, with
the same speed due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic locking condition. The principle
is shown schematically in the Fig.1.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1 Principle of magnetic locking

So to have the magnetic locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and magnetic
axes of two must be brought very close to each other. Let us see the application of this principle
in case of synchronous motor.
Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2 poles. The two
magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting both the windings, stator and
rotor with three phase a.c. supply and d.c. supply respectively. When three phase winding is
excited by a three phase a.c. supply the flux produced by the three phase winding is always of
rotating type, which is already discussed in the previous post. Such a magnetic flux rotates in
space at a speed called synchronous speed. This magnetic field is called rotating magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to the physical rotation of magnets in space
with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous motor produces one magnet which is as
good as rotating in space with the synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of a stator rotating
magnetic field depends on the supply frequency and the number of poles for which stator
winding is wound. if the frequency of the a.c. supply is f Hz and stator is wound for P number of
poles, then the speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous given by,
Ns = 120f/P r.p.m.
In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed of the rotating
magnetic field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the physical rotation of two poles with
a speed of Ns r.p.m. For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the stator poles are N 1 and
S1 which are rotating at a speed of Ns. The direction of rotation of rotating magnetic field is say
clockwise.
When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces two poles,
assuming rotor construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles be N2and S2.
Now one magnet is rotating at Ns having poles N1 and S1 while at start rotor is stationary i.e.
second magnet is stationary having poles N2 and S2. If somehow the unlike poles N1 and S2 or
S1 and N2 are brought near each other, the magnetic locking may get established between stator
and rotor poles. As stator poles are rotating due to magnetic locking rotor will also rotate in the
same direction as that of stator poles i.e. in the direction of rotating magnetic field, with the same
speed i.e Ns. Hence synchronous motor rotates at one and only one speed i.e. synchronous speed.
But this all depends on existence of magnetic locking between stator and rotor poles. Practically
it is not possible for stator poles to pull the rotor poles from their stationary position into

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

magnetic locking condition. Hence synchronous motors are not self starting. Let us see the
reason behind this in detail.
Why synchronous Motor Is Not Self Starting?
Consider the rotating magnetic field as equivalent to physical rotation of two stator poles N1 and
S1 .
Consider an instant when two poles are at such a position where stator magnetic axis is vertical,
along A-B as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
At this instant, rotor poles are arbitrarily positioned as shown in the Fig. 1.
At this instant, rotor is stationary and unlike poles will try to attract each other. Due to this rotor
will be subjected to an instantaneous torque in anticlockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
Now stator poles are rotating very fast i.e. at a speed N s r.p.m. Due to inertia, before rotor
hardly rotates in the direction of anticlockwise torque, to which it is subjected, the stator poles
change their positions. Consider an instant half a period latter where stator poles are exactly
reversed but due to inertia rotor is unable to rotate from its initial position. This is shown in the
Fig.1(b).

Fig. 1
At this instant, due to the unlike poles trying to attract each other, the rotor will be subjected
to a torque in clockwise direction. This will tend to rotate rotor in the direction of rotating
magnetic field.
But before this happen, stator poles again change their position reversing the direction of the
torque exerted on the rotor.
Key Point : As a result, the average torque exerted on the rotor is zero. And hence the
synchronous motor is not self starting.

Note : The question is obvious that will happen if by chance the rotor position is in such a way
that the unlike rotor and stator poles are facing each other ? But owing to the large inertia of the
rotor, the rotor fails to rotate along with the stator poles. Hence again the difference of position
of magnetic axes gets created and rotor gets subjected to quickly reversing torque. This is
because the speed with which rotating magnetic field is rotating is so high that it is unable to

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

rotate the rotor from its initial position, due to the inertia of the rotor. So under any case,
whatever may be the starting position of the rotor, synchronous motor is not self starting.

Analysis of Phasor Diagram:

Consider a phasor diagram with normal excitation i.e. such a current through field winding
which will produce flux that will adjust magnitude of Ebph same as Vph.
Let δ be the load angle corresponding to the load on the motor. So from the exact opposing
position of Ebph with respect to Vph. Ebph gets displaced by angle δ.
Vector difference of Ebph and Vph, gives the phasor which represents Ia Zs, called ERph.
Now Zs = Ra + j Xs Ω
where Ra = Resistance of stator per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance of stator per phase
i.e. θ = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
and | Zs | = √(Ra2 + R s2) Ω
This angle 'θ' is called internal machine angle or an impedance angle.
The significant of 'θ' is that it tells us that phasor I aph lags behind ERph i.e. Ia Zsby angle θ.
Current always lags in case of inductive impedance with respect to voltage drop across that
impedance. So phasor Iaph can be shown lagging with respect to ERph by angle θ. Practically Ra is
very small compared to Xa and hence θ tends to 90o.
Note : The power factor at which motor is running, gets decided by the angle between
Vph and Iaph shown. This angle is denoted as Φ and called power factor angle.

and cos Φ = Power factor at which motor is working.

The nature of this p.f. is lagging if Iaph lags Vph by angle Φ. While it is leading if Iaph leads
Vph by angle Φ. Phasor diagram indicating all the details is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Phasor diagram under normal working condition

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Behaviour of Synchronous Motor on Loading:

When a d.c. motor or an induction motor is loaded, the speed of the motors drops. This is
because the load torque demand increases then the torque produced by the motor. Hence motor
draws more current to produce more torque to satisfy the load but its speed reduces. In case of
synchronous motor speed always remains constant equal to the synchronous speed, irrespective
of load condition. It is interesting to study how synchronous motor reacts to changes in the load
condition.
In a d.c. motor, armature develops an e.m.f. after motoring action starts, which opposes
supply voltage, called back e.m.f. Eb.
Hence if Ra the armature resistance and V is the supply voltage, we have established the
relation for the armature current as,
Ia = (V- Eb) / Ra ..................................................................... for a d.c. motor
where Eb = ΦPNZ / 60A .......................................... for a d.c. motor

In case of synchronous motor also, once rotor starts rotating at synchronous speed, the
stationary stator (armature) conductors cut the flux produced by rotor. The only difference is
conductors are stationary and flux is rotating. Due to this there is an induced e.m.f. in the stator
which according to Lenz's law opposes the supply voltage. This induced e.m.f. is called back
e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor. It is obtained as E bph i.e. back e.m.f. per phase. This gets
generated as the principle of alternator and hence alternating in nature and its magnitude can be
calculated by the equation,

or Ebph α Φ
As speed is always synchronous, the frequency is constant and hence magnitude of such
back e.m.f. can be controlled by changing the flux Φ produced by the rotor.
So back e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor depends on the excitation given to the field
winding and not on the speed, as speed is always constant.
As stator construction is similar to the armature of a three phase alternator, the impedance of
the stator is called synchronous impedance of synchronous motor consisting of R a as the stator
winding resistance and Xs as the synchronous reactance. All the values are generally expressed
on per phase basis.
Zs = Ra + jXs Ω per phase
So similar to the d.c. motor, we can write voltage equation for a synchronous motor as,

The difference is that this equation is vector equation as each quantity is alternating and has
different phase. So addition is to be performed vectorially to obtain the result.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

where Vph is the supply voltage per phase. The magnitude of E bph is adjusted almost equal to
Vph, on no load by controlling flux produced by rotor i.e. field winding.

Ideal Condition on No Load

The ideal condition on no load can be assumed by neglecting various losses in the motor.
And Vph = Ebph
Under this condition, the magnetic locking between stator and rotor is in such a way that the
magnetic axes of both, coincide with each other as shown in the Fig.1. As this is possible only
under no losses condition, is said to be ideal in case of synchronous motor.

Fig. 1 Magnetic locking under no load condition

As magnitude of Ebph and Vph is same and opposes the phasor diagram for this condition can
be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram on no load losses

In practice this is impossible. Motor has to supply mechanical losses and iron losses
alongwith small copper losses. Let us see how it can be explained in case of synchronous motor.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Losses):

We have seen that Ebph and Vph are magnitudewise same, which is adjusted by controlling
field current, in turn controlling the flux.
Now due to the various losses practically present on no load, the magnetic locking exists
between stator and rotor but in such a way that there exists a small angle difference between the
axes of two magnetic fields as shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Magnetic locking under practical condition

So the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator axis by angle 'δ' as shown in the Fig.3 This
angle decides the amount of current required to produce the torque to supply various losses.
Hence this angle is called load angle, power angle, coupling angle, torque angle or angle of
retardation and denoted as δ as mentioned earlier.
The magnetic locking still exists between the two and rotor rotates at synchronous speed
along with rotating magnetic field maintaining angle difference between the axes of two fields,
as shown in the Fig. 3(b). The flux lines between the two get stretched due to such retardation of
rotor axis with respect to stator.
Now though │Ebph │ = │ Vph │, Ebph will not be located in exact opposition with V ph , but
will get displaced from its initial position by angle 'δ' as shown in the Fig. 4(a).

Fig. 4(a) Phasor diagram for no load condition with losses

Hence the vector difference between the two, E bph and Vph is not zero but give rise to a
phasor 'OB' as shown.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

This resultant decides the amount of current I aph to be drawn to produce the torque which
meets the various losses present in the synchronous motor. Under no load condition, δ is very
small and hence ERph is also very small.
So current drawn by the motor is also very small on no load which is the case in all the
various type of motors.

Synchronous Motor on Load:

As the load on the synchronous motor increases, there is no change in its speed. But what
gets affected is the load angle 'δ' i.e. the angle by which rotor axis retards with respect to stator
axis.
Hence as load increases, δ increases but speed remains synchronous.
As δ increases, though Ebph and Vph magnitudes are same, displacement of E bph from its ideal
position increases.

As synchronous impedance is constant, the magnitude of Iaph drawn by the motor increases
as load increases. This current produces the necessary torque which satisfied the increased load
demand. The magnetic locking still exists between the rotor and stator.
The phasor diagrams showing ERph increases as load increases are shown in the Fig. 4(b) and (c).

Fig. 4
So from the above discussion it is clear that on no load, current drawn by the motor is very
small. This is because the stator and the rotor magnetic axes are almost matching transformer
each other i.e. load angle δ is very small. As load increases, rotor magnetic axis starts retarding
with respect to stator axis i.e. load angle δ increases maintaining the magnetic locking condition.
And hence in case of the synchronous motor load affects the angle δ without affecting the speed.
As δ increases, the magnitude of ERph increases which shows that motor draws more current from
the supply. This satisfies the increased load torque demand.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

So torque produced in the synchronous motor depends on the load angle 'δ' for small values
of and to be precise depends on 'sinδ'. The load angle 'δ' is measured in degrees electrical. As
angle δ increases, the magnetic flux lines producing the force of attraction between the two get
more and more stretched. This weakens the force maintaining the magnetic locking, though
torque produced by the motor increases. As δ reaches upto 90o electrical i.e. half a pole pitch, the
stretched flux lines get broken and hence magnetic locking between the stator and rotor no
longer exists. The motor comes out of synchronism. So torque produced at δ equal to
90o electrical is the maximum torque, a synchronous motor can produce, maintaining magnetic
locking i.e. synchronism. Such s torque is called pull out torque. The relationship between torque
produced and load angle is shown in the Fig 5.

Fig. 5 Torque angle characteristic

Blondel Diagram { Constant Power Circle):

The Blondel diagram of a synchronous motor is an extension of a simple phasor diagram of a
synchronous motor.
For a synchronous motor, the power input to the motor per phase is given by,
Pin = Vph Iph cosΦ ........................................................ per phase
The gross mechanical power developed per phase will be equal to the difference
between Pin per phase and the per phase copper losses of the winding.
Copper loss per phase = (Iaph)2 Ra
... Pm = Vph Iph cosΦ - (Iaph)2 Ra .................................................... per phase
For mathematical convenience let Vph = V and Iaph = I,
.
.. Pm = VI cos - I2 Ra
... I2 Ra - VI cos + Pm = 0

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Now consider the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The equation (1) represents polar equation to a circle. To obtain this circle in a phasor
diagram, draw a line OY at an angle θ with respect to OA.

Fig. 2 Blondel diagram

The circle represented by equation (1) has a centre at some point O' on the line OY. The
circle drawn with centre as O' and radius as O'B represents circle of constant power. This is
called Blondel diagram, shown in the Fig. 2.
Thus if excitation is varied while the power is kept constant, then working point B while
move along the circle of constant power.
Let O'B = Radius of circle = r
OO' = Distant d
Applying cosine rule to triangle OBO',

Now OB represents resultant ER which is Ia Zs. Thus OB is proportional to current and

when referred to OY represents the current in both magnitude and phase.
OB = Ia = I say
Substituting various values in equation (2) we get,
r2 = I2 + d2 - 2dI cosΦ

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Comparing equations (1) and (3) we get,

Thus the point O' is independent of power Pm and is a constant for a give motor operating at
a fixed applied voltage V.
Comparing last term of equations (1) and (3),

The equation shows that as power Pm must be real, then 4Pm Ra ≥ V2 . The maximum
possible power per phase is,

And the radius of the circle for maximum power is zero. Thus at the time of maximum
power, the circles becomes a point O'.
While when the power Pm = O, then
r = V/2Ra = OO'
This shows that the circle of zero power passes through the points O and A.
The radius for any power Pm is given by,

This is generalized expression for the radius for any power.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Operation of S.M. at constant Load Variable Excitation:

We have seen previously that when load changes, for constant excitation, current drawn by the
motor increases. But if excitation i.e. field current is changed keeping load constant, the
synchronous motor reacts by changing its power factor of operation. This is most interesting
feature of synchronous motor. Let us see the details of such operation.
Consider a synchronous motor operating at a certain load. The corresponding load angle is δ.
At start, consider normal behaviour of the synchronous motor, where excitation is adjusted
to get Eb = V i.e. induced e.m.f. is equal to applied voltage. Such an excitation is called Normal
Excitation of the motor. Motor is drawing certain current from the supply and power input to the
motor is say Pin. The power factor of the motor is lagging in nature as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
Now when excitation is changed, changes but there is hardly any change in the losses of the
motor. So the power input also remains same for constant load demanding same power output.
Now Pin = √3 VL IL cos Φ = 3 (Vph Iph cos Φ)
Most of the times, the voltage applied to the motor is constant. Hence for constant power
input as Vph is constant, 'Iph cos Φ' remains constant.
Note : So far this entire operation of variable excitation it is necessary to remember that the
cosine component of armature current, Ia cosΦ remains constant.

So motor adjusts its cos Φ i.e. p.f. nature and value so that Ia cos Φ remains constant
when excitation of the motor is changed keeping load constant. This is the reason why
synchronous motor reacts by changing its power factor to variable excitation conditions.
Under Excitation:
When the excitation is adjusted in such a way that the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is less
than the applied voltage (Eb < V) the excitation is called Under Excitation.
Due to this, ER increases in magnitude. This means for constant Zs, current drawn by the
motor increases. But ER phase shifts in such a way that, phasor I a also shifts (as ER ^ Ia = θ) to
keep Ia cos Φ component constant. This is shown in the Fig. 1(b). So in under excited condition,
current drawn by the motor increases. The p.f. cos Φ decreases and becomes more and more
lagging in nature.
Over Excitation :
The excitation to the field winding for which the induced e.m.f. becomes greater than
applied voltage (Eb < V), is called over excitation.
Due to increased magnitude of Eb, ER also increases in magnitude. But the phase of E R also
changes. Now = ER ^ Ia = θ is constant, hence Ia also changes its phase. So Φ changes. The
Ia increases to keep Ia cos Φ constant as shown in Fig.1(c). The phase of E R changes so that
Ia becomes leading with respect to Vph in over excited condition. So power factor of the motor
becomes leading in nature. So overexcited synchronous motor works on leading power factor. So
power factor decreases as over excitation increases but it becomes more and more leading in
nature.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Critical Excitation:
When the excitation is changed, the power factor changes. The excitation for which the
power factor of the motor is unity (cos Φ = 1) is called critical excitation. Then I aph is in phase
with Vph. Now Ia cos Φ must be constant, cos Φ = 1 is at its maximum hence motor has to draw
minimum current from supply for unity power factor condition.
So for critical excitation, cos Φ = 1 and current drawn by the motor is minimum compared to
current drawn by the motor for various excitation conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 1(d).

Fig. 1 Constant load variable excitation operation

V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves:

From the previous article, it is clear that if excitation is varied from very low (under excitation)
to very high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum at unity p.f.
and then again increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading in
nature. This can be shown as in the Fig. 1.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester

Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1

Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding
of synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (I a) against field current
(If) is plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at
various load conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-
curves of synchronous motor. These are shown in the Fig. 2a).
As against this, if the power factor (cos Φ) is plotted against field current (I f), then the shape
of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against I f, at various
load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are shown in
the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 V-curves and Inverted V-curves

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Experimental Setup to Obtain V-Curves:

Fig. 3 shows an experimental setup to obtain V-curves and Inverted V-curves of
synchronous motor.
Stator is connected top three phase supply through wattmeters and ammeter. The two
wattmeter method is used to measure input power of motor. The ammeter is reading line current
which is same as armature (stator) current. Voltmeter is reading line voltage.

Fig. 3 Experimental setup for V-curves

A rheostat in a potential divider arrangement is used in the field circuit. By controlling the
voltage by rheostat, the field current can be changed. Hence motor can be subjected to variable
excitation condition to note down the readings.
Observation Table :

Now IL = Ia, per phase value can be determined, from the stator winding connections.
IL = Iaph for stator connection
IL/√3 = Iaph for delta connection
The power factor can be obtained as

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The result table can be prepared as :

The graph can be plotted from this result table.

1) Ia Vs If → V-curve
2) cosΦ Vs If → Inverted V-curve
The entire procedure can be repeated for various load conditions to obtain family of V-
curves and Inverted V-curves.

Synchronous Condensers:
When synchronous motor is over excited it takes leading p.f. current. If synchronous motor is on
no load, where load angle δ is very small and it is over excited (E b > V) then power factor angle
increases almost upto 90o. And motor runs with almost zero leading power factor condition. This
is shown in the phasor diagram Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Synchronous condenser

This characteristics is similar to a normal capacitor which takes leading power factor
current. Hence over excited synchronous motor operating on no load condition is called as
synchronous condenser or synchronous capacitor. This is the property due to which synchronous
motor is used as a phase advancer or as power improvement device.

Disadvantage of Low Power Factor:

In various industries, many machines are of induction motor type. The lighting and heating
loads are supplied through transformers. The induction motors and transformers draw lagging
current from the supply. Hence the overall power factor is very low and lagging in nature.
The power is given by,
P = VI cosΦ ..................................................... single phase
.
.. I = P/(VcosΦ)

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The supply voltage is constant and hence for supplying a fixed power P, the current is
inversely proportional to the p.f. cosΦ. Let P = KW is to be supplied with a voltage of 230 V
then,
Case i) cosΦ = 0.8,
I = (5 x103)/(230 x 0.8) = 27.17 A
Case ii) cos = 0.6,

I = (5 x103)/(230 x 0.6) = 36.23 A

Thus as p.f. decreases, becomes low, the current drawn from the supply increases to supply same
power to the load. But if p.f. maintained high, the current drawn from supply is less.
The high current due to low p.f. has following disadvantages :
1. For higher current, conductor size required is more which increases the cost.
2. The p.f. is given by
cosΦ = Active power/ Apparent = (P in KW)/ (S i.e. KVA rating)
Thus for fixed active power P, low p.f. demands large KVA rating alternators and transformers.
This increases the cost.
3. Large current means more copper losses and poor efficiency.
4. Large current causes large voltage drops in transmission lines, alternators and other
equipments. This results into poor regulation. To compensate such drop extra equipments is
necessary which further increases the cost.
Note : Hence power factor improvement is must practice. Hence the supply authorities
encourage consumers to improve the p.f.

Use of Synchronous Condenser in Power Factor Improvement:

The low power factor increases the cost of generation, distribution and transmission of the
electrical energy. Hence such low power factor needs to be corrected. Such power factor
correction is possible by connecting synchronous motor across the supply and operating it on no
load with over excitation.
Now let Vph is the voltage applied and I1ph is the current lagging Vph by angle Φ1. This
power factor Φ1 is very low, lagging.
The synchronous motor acting as a synchronous condenser is now connected across the
same supply. This draws a leading current of I2ph.
The total current drawn from the supply is now phasor of Iph and I2ph. This total current
IT now lags Vph by smaller angle Φ due to which effective power factor gets improved. This is
shown in the Fig. 2.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 Power factor correction by synchronous condenser

This is how the synchronous motor as a synchronous condenser is used to improve power
factor of the combined load.

Hunting in Synchronous Motor:

It is seen that, when synchronous motor is on no load, the stator and rotor pole axes almost
coincide with each other.
When motor is loaded, the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator. The angle by which rotor
retards is called load angle or angle of retardation δ.
If the load connected to the motor is suddenly changed by a large amount, then rotor tries to
retard to take its new equilibrium position.
But due to inertia of the rotor, it cannot achieve its final position instantaneously. While
achieving its new position due to inertia it passes beyond its final position corresponding to new
load. This will produce more torque than what is demanded. This will try to reduce the load
angle and rotor swings in other direction. So there is periodic swinging of the rotor on both sides
of the new equilibrium position, corresponding to the load. Such a swing is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Hunting in synchronous motor

Such oscillations of the rotor about its new equilibrium position, due to sudden application
or removal of load is called swinging or hunting in synchronous motor.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Due to such hunting, the load angle changes its value about its final value δ. As changes, for
same excitation i.e. Ebph the current drawn by the motor also changes. Hence during hunting there
are changes in the current drawn by the motor which may cause problem to the other appliances
connected to the same line.The changes in armature current due to hunting is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Current variations during hunting

If such oscillations continue for longer period, there are large fluctuations in the current. If
such variations synchronous with the natural period of oscillation of the rotor, the amplitude of
the swing may become so great that motor may come out of synchronism. At this instant
mechanical stresses on the rotor are sever and current drawn by the motor is also very large. So
motor gets subjected to large mechanical and electrical stresses.
Note : Hence hunting is not desirable phenomenon from motor point of view and must be
prevented.

Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Hunting:

It is mentioned earlier that in the slots provided in the pole faces, a short circuited winding is
placed. This is called damper winding.
When rotor starts oscillating i.e. when hunting starts a relative motion between damper
winding and the rotating magnetic field is created. Due to this relative motion, e.m.f. gets
induced in the damper winding. According to Lenz's law, the direction of induced e.m.f. is
always so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the hunting. So such induced e.m.f.
oppose the hunting. The induced e.m.f. tries to damp the oscillations as quickly as possible. Thus
hunting is minimized due to damper winding.
The time required by the rotor to take its final equilibrium position after hunting is called as
setting time of the rotor. If the load angle is plotted against time, the schematic representation of
hunting can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 3. It is shown in the diagram that due to damper
winding the setting time of the rotor reduces considerably.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. Effect of damper winding on hunting

Methods of Starting Synchronous Motors:

As seen earlier, synchronous motor is not self starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at a
speed very near to synchronous speed. This is possible by various method in practice. The
various methods to start the synchronous motor are,
1. Using pony motors
2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.

1. Using pony motors

In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of some external
device like small induction motor. Such an external device is called 'pony motor'.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched on.
Once the synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to
rotate as synchronous motor.
2. Using Damper Winding
In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the additional winding
consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited with
the help of end rings. Such an additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding. This
winding as short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor. The
schematic representation of such damper winding is shown in the Fig.1.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig . 1 Starting as a squirrel cage I.M.

Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motors starts rotating as an induction
motor at sub synchronous speed. Then d.c. supply is given to the field winding. At a particular
instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a synchronous speed. As rotor
rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper winding and the rotating
magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is running as synchronous motor, there cannot be any
induced e.m.f. in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start, to run the motor
as an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is out of the circuit. As damper winding is short
circuited and motor gets started as induction motor, it draws high current at start so induction
motor starters like star-delta, autotransformer etc. used to start the synchronous motor as an
induction motor.
3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor does not
provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the damper winding, it is
designed to a form a three phase star or delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding
are brought out through slip rings. An external rheostat then can be introduced in series with the
rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to
resistance added in the rotor provides high starting torque. The resistance is then gradually cut
off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near synchronous. d.c. excitation is
provided to the rotor, then motors gets pulled into synchronism ans starts rotating at synchronous
speed. The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial resistance added in
the rotor not only provides high starting torque but also limits high inrush of starting current.
Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.
The synchronous motor started by this method is called a slip ring induction motor is shown
in the Fig.1(b).

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 Starting as a slip ring I.M.

It can be observed from the Fig. 1(b) that the same three phase rotor winding acts as a
normal rotor winding by shorting two of the phases. From the positive terminal, current 'I' flows
in one of the phases, which divides into two other phases at start point as 1/2 through each, when
switch is thrown on d.c. supply side.

4. Using Small D.C. Machine

Many a times, a large synchronous motor are provided with a coupled d.c. machine. This
machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then the
excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous motor, the same
d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is then
excited by this exciter itself.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Other Motors
Universal Motor:
There are small capacity series motors which can be operated on d.c. supply or single phase
alternating supply of same voltage with same characteristics, called universal motors. The
general construction of such motor is similar to that of a.c. series motor as discussed in last
article. It is manufactured in two types.
i) Non compensated, low h.p ii) Compensated type, high h.p.
Non compensated type pole has 2 poles, having entire magnetic path as laminated. Armature
is wound type similar to the normal d.c. motor. Such non compensated construction is shown in
the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Cross-section of non compensated universal motor

While in compensated type, the motor has distributed field winding consisting of main field
and compensating winding. This is somewhat similar to the stator of split phase single phase
induction motor type construction. This also has a wound armature similar to the normal d.c.
motor. Fig.2 shows the connection diagrams for both the types of universal motor.

Fig. 2 Connection diagrams for a universal motor

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Speed torque charactseristics:

The speed - torque characteristics for both the types of universal motor are shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Speed-torque characteristic of universal motor

Compensated type universal motor has better speed - torque characteristics i.e. the
characteristics are same for the operation of motor on a.c. or d.c. supply. The motors are
generally designed for full load operation speeds ranging between 3000 to 20000 r.p.m.

Applications : Though compensated type characteristics are better, the non compensated type
are more preferred for low h.p. applications. While compensated type of universal motors are
preferred for h.p. applications. High starting torque is the important feature of universal motors.
The universal motors are used for domestic applications like vacuum cleaners, food
processor and mixers, hair driers, coffee grinders, electric shavers etc. Their other applications
are blowers, portable tools like drilling machines and small drivers.

Reversal of Rotation of Universal Motors:

By reversing the flow of current through the armature or field windings, the direction of
rotation can be reversed for salient pole non compensated type universal motor. This is possible
by interchanging the terminals on brush holders as shown in the Fig. 4.
In case of compensated type, the armature or field loads are interchanged and brushes are
shifted against the direction of rotation of motor, to achieve the reversal of direction.

Fig. 4 Reversal of rotation of universal motors

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Speed Control of Universal Motors:

The speed control of universal motor is achieved by three methods, as shown in the Fig.5.

Fig. 5 Speed control of universal motor

A.C. Servomotor:
Most of the servomotors used in the low power servomechanism are a.c. servomotors. The a.c.
servomotor is basically two phase induction motor. The output power of a.c. servomotor varies
from fraction of watts to few hundred of watts. The operating frequency is 50 Hz to 400 Hz.

Construction:
The a.c. servomotor is basically consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator carries two windings,
uniformly distributed and displaced by 90o in space, from each other.
On winding is called as main winding or fixed winding or reference winding. The reference
winding is excited by a constant voltage a.c. supply.
The other winding is called as control winding. It is excited by variable control voltage,
which is obtained from a servo amplifier. The winding are 90o away from each other and control
voltage is 90o out of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference winding. This is
necessary to obtain rotating magnetic field.

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The schematic stator is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Stator of a.c. servomotor

To reduce the loading on the amplifier, the input impedance i.e. the impedance of the control
winding in increased by using a tuning capacitor in parallel with the control winding.

Rotor
The rotor is generally of two types. The two types of rotors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor
2. Drag cup type rotor

Squirrel Cage Rotor

The usual squirrel cage rotor has aluminium bars which are shorted at the ends with the help
of the end rings. The overall construction looks like a cage. The construction is similar to the
squirrel cage rotor used for the three phase induction motors.
This has small diameter and large length. This is because to reduce the inertia. Aluminimum
conductors are used to keep weight small. Its resistance is high to keep torque-speed
characteristics as linear as possible. Air gap is kept very small which reduces the magnetism
current. The cage type of rotor uses the skewed bars as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Cage type rotor construction

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

To reduce the inertia further, a drag cup type of rotor construction is used. There are two air gaps
in this construction. The drag cup is made up of nonmagnetic material like copper, aluminium or
an alloy. The slotted rotor laminations in this construction are wound for as many number of
poles as possible so that operating speed of motor is very low. Such a construction is used in
very low power applications. A drag cup type rotor construction is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Drag cup type rotor construction

Operating Principle :
The operating principle of two phase a.c. servomotor is same as that of normal three phase
induction motor. The control voltage applied to the control winding and the voltage applied to
the reference winding are 90o out of phase. Hence the flux produces by current through control
winding is also 90o out of phase with respect to the flux produced by the current through the
reference winding. The resultant flux in the air gap is hence rotating flux sweeps over the rotor,
the e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. This e.m.f. circulates the current through the rotor. The rotor
current produces its own flux called as rotor flux. This flux interacts with the rotating magnetic
field, producing a torque on the rotor and rotor starts rotating.
In the two phase a.c. servomotors, the polarity of the control voltage determines the direction
of rotation. A change in the sign of the control voltage reverses the direction of rotation of the
motor. Since the reference voltage is constant, the torque and the angular speed are the functions
of the control voltage.

Torque-Speed Characteristics:
The usual torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor with high inductance to
resistance ratio are not suitable for the servomotor. A servomotor must have
1. Linear torque-speed characteristics
2. Slope of the torque-speed characteristics must be negative.
3. The characteristics must be parallel to one another for various values of the control voltage
applies.
It is seen that when rotor resistance is increased the torque-speed characteristics becomes
more and more linear. In general for low inductance to resistance ratio, the torque-speed
characteristics are almost linear. This is shown in the Fig. 4(a) and (b).

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Fig. 4

In practice, design of the motor is so as to get almost linear torque-speed characteristics. A

servomotor rotates only when a detectable error occurs at low voltage and it rarely operates at
high speeds. Hence for a given value of control voltage, torque-speed characteristics are almost
linear. Fig. 5 shows the torque-speed characteristics for various control voltages.

Fig. 5 Torque-speed characteristics of a.c servomotor

All the characteristics are equally spaced for equal increments of control voltage as shown.

1.5 Other Performance Characteristics

The performance characteristics other than the torque-speed characteristics of a two phase
a.c. servomotor are shown in the Fig. 6.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 6 Performance characteristics of a typical a.c. servomotor

As torque developed increases, current drawn and the power input increases. Power factors
also improves upto certain limit. While the efficiency increases upto certain limit and then starts
decreasing.

Features of A.C. Servomotor:

The various features of a.c. servomotor are,
1. Light in weight for quick response.
2. Robust in construction.
3. It is reliable and its operation is stable in nature.
4. Smooth and noise free operation.
5. Large torque to weight ratio.
6. Large resistance to reactance ratio.
7. No brushes or slip rings are required. Hence maintenance free.
8. Driving circuits are simple to design.
9. The negative slope of the torque-slip characteristics adds more friction improving the
damping. This improves the stability of the motor. This features is called internal electric
damping of two phase a.c. servomotors

Applications of A.C. Servomotor:

As mentioned earlier a.c. servomotor are preferred for low power applications. Consider an
a.c. position control system where load position is to be maintained constant. The driving motor
used is two phase a.c. servomotor. The potentiometer arrangement compares the actual position
with the reference position to generate the error voltage. The error voltage is amplifier which
generates control voltage . This voltage is applied to the control winding of two phase a.c.
servomotor. This control The torque and inturn controls the output position of the load. As

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driving motor is a.c. servomotor, the system is called as a.c. position control system. The entire
scheme is shown in the Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Application of a.c. servomotor : A.C. position control system

The other applications of a.c. servomotors are,

1. Instrument servos 2. Process controllers 4. Robotics
4. Self balancing recorders 5. Machine tools
And is preferred for number of other applications in which precise angular motion is
necessary.

Linear Induction Motor:

The linear induction motor works on the same principle as that of normal induction motor with
difference that instead of rotational movement, the rotor moves linearly. If the stator and rotor of
the induction motor are made flat then it forms the linear induction motor. The flux produced by
the flat stator moves linearly with the synchronous speed from one end to the other. The
synchronous speed is given by,
vs = 2wf
where vs = Linear Synchronous Speed (m/s)
w = Width of one pole pitch (m)
f = Frequency of supply (Hz)
It can be seen that the synchronous speed is independent of number of poles but depends
only one width of pole pitch and supply frequency. The schematic of linear induction motor is
shown in the Fig. 1.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 1

The flux moves linearly and forces the rotor to move in straight line in the same directions.
In many of the practical applications the rotor plate is a stationary member whereas stator moves.
The analysis of linear machines is nearly same as that of rotating machines. All the angular
dimensions and displacements are displaced by linear ones and torque is replaced by the force.
The expressions for machine parameters are derived analogously and the results are similar in
form. Some of the typical results are as given below,

The linear induction motors are widely used in transportation fields i.e. in electric trains. The
stator is mounted on the moving vehicle and a conducting stationary rotor forming the rails. The
induced currents in the rail not only force the stator to move but also provide magnetic levitation
in which the train floats in air above the track. This mechanism proves better for high speed
transportation without the difficulties associated with wheel-rail interactions present in
conventional rail transport. Thus the trains may have speed of about 300 km/hr. A powerful
electromagnet fixed underneath the train moves across the rails which are conducting. The
induces the currents in the rail which provides levitation so that the train is pushed up above the
track in the air. The operation of such system is automatic and the system is reliable and safe.
Linear motors also find application in the machine tool industry and in robotics where linear
motion is required for positioning and for operation of the manipulators. In addition to this,
reciprocating compressors can also be driven by the linear machines.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Stepper Motors:
Stepper motor is known by its important property to convert a train of input pulses i.e. a square
wave pulses into a precisely defined increment in the shaft position. Each pulse moves the shaft
through a fixed angle. So the stepper motor is an electromechanical device which actuates a train
of step movements of shaft in response to train of input pulses. The step movement may be
angular or linear. There is one-one relationship between an input pulse and step movement of the
shaft. Each pulse input actuates one step movement of the shaft. When a given number of drive
pulses are supplied to the motor, the shaft gets turned through a known angle. The angle through
which the motor turns or shaft moves for each pulse is known as the step angle, expressed in
degrees.
As such angle is dependent on the number of input pulses, the motor is suitable for
controlling position by controlling the number of input pulses. Such system, used to control the
position is called position control system. The average motor speed is proportional to the rate at
which the input pulse command is delivered. When the rate is low, the motor rotates in steps but
for high rate of pulses, due to inertia, it rotates smoothly like d.c. motors. Due to this property it
is also used in speed control systems. These motors are available in sub-fractional horse power
ratings. As the input command is in pulses, the stepper motor is compatible with modern digital
equipments.
Due to its compatibility with digital equipment, its market is greatly increased in recent
times. The stepper motors are widely used in X-Y plotters, floppy disk drives, machine tools,
process control systems, robotics, printers, tap drives and variety of other industrial applications.

Types of Stepper Motors

The stepper motors can be divided into three categories :
1. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors
2. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors
3. Hybrid Stepper Motors

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors:

It is the most basic type of stepper motor. Thus helps to explain the principle of operation of the
stepper motors.
The motors has a stator which is usually wound for three phases. The stator has six salient
poles with concentrated exciting windings around each one of them. The stator construction is
laminated and assembled in a single stack. The number of poles on the stator and rotor are
different. This gives the motor ability,
1. of bidirection rotation and
2. self starting capability.
The rotor is made out of slotted steel laminations. If the number of stator poles are N s and the
number of rotor poles are Nr then for a three phase motor, the rotor poles interms of and q are
given by,

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For example for Ns = 6 and q =3, the rotor poles are,

For our discussion, 4 pole rotor construction is selected. So rotor has 4 salient poles without
any exciting winding as shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1 Schematic arrangement of variable reluctance motor

The coils wound around diametrically opposite poles are connected in series and the three
phases are energized from a d.c. source with the help of switches.
The basic driving circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 2 Driving circuit

Operation:
The operation is based on various reluctance positions of rotor with respect to stator. When
any one phase of the stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis lies along the
poles, the phase around which is excited. Then rotor moves in such a direction so as to achieve
minimum reluctance position. Such a position means a position where axis of magnetic field of
stator matches with the axis passing through any two poles of the rotor. Let us see the operation
when phases A, B and C are energized in sequence one after the other, with the help of switches
SW1, SW2 and SW3.
1. When the phase AA' is excited with the switch SW1 closed, then stator magnetic axis exists
along the poles formed due to AA' i.e. vertical. Then rotor adjusts itself in a minimum reluctance
position i.e. matching its own axis passing through the two poles exactly with stator magnetic
axis. This position is shown in the Fig. 3(a).

Fig. 3 Steps in variable reluctance motor

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2. When the phase BB' is excited with the switch SW2 closed and phase AA' de-energized with
the switch SW1 open, then stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to BB;, shown
dotted in the Fig. 3(b). Then rotor tries to align in the minimum reluctance position and turns
through 30o in anticlockwise direction. So axis passing through two diagonally opposite poles of
rotor matches with the stator magnetic axis. This is the new minimum reluctance position. The
point P shown on the rotor has rotated through 30o in anticlockwise direction as shown in the
Fig. 3(b).
3. When the phase CC' is excited with the switch SW3 closed and the phases AA' and BB' are
de-energized, then the stator magnetic axis shifts along the poles formed due to CC', shown
dotted in the Fig. 3(c). Then to achieve minimum reluctance position, rotor gets subjected to
further anticlockwise torque. So it turns through further 30o in anticlockwise direction.
Hence point P is now at 60o from its starting position, in anticlockwise direction as shown in
the Fig. 3(c). By successively exciting the three phases in the specific sequecnce, the motor takes
twelve steps to complete on revolution.
Now if i is the current passing through the phase which is excited then the torque developed
by the motor, which acts on the rotor is expressed as,

where L is the inductance of the relevant phase at an angle θ.

Since the torque is proportional to the torque of the phase current (T α i2), it is independent
of the direction of i. The direction of rotation is totally decided from the sequence in which the
phases are excited.

Important Observation:
From the above discussion, the following important observations can be made :
i) The rotor can be moved in a specific direction, by exciting the stator phases in a specific
sequence.
ii) When the phases are excited in the sequence A-B-C-A .... , the rotor moves in the
anticlockwise direction, as explained earlier.
iii) When the phases are excited in the sequence C-B-A-C ... , the rotor moves in the clockwise
direction, which can be easily verified.
iv) The distance through which the rotor moves when all three phases are excited once is called
one rotor tooth pitch.
Rotor tooth pitch = 360o/Nr
v) The step angle is denoted as, and given by,
αs = 360o/qNr
So for three phases and four rotor poles the step angle is,
αs = 360o/(3 x 4) = 30o

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

This is shown in the previous section. If the number of phases are increased to eight and the
number of rotor poles to six then the step angle becomes,
αs = 360o/(8 x 6) = 7.5o

Microstepping:
In the above discussion we have assumed that the windings are excited one at a time. If the
two phases are excited simultaneously i.e. keeping AA' excited, the BB' is also excited with
switch SW1 and SW2 closed, then the stator magnetic axis shifts to a mid position rather than
along BB'. Hence rotor gets aligned along this moves through a half step i.e. 15o.
A logical extension of this technique is to control the currents in the phase windings so that
several stable equilibrium positions are created. Normally the step angle is reduced by factor of
1/2, 1/5, 1/10, 1/16 or 1/32. This technique is called microstepping.
A further reduction in step angle can be achieved by increasing the number of poles of the
stator and rotor by adopting different constructions such as,
i) Using reductiongear mechanism.
ii) Using multistack arrangement

Reduction Gear Stepper Motor:

Fig. 4 shows a reduction gear stepper motor. The stator has 8 salient poles and four phases
for use as exciting winding. The rotor has 18 teeth and 18 slots uniformly distributed around.
Each salient pole of the stator consists of two teeth, forming an interleaving slot of the same
angular periphery as the rotor teeth or slots. When the coil A-A' is excited, the resulting
electromechanical torque brings the rotor to the position as shown in the Fig. 4.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 4 Reduction gear stepper motor

With this arrangement, the step angle reduces to 5. By successive excitation of coils A-A',
B-B', C-C; and D-D', the rotor makes 72 steps to complete one revolution. The general
relationship between step angle , number of stator phases q and rotor poles or teeth N r remains
same as,
αs = 360o/mNr
By choosing different combinations of number of rotor teeth and stator phases, any desired
step angle can be achieved.

Multistack Stepper Motor:

As mentioned earlier, these are used to obtain small step size, typically ranging between 2 to 15 o.
In a m stack motor, the motor is divided into a m number of magnetically isolated sections called
stacks, along its axial length. The m stacks of stator have a common frame while the rotors are
mounted on a common shaft. The stators and rotors have the same number of poles (teeth). The
stator poles in all m stacks are aligned while the rotor poles are shifted by (1/m) of the pole pitch
from one another. All the stator windings in a stator stack are excited simultaneously hence each
stator stack forms a phase. So number of stator phases is equal to number of stator stacks.
Generally three stack stepper motors are used. The Fig. f shows the arrangement in three stack
stepper motor alongwith shifting of the rotor poles by (1/3) of the pole pitch from one another.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Fig. 5 Reduction gear stepper motor

The Fig. 6 shows the cross sectional view of a three stack, three phase variable reluctance
motor. In each stack, the stator and rotor laminations have 12 poles. The poles of the stator are in
one line while the rotor poles are offset from each other by one third of the pole pitch.

Fig. 6 Cross sectional view of 3 stack variable reluctance motor

The various windings in one stack are energized simultaneously. When phase A of stator is
excited then rotor poles of stack A get aligned with the stator poles. But due to offset, rotor poles

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

of stack B and C do not align. Now if phase A is de-energized and phase B is energized, rotor
poles of stack B get aligned with the stator poles. Thus, rotor moves by one third of pole pitch.
When B is de-energized and C excited, rotor further moves by one third of pole pitch so that
rotor poles of stack C get aligned with the stator poles.
If m is the number of stacks i.e. phases and N be the rotor poles then the step angle is given
by,
αs = 360o/mNr
In the case discussed above, m = 3 and N = 12 hence the step angle is,
αs = 360o/(3 x 12) = 10o
An alternative design where the rotor stacks are aligned and stator stacks are offset also is
used in practice.

Advantages of Variable Reluctance Motor:

The variable reluctance stepper motor has following advantages.
1. High torque to inertia ratio
2. High rates of acceleration.
3. Fast dynamic response
4. Simple and low cost machine
5. Efficient cooling arrangement as all the windings are on stator and there is no winding on
rotor.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

The stator of this type is multi-polar. As shown in the Fig. 7, the stator has four poles. Around
the poles the exciting coils are wound. The number of slots per pole per phase is usually chosen
as one in such multi-polar machines.

Fig. 7 Four phase permanent magnet stepper motor

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The rotor may be salient or smooth cylindrical. But generally is is smooth cylindrical type as
shown in the Fig. 7. It is made out of ferrite material which permanently magnetized. Due to this
the motor is called permanent magnet stepper motor.
The voltage pulses to the stator winding can be obtained by using a driving circuit. The
basic driving circuit for four phase permanent magnet stepper motor is shown in the Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Basic drive circuit for permanent magnet four phase stepper motor

Opeartion:
As soon as the voltage pulses are applied to various phases with the help of driving circuit, a
rotor starts rotating through a step fir each input voltage pulse.
1. At first, switch SW1 is closed exciting the phase A. Due to its excitation we have N pole in
phase A as shown in the Fig. 9(a). Due to the electromechanical torque developed, rotor rotates
such that magnetic axis of permanent magnet rotor adjusts with the magnetic axis of the stator, as
shown in the Fig. 9(a).
2. Next phase B is excited with switch SW2, disconnecting phase A. Due to this, rotor further
adjusts its own magnetic axis with N pole of phase B. Hence it rotates through 90o further in
clockwise direction as shown in the Fig. 9(b).

Fig. 9 Steps in four phase permanent magnet stepper motor

Similarly when phase C and phase D are sequentially excited, the rotor tends to rotate
through 90o in clockwise direction, every time when phase is excited. When such sequence is
repeated, it results into a step motion of a permanent magnet stepper motor.
The stepper motors with permanent magnet rotors with large number of poles can not be
manufactured in small size. Hence small steps are not possible. This is the biggest disadvantages
of permanent magnet stepper motor. This is overcome by the use of variable reluctance type
stepper motor.

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

Comparison Between Variable Reluctance and Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

However, nowadays a disk type of permanent magnet stepper motors are designed which have
the low inertia and smaller step angles.

Hybrid Stepper Motor:

The hybrid stepper motor uses the principles of the permanent magnet and variable reluctance
stepper motors. In the hybrid motors, the rotor flux is produced by the permanent magnet and is
directed by the rotor teeth to the appropriate parts of the airgap. The permanent magnet is placed
in the middle of the rotor. It is magnetized in the axial direction. Each pole of the magnet is
surrounded with soft-toothed laminations.
The construction of hybrid stepper motor is shown in the Fig. 10.

Fig. 1 Hybrid Stepper motor

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Electric Motors (18EE44)

The main flux path is from the north pole of the magnet, into the end stack, across the airgap
through the stator pole, axially along the stator, through the stator pole, across the airgap and
back the magnet south pole via other end stack.
There are usually 8 poles on the stator. Each pole has between 2 to 6 teeth. There is two
phase winding. The coils on poles 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected in series to form phase A while the
coils on poles 2, 4, 6 and 8 are connected in series to form phase B. The windings A and B are
energized alternately.
When phase A carries positive current, stator poles 1 and 5 become south and 3 and 7
become north. The rotor teeth with north and south polarity align with the teeth of stator pole 1
and 5 and 3 and 7 respectively. When phase A is de-energized and phase B is excited, rotor will
move by one quarter of tooth pitch.
The torque in a hybrid motor is produced by interaction of the rotor and the stator produced
fluxes. The rotor field remains constant as it is produced by the permanent magnet. The motor
torque Tm is proportional to the phase current.

Following are the main advantages of the hybrid stepper motor:

1. Very small step angles upto 1.8o
2. Higher torque per unit volume which is more than in case of variable reluctance motor.
3. Due to permanent magnet, the motor has some detent torque which is absent in variable
reluctance motor.

Applications of Stepper Motors:

Due to the digital circuit compatibility of the stepper motors, they are widely used in computer
peripherals such as serial printers, linear stepper motors to printers, tape drivers, floppy disc
drivers, memory access mechanism etc. The stepper motors are also used in serial printers in
typewriters or word processor systems, numerical control of machine tools, robotic control
systems, number of process control systems, actuators, spacecrafts, watches etc. X-Y recorders
and plotters is another field in which stepper motors are preferred.

Pradeep kumar B.E(EEE), 4th Semester