HIGHER SECONDARY

SECOND YEAR

,aw;gpay;
PHYSICS
STUDY MATERIAL
2020 – 2021

PREPARED BY

RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A.,

P. G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS,
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
SRM HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KAVERIYAMPOONDI,
TIRUVANNAMALAI DISTRICT – 606 603.
[email protected], [email protected]
 CONTENTS

THEORY PROBLEM
S. No. UNIT TOPIC
PAGE No. PAGE No.

1 I ELECTROSTATICS 1 – 27 253 – 257

2 II CURRENT ELECTRICITY 28 – 45 257 – 263

MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS

3 III 45 – 80 264 – 267
OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND

4 IV 80 – 114 267 – 275
ALTERNATING CURRENT

5 V ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 115 – 123 276 – 277

6 VI OPTICS 123 – 167 278 – 286

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND

7 VII 168 – 183 286 – 290
MATTER

8 VIII ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 184 – 204 290 – 293

9 IX SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 205 – 231 293 – 295

10 X COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 232 – 244 -

11 XI RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS 245 – 252 -

 CONTENTS

EXPERIMENT
S. No. Ex. No. EXPERIMENT
PAGE No.

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL OF THE

1 1 300 – 302
COIL USING METRE BRIDGE
HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF EARTH’S
2 2 MAGNETIC FIELD USING TANGENT 303 – 305
GALVANOMETER
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR
3 3 COIL - DETERMINATION OF BH 306 – 308

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE

4 4 309 – 312
PRISM
WAVELENGTH OF THE CONSTITUENT COLOURS OF
5 5 A COMPOSITE LIGHT USING DIFFRACTION 313 – 316
GRATING AND SPECTROMETER
VOLTAGE - CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A
6 6 317 – 320
PN JUNCTION DIODE

VOLTAGE - CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A

7 7 321 – 325
ZENER DIODE
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN - JUNCTION
8 8 TRANSISTOR IN COMMON EMITTER 326 – 333
CONFIGURATION
VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC GATES
9 9 334 – 337
USING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

10 10 VERIFICATION OF DE MORGAN’S THEOREMS 338 – 340

Model
QUESTIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION 341
Questions

“NeHikahd Kaw;rpapy; fpilj;j

ntw;wpapd; %ykhff; fpilf;Fk; kfpo;r;rpapd;
rpfuj;ij ahUk; msf;fNt KbahJ.”
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 1
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - I (ELECTROSTATICS)
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is Electrostatics?
The branch of electricity which deals with stationary charges is called
electrostatics.

2. What is called triboelectric charging?

Charging the objects through rubbing is called triboelectric charging.

3. Like charges repels. Unlike charges attracts. Prove.

1. A negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another negatively
charged rubber rod.
2. But a negatively charged rubber rod is attracted by a positively
charged glass rod.
3. This proves like charges repels and unlike charges attracts.

4. State conservation of electric charges.

1. The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can
neither be created nor be destroyed
2. In any physical process, the net change in charge will be zero. This
is called conservation of charges.

5. State quantization of electric charge.

The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this
fundamental unit of charge ‘e’ (i.e) = , where, n → integer and
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

6. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

Coulomb's law states that the electrostatic force is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two point charges and is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two point
charges.
According to Coulomb law, the force on the point charge q2 exerted by
another point charge q1 is F =k r , where, k → constant
r → Unit vector directed from q1 to q2 Coulomb force.

7. Define one coulomb (1 C)

The S.I unit of charge is Coulomb (C)
One Coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space or air at a
distance 1 m from an equal and similar charge repels with a force of
9 X 109 N
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 2
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

8. Define relative permittivity.

From Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force is
F = r =F = r
Here = is called permittivity of any medium
is called permittivity of free space or vacuum and is called relative
permittivity.
Thus The ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of
free space is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant. [ = ] .
It has no unit and for air = 1 and for other dielectric medium > 1

9. Give the vector form of Coulomb’s law.

The force on the point charge ! exerted by another point charge " is
F = r
Similarly the force on the point charge q1 exerted by another point
charge q2 is F = r
Here, ̂r → unit vector directed from q1 to q2
r → Unit vector directed from q2 to q1
10. Distinguish between Coulomb force and Gravitational force.

S.
Coulomb Force Gravitational Force
No.
1 It acts between two charges It acts between two masses
2 It can be attractive or repulsive It is always attractive
3 It is always greater in magnitude It is always lesser in magnitude
It depends on the nature of the
4 It is independent of the medium
medium
If charges are in motion, another
Gravitational force is the same
force called Lorentz force come in
5 whether two masses are at rest
to play in addition to Coulomb
or in motion
force

11. Define superposition principle.

According to Superposition principle, the total force acting on a given
charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other
charges.

12. Define electric field.

The electric field at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the point charge
‘q’ is the force experienced by a unit charge. Its S.I unit is N C-1
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 3
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

13. Define linear charge density.

$
The charge per unit length is called linear charge density. [# = ]
%
Its S.I unit is Cm-1

14. Define surface charge density.

Charge per unit area is called surface charge density. [& = ],
'
Its S.I unit is Cm-2

15. Define volume charge density.

Charge per unit volume is called volume charge density. [( = ]
)
Its S.I unit is Cm-3

16. Define electric field lines.

A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the
electric field in some region of space is called electric field lines.

17. Two electric field lines never intersect each other. Why?
If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric
field vectors at the same point.
If some charge is placed at the intersection point, then it has to move
in two different directions at

18. What is called electric dipole? Give an example.

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance
constitute an electric dipole. (Eg.) CO, HCl, NH4, H2O

19. Define electric dipole moment. Give its unit.

The magnitude of the electric dipole moment (*) is equal to the
product of the magnitude of one of the charges (q) and the distance (2a)
between them. (i.e) |+| = . !, . Its unit is Cm.

20. Define potential difference. Give its unit.

The electric potential difference is defined as the work-done by an
external force to bring unit positive charge from one point to another point
against the electric field. Its unit is volt (V).

21. Define electrostatic potential. Give its unit.

The electric potential at a point is equal to the work done by an
external force to bring a unit positive charge with constant velocity from
infinity to the point in the region of the external electric field.
Its unit is volt (V).
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 4
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

22. Obtain the relation between electric field and electric potential.
The work done in moving a unit charge through a distance ‘dx’ in an
electric field ‘E’ is
.w = − / .0
Here negative sign indicates work done is against the electric field.
This work done is equal to the potential difference and hence,
4)
.v = − / .0 (2 ) 3 = −
45
Thus the electric field is the negative gradient of electric potential.

23. Define equi-potential surface.

An equi-potential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the
same potential.
1) For a point charge the equi-potential surfaces are concentric
spherical surfaces.
2) For a uniform electric field, the equi-potential surfaces form a set
of planes normal to the electric field.

24. Define electrostatic potential energy.

The electric potential energy of two point charges is equal to the
amount of work-done to assemble the charges or work-done in bringing a
charge from infinite distance. (i.e) U = W = q V

25. Define electric flux.

The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to
the electric field lines is called electric flux (Φ/). Its S.I unit is Nm2C-1. It is a
scalar quantity.

26. State Gauss law.

Gauss law states that if a charge ‘Q’ is enclosed by an arbitrary
closed surface, then the total electric flux through the closed surface is
"
equal to times the net charge enclosed by the surface.
" ; < =<>
= ∮ 8. 9: =

27. Define electrostatic shielding.

By Gauss law, we conclude that the electric field inside the charged
spherical shell is zero.
If a conductor has cavity, then whatever the charges at the surfaces or
whatever the electrical disturbances outside, the electric field inside the
cavity is zero.
A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external
electrical disturbance is kept inside this cavity. This is called electrostatic
shielding. (e.g) Faraday cage.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 5
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

28. During lightning, it is safer to sit inside bus than in an open ground or under
tree. Why?
The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding, where the
electric field is zero. During lightning the electric discharge passes through
the body of the bus.

29. Define electrostatic induction.

The phenomenon of charging without actual contact of charged body
is called electrostatic induction.

30. Define dielectrics or insulators.

A dielectric is a non- conducting material and has no free electrons.
The electrons in a dielectric are bound within the atoms. (e.g) Ebonite, Glass
and mica

31. What are called non-polar molecules? Give examples.

A non-polar molecule is one in which centres of positive and negative
charges coincide. It has no permanent dipole moment. (e.g) H2, O2, CO2

32. What are called polar molecules? Give examples.

A polar molecule is one in which the positive and negative charges
are separated even in the absence of an external electric field.
They have a permanent dipole moment. (e.g) H2O, N2O, HCl, NH4

33. Define dielectric polarization.

In the presence of external electric field, dipole moment is induced in
the dielectric along the direction of the field.
Polarization (+ ) is defined as the total dipole moment per unit
volume of the dielectric.

34. Define electric susceptibility.

For dielectrics, the polarization is directly proportional to the strength
of the external electric field. (i.e) + = ? / ext.
where ? is a constant called the electric susceptibility which is defined as
polarization per unit electric field. Its unit is C2N-1m

35. Define dielectric breakdown.

When the external electric field applied to dielectric is very large, it
tears the atoms apart so that the bound charges become free charges. Then
the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is called dielectric breakdown.

36. Define dielectric strength.

The maximum electric field the dielectric can withstand before it
breakdowns is called dielectric strength.
The dielectric strength of air is 3 x 106 Vm-1
If the applied electric field is increases beyond this, a spark is
produced in the air (i.e) it becomes a conductor.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 6
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

37. What is called a capacitor?

Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and electric energy.
It consists of two conducting plates or sheets separated by some distance.
Capacitors are widely used in many electronic circuits and in many areas of
science and technology.

38. Define capacitance of a capacitor.

The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of charge (Q) on either of the conductor plates to the potential
B
difference (V) existing between the conductors. (i.e) C =
)
Its unit is farad (F) or C V-1

39. Define energy density of a capacitor.

The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy
E
density and it is derived as, CD = = KE
2
)FGHIJ

40. Define action of point or corona discharge.

Smaller the radius of curvature, larger the charge density. Hence
charges are accumulated at the sharp points. Due to this, the electric field
near this sharp edge is very high and it ionized the surrounding air.
The positive ions are repelled and negative ions are attracted towards
the sharp edge.
This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the sharp edge.
This is called action of points or corona discharge

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

41. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge.

(i) Electric charge:
Like mass, the electric charge is also an intrinsic and fundamental
property of particles. The unit of electric charge is coulomb
(ii) Conservation of electric charge:
The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can
neither be created nor be destroyed. In any physical process, the net change
in charge will be zero. This is called conservation of charges.
(iii) Quantization of charge:
The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this
fundamental unit of charge ‘e’ (i.e) q = ne.
Where n → integer and1.6 x 10-19 C
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 7
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

42. Define superposition principle. Explain how superposition principle explains

the interaction between multiple charges.
Superposition principle:
According to Superposition principle, the total force acting on a given
charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other
charges.
Explanation:
Consider a system of ‘n’ charges M1, M2, … , MN
By Coulomb’s law, force on M1 by M2, … , MN are
F =k r ;F O =k rO ; finally, F P =k rP

Then total force action on M1 due to all charges,

F QFQ = F +F O +…… + F P ;
F QFQ = k R r + rO + ⋯ + rP X
S SU SW

U W

43. Explain Electric field at a point due to system of charges (or) Superposition
of electric fields. Superposition of electric field:
The electric field at an arbitrary point due to system of point charges is
simply equal to the vector sum of the electric fields created by the individual
point charges. This is called superposition of electric fields.
Explanation:
Consider a system of ‘n’ charges M1, M2, … , MN
The electric field at ‘P’ due to ‘n’ charges
E = r \ ;E = r \ ; finally EP = W
rP\
[ [ W[
The total electric field at ‘P’ due to all these ‘n’ charges will be,
EQFQ = E + E +…… + EP
EQFQ = ] r \ + r \ +⋯ + W
rP\ ^
[ [ W[

44. List the properties of electric field lines.

Electric field lines:
A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the
electric field in some region of space.
Properties of electric field lines:
1) They starts from positive charge and end at negative charge or
at infinity.
2) The electric field vector at a point in space is tangential to the
electric field line at that point.
3) The electric field lines are denser in a region where the electric
field has larger magnitude and less dense in region where the electric field
is of smaller magnitude. (i.e) the number of lines passing through a given
surface area perpendicular to the line is proportional to the magnitude of
the electric field.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 8
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

4) No two elec
lectric field lines intersect each other
5) The numb ber of electric field lines that emanateate from the
positive charge or en
end at a negative charge is directly proporti
ortional to the
magnitude of the cha
harges.

45. Derive an expression fofor torque experienced by an electric dipol

pole placed in
the uniform electric field
ield. Torque experienced by the dipole in electric
ele field:
Let a dipole of moment + is
placed in an uniform electric
ele field /
The force on ‘+ q’ = + q/
The force on ‘−q’ = − q /
Then the totall fo
force acts on the
dipole is zero. But th these two forces
constitute a couple and the dipole
experience a torque whi
hich tends to rotate
the dipole along the e field. The total
torque on the dipole abo
bout the point ‘O’
_ = OA x bcM/d + OB x b+M/ d ;
|_| = gOA ggcM/gsinθ + gOB ggM/gsinθ
_ = (lm + ln) q/ sin o ; _ = 2 • M / sin o ∵ [lm = ln = •]
p = * 3 qrs t (Where,, 2 • M = + → dipole moment)
In vector notation, _ = p x E . The torque is maximum, when o = 90
9 0

46. Obtain an expression eleelectric potential at a point due to a pointt charge.

c
Potential due to a point
int charge:
Consider a point char harge
+ at origin.
‘P’ be a point at a distan
tance
‘r’ from origin.
By definition, the elect
ectric
1 q
field at ‘P’ is E = 4πε 2 r
0r
}
$
ial at ‘P’ is V = − z{ / . . = − z{
Hence electric potential ̂ ..
ƒ„ }

V = − z{ r .. r [∵ . = dr r]
}
V=− z{ dr [∵ r. r = 1]
}
}
V=− Rc X { ;= R c X
{
$
V= . If the sou
source charge is negative (−M), then the potential
po also
}
$
negative and it is given b V=−
n by
}
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 9
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

47. Obtain an expression for fo potential energy due to a collection of three point
charges which are sepa parated by finite distances.
Potential energy of syste
ystem of three charges:
Electrostatic potential
pot energy of a
system of charges is defined
def as the work done
to assemble the chargesges.
Consider a point charge ge q" at ‘A’
d to q" is,
Electric potential at ‘B’’ due
$
V1B =
}
To bring second d charge q! to ‘B’, work has to be done
e against
a the
electric field created by ".
$ •
The work done on the charge q! is, w = q2 V1B =
}
This work done is store
red as electrostatic potential energy of sys
system of two
$ •
charges q" and q! U = ………. (1)
}
e to charges q" & q!
The potential at ‘C’ due
$ $
V1C = & V2C =
} U } U
To bring third charge q‡ to ‘C’, work has to be done against the
e electric
e field
due to q" & q!.
Thus work done on chararge q‡ is,
$ $ $ •U $ $U
W = q3 (V1C + V2C) = q3 R + X (or) U = R + X ………(2)
} U } U } U } U
Hence the totall electrostatic
e potential energy of system of three point
"
R + + X …….. (3)
" ! " ‡ ! ‡
charges is U =
ˆ‰Š "! "‡ !‡

48. Obtain an expression n ffor electrostatic potential Energy of a dipole

d in a
uniform electric field.
Potential energy of dipo
ipole in uniform electric field:
Let a dipole of moment
m + is placed
ield /
in a uniform electric field
Here the dipole expe xperiences torques,
which rotate the dipolele a
along the field.
To rotate the dipole
dip from o’ to o
against this torqu
rque, work has to be
done by an exte xternal torque (pext)
and it is given by,
Ž
W = z • τJ5Q dθ
Ž
Ž
= z • pE sinθ dθ
d ;
Ž
”
= pE •ccosθ“
”•
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 10
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

= cpE•cos o c cos o’“ ; W = pE [cos o’ c cos o“

This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy of the dipole.
ngle be o’ = 900, then U = W = pE [cos 900 c cos o“
Let the initial ang
U = cpE cos o ; c + . /
If o = 1800, then
en potential energy is maximum
If o = 00, then pot
potential energy is minimum

49. Explain the process off electrostatic

e induction.
Electrostatic induction:
The type of charg
arging without
actual contact of chargarged body is
called electrostatic indu
duction. Let a
negatively charged rub rubber rod is
brought near to
o spherical
conductor, the electro trons in the
conductor are repelled led to farther
side and hence positi sitive charges
are induced near the region
re of the
rod. So the distributions
ns of charges
are not uniform, but ut the total
charge is zero
ting sphere is
If the conducting
connected to ground,, th the electrons
are flows to the groun ound, but the
positive charges will not
no flow to the ground, because they are e attracted
a by
the negative charges of the rod.
When the groundunding wire is removed from the sphere,, tthe positive
charges remain near the rod.
If the charged rod is taken away, the positive charges are
re distributed
face of the sphere. Thus the neutral conduc
uniformly on the surfac ucting sphere
becomes positively char arged without any contact.

50. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

Capacitance of parallel
lel plate capacitor:
Consider a cap apacitor consists of two
parallel plates each of area ‘A’ separated by a
distance ‘d’
Let ‘—′ be the surface ace charge density of the
plates.
The electric field betwee
een the plates,
˜ ™
E= = ……….. (1)
„ š„
Since the field is uniform
orm, the potential difference
between the plates,
›
V = E.d = ] ^d ……….... (2)
m 0
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 11
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Then the capacitance of the capacitor,

B ™
C= = •
) Rž Ÿ X4
„ ž
C= …………. (3)
Thus capacitance is,
(i) Directly proportion
tional to the Area (A) and
(ii) Inversely proporti
rtional to the separation (d)

51. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor.

Energy stored in capacitcitor:
Capacitor is a dev
evice used to store charges and energy.
When a battery is conn nnected to the capacitor, electrons of total
tal charge ‘-Q’
are transferred from on one plate to other plate. For this work iss d
done by the
battery. This work done e is stored as electrostatic energy in capacit
citor.
To transfer ′.›′ for a pot
potential difference ‘V’, the work done is
™ ™
dW = VdQ = dQ [∵ V = ]
¢ ¢
™
™™ B B
The total work done to ccharge a capacitor, W = zK dQ ; = R X =
¢ £ K £
This work done is stored
red as electrostatic energy of the capacitor,
r, (i.e)
(
B
UE = = CV2 [∵ Q = CV]
£
„ ž
Where, know that V = Ed & C =
„ ž
∵ UE = (Ed)2 ; = K (Ad)E2
(m .) → ¤2¥C¦§
The energy stored perr un
unit volume of space is defined as energyy density.(u
d E)
¨©
uE = == KE
2
ª«%¬-®

52. Explain in detail how w charges are distributed in a conducto ctor and the
principle behind the ligh
lightning conductor.
Distribution of chargeses ini a conductor:
Consider twoo conducting
spheres ‘A’ and ‘B’ of raradii r1 and r2.
Let r1 > r2 . Let the twtwo spheres are
connected by a thin con onducting wire.
If a charge ‘Q’ is given to either A or B,
this charge is redistribut
buted in both the
spheres until their pote tential becomes
same.
Now they are uniformly ly ccharged and attain electrostatic equilibrium
ium.
At this stage, let the surface
s charge densities of A and B are re &1 and &2
respectively, then
Charge residing on surfa rface of A = q1 = &14°
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 12
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Charge residing on surface of B = q2 = &24°

Then the total charge; Q = q1 + q2
There is no net charge inside the conductors.
Electrostatic potential on the surface of A and B is
$ $
VA = & VB =
} }
Under electrostatic equilibrium, VA = VB
$ $
∵ = ;
} }
$ $ ± ƒ} ± ƒ}
= ; =
} } } }
&1 r1 = &2 r2
(2 ) — = Constant. Thus the surface charge density is inversely
proportional to the radius of the sphere.
Hence for smaller radius, the charge density will be larger and vice
versa.
Principle of lightning conductor (Action of point):
Action of point is the principle behind the lightning conductor. We
know that smaller the radius of curvature, the larger is the charge density. If
the conductor has sharp end which has larger curvature (smaller radius), it
has a large charge accumulation. As a result, the electric field near this edge
is very high and it ionizes the surrounding air. The positive ions are repelled
at the sharp edge and negative ions are attracted towards the sharper edge.
This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the sharp edge. This is
called action of points or corona discharge.

53. Explain the principle, construction and action of lightning conductor.

Lightning conductor:
This is a device used to protect tall building from lightning strikes;
It works on the principle of action of points or corona discharge. It consists
of a long thick copper rod passing from top of the building to the ground. The
upper end of the rod has a sharp spike or a sharp needle.
The lower end of the rod is connected to the copper plate which is
buried deep in to the ground. When a negatively charged cloud is passing
above the building, it induces a positive charge on the spike. Since the
charge density is large at the spike, action of point takes place.
This positive charge ionizes the surrounding air which in turn
neutralizes the negative charge in the cloud. The negative charge pushed to
the spikes passes through the copper rod and is safely diverted to the Earth.
Thus the lighting arrester does not stop the lightning, but it diverts the
lightning to the ground safely
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 13
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54. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors.

Applications of capacitor:
1. Flash capacitors are used in digital camera to take photographs
2. During cardiac arrest, a device called heart defibrillator is used to give
a sudden surge of a large amount of electrical energy to the patient’s
chest to retrieve the normal heart function. This defibrillator uses a
capacitor of 175 µF charged to a high voltage of around 2000 V
3. Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to
eliminate sparking.
4. Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies
and to increase the efficiency of power transmission.
Disadvantages:
1. Even after the battery or power supply is removed, the capacitor stores
charges and energy for some time. It caused unwanted shock.

55. Define equipotential surface. Give its properties.

Equipotential surface:
1. An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at
the same potential.
2) For a point charge the equipotential surfaces are concentric spherical
surfaces.
3) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces form a set of
planes normal to the electric field.
Properties:
The work-done to move a charge ‘q’ between any two points A and
B is W = q (VA c VB). If A and B lie on the same equipotential surface
then VA = VB Hence work done is zero (W = 0). The electric field is always
normal to an equipotential surface.

56. Write a note on microwave oven.

Microwave oven:
It works on the principle of torque acting on an electric dipole.
The food we consume has water molecules which are permanent electric
dipoles. Oven produces microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic
fields and produce torque on the water molecules. Due to this torque on
each water molecule, the molecules rotate very fast and produce thermal
energy. Thus, heat generated is used to heat the food.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 14
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ANT IN PHYSICS

FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

57. Explain in detail Coulom

omb’s law and its various aspects.
Coulomb’s law:
Consider two poinoint charges q1 and
q2 separated by a distan
tance ′r′
According to Coulomb b law, the force on
the point charge q2 exer
erted by q1 is
F = r
where, k → constant
̂ 2 → unit vector direc
1 ected from q1 to q2
Important aspects:
Coulomb law stat tates that the electrostatic force is directly proportional
p
to the product of the magnitude of two point charges and inversely
quare of the distance between them. The forces
proportional to the squa for always
lie along the line joining
ng the two charges.
In S.I units, k = = 9 x 109 Nm2 C-2 . Here is the permittivity of free space

ue is 0 =
or vacuum and its value = 8 .85 x 10-12 c2N-1m-2
²
The magnitude of electrostatic force between two chargess each of 1 C
separated by a distance
ce of 1 m is 9 x 109 N
The Coulomb lawsws in vacuum and in medium are,
F = r &F = r
where, = 2 → perm
rmittivity of the medium Thus the relative permittivity
pe of
„
the given medium is de
defined as , = . For air or vacuum, =1
and for all other media
ia > 1
Coulomb’s law has
ha same structure as Newton’s law of gravi
avitation. (i.e)
I I
FCoulomb = k & FNew ewton = G

Here k = 9 x 109 Nm2 C-2 and G = 6.626 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

Since ‘k’ is mucuch more greater than ‘G’, the electrosta tatic force is
always greater than gra ravitational force for smaller size objects. Electrostatic
E
force between two poin oint charges depends on the nature of the he medium in
which two charges are e kkept at rest.
Depending upon the na nature of the charges, it may either be a attractive or
repulsive
If the charges are in motion, another force called Lorentz tz force come
in to play in addition wit
with Coulomb force. Electrostatic force obey eys Newton’s
third law. (i.e) F =c F
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 15
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ANT IN PHYSICS

58. Define electric field. Explain

Exp its various aspects.
Electric field:
The electric field
ld a
at the point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the
eppoint charge
‘q’ is the force experienc
nced by a unit charge and is given by
³
/= = r
$
Important aspects:
If ‘q’ is positive, the
he electric field points away and if ‘q’ is negatives
ne the
electric field points towa
wards the source charge. The force experienrienced by the
test charge q0 placed in electric field / is , º =q0/
The electric field is independent
i of test charge q0 and it depen
pends only on
source charge q
Electric field is a vector
or quantity. So it has unique direction and magnitude
m at
every point.
Since electric fie field is inversely proportional to the distance,
di as
distance increases the e field decreases. The test charge is made de sufficiently
small such that it will no
not modify the electric field of the source charge.
cha
For continuouss and finite size charge distributions, s, integration
techniques must be used.use There are two kinds of electric field.. They
T are (1)
Uniform or constant field
ield, (2) Non uniform field

59. How do we determine ine the electric field due to a continuo

nuous charge
distribution? Explain.
Continues distributionnoof charges:
Consider a charged objobject of irregular shape which is
divided into a large number
nu of charge elements ∆q1,
∆q2, ∆q3, … ∆qn . The he electric field at ‘P’ due to this
charged object is equa qual to sum of all the charged
elements. (i.e)
∆ ∆ ∆ W
/ = ] r \ + r \ +⋯ + rP\ ^ ; /
[ [ W[
¶
∆
= ∑·¸ r \
[
For continuous distribution
di of charge, we have ∆q →0 (=dq)
dq).
$
Hence / = z } r ……… (1)
a) Linear charge dis
distribution:
If the char
harge ‘Q’ is
uniformly distribu
ibuted along
the wire of length
gth ‘L’, then
charge per unit length
le (i.e)
linear charge den
ensity;
™
#=
¹
Hence, .M = # .¥¥
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 16
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Then the electric

ic field due to line of total charge Q is
» % » %
/= z r = z} r
}
b) Surface charge di
distribution:
If the charg
arge ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed on the surfa
urface of area
™
p unit area (i.e) surface charge density ; & =
‘A’, then charge per
š
Hence, .M = & dA
Then the electric
ic field due to surface of total charge Q is
± ' ± '
/= z r = z r
} }
c) Volume charge distribution:
di
If the char
arge ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed in a volum
ume ‘V’, then
B
volume (i.e) volume charge density; ( =
charge per unitt vo
)
Hence, dq = (dv
dv . Then the electric field due to volume off total
t charge
¼ ) ¼ )
Q is / = z r = z r
} }

60. Calculate the electric field

fie due to a dipole on its axial line.
Electric field due to dipo
ipole on its axial line:
ole AB along X - axis. Its dipole moment be p = !qa and
Consider a dipole
its direction be along − q to + q .
Let ‘C’ be the poin
oint at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ‘O’’ on its
axial line.
Electric field at C due to +q
$
/+ =
(}½¾¿
p
Electric field at C due to −q
$
/− =
(}À¾¿
p
oser to point ‘C’ than −q , / + > / − .
Since +q is located close
By superposition princip
ciple, the total electric field at ‘C’ due to dipo
pole is,
/ tot = / + + / −
$ $
/ tot =
(}½¾¿
p − (}À¾¿
p
/ tot = qR c Xp ;
(}½¾¿ (}À¾¿
(}À¾¿ ½((}½¾¿
/ tot = qR Xp
(}½¾¿¿ (}À¾¿
(}
} À ¾ À }¾½ } ½ ¾ À }¾
/ tot = qR Xp
( ½¾¿ (}À¾¿¿
((}½
}¾
/ tot = qR Xp
(} ½¾ ¿
total electric field is the dipole moment p
Here the direction of tota
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 17
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ANT IN PHYSICS

ting •2. We get / tot =

}¾
If ≫a , then neglecting qR Xp ;
}Æ
¾
= qR Xp
}U
Ã
/ tot = 2 = +]
[q 2ap
}U

61. Calculate the electric field

fie due to a dipole on its equatorial line.
Electric field due to dipo
ipole on its equatorial line:
Consider a dipole
ole AB along
ment be p =
X - axis. Its dipole mome
!qa and its direction be along − q
to + q .
Let ‘C’ be the point
p at a
distance ‘r’ from the mimidpoint ‘O’
on its equatorial plane.
Electric field at C du due to +q
(along BC)
$
g/À g =
(}
( À¾
¾ ¿
Electric field att C due to −q (along CA)
$
g/½ g =
(}
( À¾
¾ ¿
olve / + and / − in to two components.
Here g/À g = g/½ g . Resolv
Here the perpen endicular components g3À g sint and gg3½ g sint are
equal and opposite will ill cancel each other.
But the horizonta ntal components g3À g cosÇ and g3½ g cosÇ Ç are equal
and tion (cp) will added up to give total electric
in same direction ic field.
f Hence
/ tot = g/À g cosθ (cp) + g/½ g cosθ(cp) (or) / tot = c 2g/
g À g cosθ+ Ê
1 M 1 2M ¾
/ tot = c 2Ä4πε 2 2 É cosθp
Ê ; / tot = c Ä
4πε0 Å 2 +•2 È
É p
0 Å +• È
( À¾ ¿
(}
$¾ Ê
Ã\
/ tot = c U p ; / tot = c U
((} À¾ ¿ (} À¾ ¿
Ã
=c U . If r > a then neglecting a2
(} À¾ ¿
" Ã
3tot =c ˆ‰Š
ˆ‰ ‡ [q 2ap =p p = +]
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 18
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ANT IN PHYSICS

62. Derive an expression for electro static potential due to electric dip
dipole.
Electrostatic potentiall d
due to dipole:
ole AB along X - axis. Its dipole moment be p = 2qa and
Consider a dipole
its direction be along − q to + q
Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ‘O’
Let ∠Ìlm = o, BP = r1 anda AP = r2
Electric potential att P due to +q
V1 =

Electric potential att P due to −q

V2 =c

Then total potentiall at

a ‘P’ due to
dipole is V = V1 + V2
1 1
= q]
r1
c r ^ ………
…………. (1)
2

Apply cosine law in ∆ BO

BOP
¾ ¾
ra cosθ ; r12 = r2 R1 +
r12 = r2 + a2 - 2ra c cos oXX
} }
¾ ¾
If a << r then neg
eglecting ; r12 = r2 R1 c cos oXX
} }
¾ ¾ ½
r1 = r R1 c cos oX ; = R1 c cos oX
} }
¾
= R1 + cos oX …………..(2)
}

Apply cosine law i ∆ AOP

w in
¾ ¾
ra cos (1800 – θ¿ ; r22 = r2 R1 +
r22 = r2 + a2 + 2ra + cos oX
} }
¾ ¾
If a << r then neg
eglecting ; r22 = r2 R1 + cos oXX
} }
¾ ¾ ½
r2 = r R1 + cos oX ; = R1 + cos oX
} }
¾
= R1 c cos oX …………..(3)
}

1 •
V= qÅ R1 +
r
cos oX c 1r R1 c • cos oXÈ
¾ ¾
V= ]1 + cos o c R1 + cos oX^
} }
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 19
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ANT IN PHYSICS

¾ $¾
V= cos o ; = cos o
} }

Ã
= cos o [p = 2qa]
}
Ã.}̂
Or V = [pcos o = +. ̂ “
}
Here ̂ is the unit
nit vector along OP

Special cases
Case (i) If the poi
oint P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of
\
+q, then θ = 0. Then the electric potential becomes V =
Case (ii) If the poi
point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of
Ã
en V =c
–q, then θ = 1800, then
}
Case (iii) If the p
point P lies on the equatorial line of the
e dipole,
d then
θ = 900. Hence V = 0

63. Obtain an expression fo for electric field due to an infinitely long charged
cha wire.
Electric field due to infin
finitely long charged wire:
Consider an infi nfinitely long straight wire of uniform lin linear charge
density ‘#’. Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’
from the wire. Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’.
Consider a cylindrical al Gaussian surface of
length ‘L’ and radius ‘r’
The electric flux thro rough the top surface,
Φtap = z / . .m = z / .m cos 90K = 0
The electric flux through
gh the bottom surface,
Φbottom = z / . .m = z / .m cos 90K = 0
Then the total electric flux
flu through the
curved surface,
Φcurve = z / . .m = z / .m cos 90K = Ez .m
Φcurve = E 2°rL
Then the total electricc flflux through the
Gaussian surface,
ΦE = Φtap + Φbottom
tom + Φcurve ; ΦE = E (2°rL)
™ÎÏ Ð¹
By Gauss law, ΦE = ; E (2°rL) = ;
„ „
й й
E= vector notation, / =
In ve ̂
ƒ„ } ƒ„
Here ̂ → unit vector
vec perpendicular to the curved surface outwards.
o
If # > 0 , then / pointss perpendicular
p outward ( ̂ ) from the wire a
and if # < 0 ,
then / points perpendic dicular inward (− ̂ ).
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 20
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ANT IN PHYSICS

64. Obtain an expression n ffor electric field due to an charged infinite

inf plane
sheet.
Electric field due to char
harged infinite plane sheet:
Consider an infinite plane ne sheet of
uniform surface charge densitysity ‘&’
Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance
ce ‘r’ from
the sheet. Let ‘E’ be the electri
tric field at
‘P’. Here the direction of
electric field is perpendndicularly
outward from the sheet. Consid sider a
cylindrical Gaussian surface of length ‘2r’
and area of cross section ‘A’.

The electric flux thro

rough plane
surface ‘P’ The e electric flux through the curved surface
ce, The total
ough the plane surface ‘P’
electric flux throu
ΦP = z / . .m = z / .m cos 0K = z E .m
through the plane surface ‘P’’
The total electric flux thr
Φ p’ = z / . .m = z / .m cos 0K = z E .m
The total electric flux thr
through the curved surface,
Φcurve = z / . .m = z / .m cos 90K = 0
The total electric flux thr
through the Gaussian surface,
ΦE = ΦP + Φ p’ + Φcurve
ΦE = z E .m +z E .m + 0; = 2Ez .m ; ΦE = 2EA
™ÎÏ ˜š ˜
By Gauss law, ΦE = ; 2EA = ;E=
„ „ „
˜
In vector notation, / = N
„
Here ÊN → unit ve
vector perpendicular to the plane sheet outw
utwards.
nts perpendicular outward ( Ê
If & > 0 , then / points N) from the plane
p sheet
and if & < 0 , then / ppoints perpendicular inward (− ÊN)
65. Obtain an expression for fo electric field due to an uniformly charge
rged spherical
shell.
Electric field due to char
harged spherical shell:
Consider an uniformlmly charged spherical shell of radius ‘R’ and
nd charge ‘Q’
1) At a point outside the shell ( > Ñ):
Let P be the point
int outside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from its centre.
Here electric field points
nts radically outwards if Q >0 and radically inward
in
if Q < 0. Consider a sph pherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’ whichich encloses
the total charge ‘Q’. Since
S / and .m are along
radically outwards, we have o = 00.
The electric fluxx th
through the Gaussian surface,
ΦE = ∮ / . .m ; =∮ / .m Ò2Ó 0K
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 21
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ΦE = E ∮ .m ; = E (4°r2)
™ÎÏ ™ ™
By Gauss law, ΦE = ; E (4°r2) = ; E=
„ „ }
™
In vector notation, / = ̂
}
Here ̂ → unit vector acting radically h outward from the spherical surface.
2) At a point on the surface of the shell ( = Ñ):
If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, then = Ñ . Then
™
the electric field, / = ̂
Ô
3) At a point inside the shell ( < Ñ) ∶
Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a
distance ‘r’ from its centre. Consider the spherical
Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’. Since there is no charge
inside the Gaussian surface, Q = 0.
™ÎÏ
Then from Gauss law, ΦE = ∮ / . .m = ;
„
E (4°r2) = 0 ; E = 0
Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged spherical shell is zero
at all points inside the shell.

66. Obtain Gauss law from Coulomb’s law.

Gauss law from Coulomb’s law:
Consider a charged particle of charge ‘+q’
Draw a Gaussian spherical surface of radius
‘r’ around this charge.
Due to symmetry, the electric field / at all
the points on the spherical surface have same
magnitude and radically outward in direction.
If a test charge ‘M2’ is placed on the Gaussian surface, by Coulomb law the
™$
force acting it is, gº g =
}
g³g ™
By definition, the electric field, gº g = = ……….. (1)
$ }
Since the area element is along the electric field, we have o = 00 .
Hence the electric flux through the Gaussian surface is,
ΦE = ∮ / . .m ; = ∮ / .m Ò2Ó 0K ; = E ∮ .m
Here ∮ .m = 4°r2 → area of Gaussian sphere. put in equation (1)
™
ΦE = x 4°r2
}
™
∴ ΦE = .This is known as Gauss law.
„
Result:
The total electric flux through the closed surface depends only
on the charges enclosed by the surface and independent of charges outside
the surface. The total electric flux is independent of the location of charges
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 22
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inside the closed surface

ace and shape on the closed surface.
Gauss law is another
ano form of Coulomb law and also applicable
ap to
charges in motion.

67. Discuss the various prop

roperties of conductors in electrostatic equil
uilibrium.
Conductors in electrosta
static equilibrium:
An electrical cond
nductor has a large number of
mobile charges which ch are free to move in the
material. The resultant
nt motion is zero and it implies
that the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium.
Thus at electrostatic equilibrium,
e there is no net
current in the conductor
tor.

A conductor at electrostostatic equilibrium has the following properterties.

Property - 1:
The electric fieldld is zero everywhere inside the conductor. or. This is the
regardless of whetherr theth conductor is solid or hollow.
The electric field
ld iis not zero inside the metal, and then there
ere will be a
force on the mobile charharge carriers due to this electric field.
As a result, there will ill be a net motion of the mobile char arges, which
contradicts the conduc ductors being in electrostatic equilibrium. m. Thus the
electric field is zero ever
verywhere inside the conductor.
Property - 2:
There is no nett charge
c inside the conductors.
The charges must resid side only on the surface of the
conductors.
Form Gauss’s law law, this implies that there is no
net charge inside the conductor.
co Even if some charge
is introduced inside th the conductor, it immediately
reaches the surface off th the conductor.
Property - 3:
The electric field
fiel outside the conductor is
—
perpendicular to the surface
su of the conductor and has a magnit
nitude of ,
where — is the surface e charge
c density at that point.
If the electric field
fie has components parallel to the surf urface of the
conductor, then free electrons
e on the surface of the condu ductor would
experience accelerationon. This means that the conductor is not in n equilibrium.
e
Therefore at electrostatic
ele equilibrium, the electric fieldield must be
perpendicular to the sururface of the conductor.
For cylindrical Gaussian
Ga surface, the total electric flux is ×E = EA and
the total charge inside the surface is ; = — A
e th
› —Ø —
By Gauss law, ×E = ∴ EA = (or) E =
0
—
ion, / =
In vector notation N
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 23
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Property - 4:
The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and
inside of the conductor. The conductor has no parallel electric component on
the surface which means that charges can be moved on the surface without
doing any work.
This is possible only if the electrostatic potential is constant at all
points on the surface and there is no potential difference between any two
points on the surface.
Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, the potential is the
same as the surface of the conductor. Thus at electro static equilibrium, the
conductor is always at equipotential.

68. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric field is induced inside a
dielectric.
Electric field induced inside a dielectric:
When an external electric field is applied on a conductor, the charges
are aligned in such a way that an internal electric field is created which
cancels the external electric field. But in dielectric, which has no free
electrons, the external electric field only realigns the charges so that an
internal electric field is produced.
The magnitude of the
internal electric field is smaller
than that of external electric
field. Therefore the net electric
field inside the dielectric field is
not zero, but is parallel to an
external electric field with
magnitude less than that of the
external electric field.
For example, let a rectangular dielectric slab is placed between two
oppositely charged plates. The uniform electric field between the plate’s acts
as the external electric field / ext which polarizes the dielectric slab, thus
positive charges are induced on one side and negative charges are induced
on the other side of the slab.
So the dielectric in the external field is equivalent to two oppositely
charged sheets with the surface charge densities. These charges are called
bound charges. They are not free to move like free electrons in conductor.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 24
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ANT IN PHYSICS

69. Explain in detail the eff

effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plat
late capacitor
when the capacitor is di disconnected from the battery.
Effect of dielectrics whe
hen the capacitor is disconnected from thehe battery:
Consider a para arallel plate capacitor.
Area of each plates = A,,
Distance between the pl plates = d ,
Voltage of battery = V0
Total charge on the ca capacitor= Q0. So the
capacitance of capacitor
itor without dielectric,
™
C0 = .
Ù
The battery is the
then disconnected from the capacitor and the th dielectric
is inserted between thehe plates. This decreases the electric field.
ithout dielectric = E0 , Electric field with dielec
Electric field witho lectric = E,
Relative permittiv
ttivity or dielectric constant =
D
∴ E= . Sin
Since > 1, we have E < E0
„Ú

Hence electrostat
tatic potential between the plates is reduced
ed and at the
same time the charge Q0 remains constant.
D Ù
V = Ed ; = d;=
„Ú „Ú
Then the capacita
itance of a capacitor with dielectric,
™ ™ ™
C= ;= Ü ;= } Ù ; } C0
Ù RŸ X
Ú
Since > 1, we have C > C0.
Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the capacitance.
e.
„ š „Ú „ š Ø
We have, C0 = ;C= ;C=
>
Where, = → permittivity of the dielectric medi
dium.
The energy stored
red in the capacitor without dielectric,
™
U0 = ; after the dielectric is inserted,
¢
™ ™ ¨
U= ;= ;=
¢ „Ú ¢ „Ú
Since > 1, weehhave U < U0
There is a decr
ecrease in energy because, when the dielectric
d is
inserted, the capacitors
ors spend some energy to pulling the die
dielectric slab
inside.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 25
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

70. Explain in detail the eff

effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plat
late capacitor
when the battery remain ains connected to the capacitor.
Effect of dielectrics whe
hen the battery remains connected to the e capacitor:
ca
Consider a paralle
allel plate capacitor.
lates = A, Distance between the plates = d
Area of each plate
ery = V0
Voltage of battery
Total charge on ththe capacitor = Q0
So the capacitanc nce of capacitor without dielectric,
™
C0 = .
Ù
Dielectric iss inserted
between the plates and nd the battery
is remains in connecte cted with the
capacitor. So the charg rge stored in
the capacitor is increasesed.
ithout dielectric = Q0
Total charge witho
Total charge withith dielectric = Q,
Relative permittiv
ttivity (dielectric constant) =
∴ Q= Q0
Since > 1, we ehhave Q < Q0
Here the potentiantial difference between the plates remain
ains constant.
But the charges increas ases and the new capacitance will be
™ „Ú ™
C= ;= ;= C0
Ù Ù
Since > 1, wee have
h C > C0
Hence capacitanc
nce increases with the insertion of dielectric
tric slab.
„ š „Ú „ ž „š
We know that, C0 = . ∴C = ;=
Where, 0= → permittivity of the dielectric medium
The energy stored
red in the capacitor without dielectric, U0 = Co VK
After the dielectric is ins
inserted, U = C VK ; = Co VK ; = Uo
Since > 1, we eh
have U > U0
So there is increa
ease in energy when the dielectric is inserted
ted.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 26
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

71. Derive the expression on for resultant capacitance, when capa apacitors are
connected in series and nd in parallel.
Capacitors in series:
Consider three capacitors
c
of capacitance C1, C2 and C3
connected in seriess with a
battery of voltage V
In series connection,
1) Each capacitor has
ha same
amount of chargerge (Q)
2) But potential diffe
ifference
across each capa pacitor will be different.
Let V1, V2, V3 bee tthe potential difference across C1, C2, C3 respectively,
re
then V = V1 + V2 + V3
™ ™ ™ 1 1 1
V= + + [∵ Q = CV] ; V = Q ]
ß1
+ ß2
+ ß ^ …………
……… (1)
¢ ¢ ¢U 3
Let CS be the equ
quivalent capacitance of capacitor in seriess connection,
c
™
then V = ……………... (2
(2)
¢Ý
™ 1 1 1
From (1) and (2) , we ha
have =Q]
ß1
+ ß2
+ß ^ ; = + +
¢Ý 3 ¢Ý ¢ ¢ ¢U
Thus the invers erse of the equivalent capacitance of capacitors
connected in series iss equal
eq to the sum of the inverses of each capacitance.
ca
This equivalent capacitacitance CS is always less than the smalleslest individual
capacitance in the serie
ries.
Capacitors in parallel:
Consider three capa pacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3 connected
in parallel with a battery
ery of voltage V.
In parallel connection,
1) Each capacitor hasha same
potential differenc
ence (V)
2) But charges on ea each
capacitor
will be different
Let Q1 , Q2 , Q3 be the charge on C1, C2, C3 respective
tively, then
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q = C1V + C2V + C3V [∵ Q = CV]
Q = V •C1 + C2 + C3“ ……….. (1)
Let CP be the e equivalent capacitance of capacitorr in parallel
connection, then Q = CPV …………… (2)
From (1) and (2), ), CPV = V [C1 + C2 + C3]
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
Thus the equivale
valent capacitance of capacitors connected ted in parallel
is equal to the sum off ththe individual capacitances.
The equivalentt ccapacitance CP in a parallel connection ion is always
greater than the largestst individual capacitance.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 27
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

72. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator.
Van de Graff Generator:
It is designed by Robert Van de Graff.
It produces large electro static potential difference of about 107 V
Principle:
Electro static induction, Action of points
Construction:
It consists of large hollow spherical conductor ‘A’ fixed on the
insulating stand.
Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre of the sphere
and another pulley ‘C’ is fixed at the bottom. A
belt made up of insulating material like silk or
rubber runs over the pulleys.
The pulley ‘C’ is driven continuously by
the electric motor. Two comb shaped metallic
conductor D and E are fixed near the pulleys.
The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive
potential of 104 V by a power supply. The upper
comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side of the
hollow metal sphere.
Working:
Due to the high electric field near comb
‘D’, air between the belt and comb ‘D’ gets ionized. The positive charges are
pushed towards the belt and negative charges are attracted towards the
comb ‘D’.
The positive charges stick to the belt and move up. When the positive
charges reach the comb ‘E’ a large amount of negative and positive charges
are induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to electrostatic induction.
As a result. the positive charges are pushed away from the comb ‘E’
and they reach the outer surface of the sphere.
These positive charges are distributed uniformly on the outer surface
of the hollow sphere. At the same time, the negative charges neutralize the
positive charges in the belt due to corona discharge before it passes over
the pulley. When the belt descends, it has almost no net charge.
This process continues until the outer surface produces the potential
difference of the order of 107 V which is the limiting value. Beyond this, the
charge starts leaking to the surroundings due to ionization of air. It is
prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very high
pressure.
Applications:
The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff generator is used to
accelerate positive ions (Protons and Deuterons) for nuclear disintegrations
and other applications.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 28
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - II (CURRENT ELECTRICITY)

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define current electricity.

The branch of physics deals with moving charges is called current
electricity.

2. Define electric current.

The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of
™ ™
charges through a given cross - sectional area. I = (2 ) â = .
á á
The SI unit of current is ampere (A). It is a scalar quantity.

3. Define one ampere (1 A)

One ampere of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb of charge passing
through a perpendicular cross section in 1 second. [1 A = 1 C S-1]

4. What is called conventional current?

By convention, this flow in the circuit should be from the positive
terminal of the battery to the negative terminal. This is called the
conventional current or simply current. It is in the direction in which a
positive test charge would move.

5. What are called free electrons and positive ions?

Any material is made up of neutral atoms with equal number of
electrons and protons. If the outermost electrons leave the atoms, they
become free electrons and are responsible for electric current.
The atoms after losing their outer most electrons will have more
positive charges and hence are called positive ions. They will not move freely
and hence the positive ions will not give rise to current.

6. Define drift velocity.

The average velocity acquired by the free electrons inside the
conductor when it is subjected to an electric field is called drift velocity (¤ .).
Its unit is ms-1

7. Define mobility.
The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the free electrons per unit
electric field is called mobility (ã). Its unit is m2V-1 s-1

8. Define current density.

Current density (J) is defined as the current per unit area of cross
ä
section of the conductor. J = . Its unit is Am-2
'
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 29
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

9. Give the microscopic form of Ohm’s law.

®æ ¶® æ
The current density is given by, J = ne¤ ; = neR /X ; = /
- -
(or) J = &/
Thus Current density is directly proportional to the applied electric
field. This is known as microscopic form of Ohm’s law.

10. Current is a scalar quantity. Why?

Current is defined as the scalar product of current density (J) and area
vector (A ) in which charges crosses. (i.e.) J . A = JA cos θ.
The current can be positive or negative depending on the choice of
unit vector normal to the surface area A.

11. Give the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.

Let ‘V’ be the potential difference, ‘I’ be the current and ‘R’ be the
resistance, then the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is V = I R

12. What are called ohmic and non ohmic materials?

Materials for which the current against voltage graph is a straight line
through the origin are said to obey Ohm’s law and they are called ohmic
materials. But materials for which the current against voltage graph is non -
linear and they do not have a constant resistance are called non - ohmic.
They do not obey Ohm’s law.

13. Define resistance of the conductor.

The ratio of potential difference (V) across the given conductor to the
)
current (I) passing through the conductor is called resistance (R). R =
ä
Its unit is ohm (ç )

14. What are the factors that the resistances depend on?
The resistance of the conductor is,
1) Directly proportional to its length (l)
2) Inversely proportional to its area of cross section (A)
% è%
R= ; = where, — → conductivity of the conductor
˜š ˜
é → resistivity of the conductor

15. Define resistivity of the material.

The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance
offered to current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross
Ôš
section. é = ; =
˜ %
Its unit is ohm - metre (çm )
It depends only the type of material and not the dimension of the material.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 30
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

16. Define conductivity of the material.

The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity and it is given by, — =
¼
Its unit is mho- metre-1 (ç-1 m-1). It depends only the type of material and not
the dimension of the material.

17. Repairing the electrical connection with the wet skin is always dangerous.
Why?
The human body contains a large amount of water which has low
resistance of around 200 ç and the dry skin has high resistance of 500 k ç
But when the skin is wet, the resistance is reduced to 1000 ç .
)
By Ohm’s law RR = Xif resistance decreases, current increases. Hence
ä
repairing electric connection with wet skin is dangerous.

18. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity.

It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in
temperature to its resistivity at T0. Its unit is per0C

19. Define Superconductivity.

The resistance of certain material become zero below certain
temperature called critical or transition temperature (TC) , For mercury,
TC = 4.2 K. The materials which exhibit this property are known as super
conductors. The property of conducting current with zero resistance is called
super conductivity. It is discovered by Kammerlingh Onnes.

20. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.

S.
Electric Energy Electric Power
No.
Work has to be done to move The rate at which the electrical
the charge from One end to potential energy is delivered is
1 other end of the conductor and this called electric power.
work-done is called electric energy. ¨
P= ; = VI
dW = dU = VdQ á
2 Its SI Unit is joule (J) Its SI Unit is watt (W)
Its practical unit is kilowatt hour
Its practical unit is horse
3 (kwh)
power(HP)1 HP = 746 W
1 kwh = 3.6x106J

21. Prove that the expression for power in an electrical circuit is

ë=ìí
Electric energy is given by, .î = ï .›
By definition, the rate at which electric potential energy is delivered is called
¨ (Ù ™¿ ™
power. (i.e) Ì = ;= ;=V
á á á
™
But = í → electric current . ∴ ë=ìí
á
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 31
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

22. Write down the various equations for power.

The electric power is given by, P = VI , By Ohm’s law, V = IR and hence
Ù )
P = I2R , Also, I = and hence, P =
Ô ð

23. What is called electric cell (battery)?

An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy in to
electrical energy to produce electricity. It contains two electrodes (anode and
cathode) immersed in an electrolyte.

24. Define electromotive force.

The amount of work a battery or cell does to move a certain amount of
charge around the circuit is called as electromotive force (ñ).
Its unit is volt (V)
The emf of a battery or a cell is the voltage provided by the battery
when no current flows in the external circuit.

25. Define the internal resistance of the cell.

A real battery is made of electrodes and electrolyte. There is
resistance to the flow of charges within the battery and this resistance is
called internal resistance (r). A freshly prepared cell has low internal
resistance and it increased with ageing.

26. State Kirchhoff’s first law (current rule or junction rule)

It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a circuit
is zero. (∑ ò = 0). It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.

27. State Kirchhoff’s second law (voltage rule or loop rule)

It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of
the current and resistance of each part of the circuit is equal to the total
emf included in the circuit ( ∑ í Ñ = ∑ ó). It is a statement of conservation of
energy for an isolated system.

28. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchhoff’s current rule.
Current entering the junction is taken as positive and current leaving
the junction is taken as negative.

29. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchhoff’s voltage rule.
The product of current and resistance is taken as positive when the
direction of the current is followed and is taken as negative when the
direction of current is opposite to the loop.
The emf is considered positive when proceeding from the negative to
the positive terminal of the cell and negative when proceeding from the
positive to the negative terminal of the cell.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 32
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

30. What is called Galvanometer?

A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting and measuring
even very small electric currents. It is extensively useful to compare the
potential difference between various parts of the circuit.

31. State the principle of potentiometer.

Let ‘I’ be the current, ′r′ be the resistance per unit length and ′¥′ be the
balancing length, then emf is ó = Ir ô ( ) ó ∝ ô
The emf is directly proportional to the balancing length. This is the
principle of potentiometer.

32. What is called Joule’s heating effect of current?

When current flows through a resistor, some of the electrical energy
delivered to the resistor is converted into heat energy and it is dissipated.
This heating effect of current is known as Joule’s heating effect.

33. State Joule’s law of heating.

It states that the heat develop in an electrical circuit due to the flow,
current varies directly as (i) the square of the current (ii) the resistance of
the circuit and (iii) the time of flow (â. §) H = I2Rt

34. What are the properties of the substance used as heating element?
An alloy of nickel and chromium called Nicrome is used as heating
element. It has (i) a high specific resistance (ii) high melting point
(iii) heated to very high temperature without oxidation.

35. Write a note on electric fuses.

Fuses are connected in series in a circuit to protect the electric device
from the heat developed by the passage of excessive current. It melts and
breaks the circuit if the current exceeds certain value. It is a short length of a
wire made of a low melting point material.

36. Write a note on circuit breakers (trippers)

Now a day in housed, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses.
Whenever there is an excessive current produced due to faulty wire
connection, the circuit breaker switch opens. After repairing the faulty
connection, we can close the circuit breaker switch.

37. Write a note on electric bulb or lamp.

It consists of a tungsten filament kept inside a glass bulb and heated
to incandescence by current. Melting point of tungsten is 33800C. In
incandescent electric lamps, only 5% of electric energy is converted into light
and the rest is wasted as heat.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 33
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

38. Define Seebeck effect.

In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the
junctions are maintained at different temperature an emf is developed. This
phenomenon is called Seebeck effect or thermoelectric effect. The current
that flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric current. The two
dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as
thermocouple.

39. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?

Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck
generators) which are used in power plants to convert waste heat into
electricity. This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive
thermoelectric generators for increasing fuel efficiency
Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure
the temperature difference between the two objects.

40. Define Peltier effect.

When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a
thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the other
junction. This is known as Peltier effect. Peltier effect is reversible.

41. Define Thomson’s effect.

If two points in a conductor are at different temperatures, the density
of electrons at these points will differ and as a result the potential difference
is created between these points. Thomson effect is reversible.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

42. Obtain an expression for drift velocity. How it is related with the mobility?
Drift velocity ( ö> ):
If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in a conductor are
moves in random directions. As a result no net flow of electrons in any
direction and hence there will not be any current. If the conductor is
subjected to an electric field (/ ¿ free electrons experiences a force given by,
º = c e/ ………….(1)
So all the free electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to the
³ ½®D
field. By Newton’s second law • = ; = ……….. (2)
- -
But the positive ions scatter the electrons and change its direction of
motion. So they move in zigzag path.
In addition to the zigzag motion due to collisions, the electrons move
slowly along the conductor in a direction opposite to that of / .
This average velocity acquired by the free electrons inside the
conductors, when it is subjected to the electric field is called drift velocity
(ö> ¿
The average time between successive collisions is called the mean
free time or relaxation time (_).
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 34
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

½®D
velocity is given by, ö> = • _ ; =
Hence the drift ve _ ; = cã/
-
®÷
Where, = ã → mobility of electrons
-
The magnitude o
of the drift velocity acquired by the free electron
e per
|ö> |
lled mobility. ã =
unit electric field is calle . It unit is m2V-1s-1
D
43. Derive the relation betw
tween the drift velocity and the current.
Drift velocity and curren
rent - Relation:

Area of cross ss section of the

conductor = m
per unit volume = N,
Number of electrons pe
Applied electric field =/
ons = ö>,
Drift velocity of electrons
Charge of an electrons = §
Let ‘.0’ be the distancece travelled by the electron in time ‘.ù’, then
en
ø
vd = (2 ) .0 = vd .ù
á
The number of electrons
ns available in the volume of length ‘.0’ is
= A .0 X n ; = A vd .ù X n
Then the total charge in this volume element is, .› = m ¤. .ù N §
™ š ªú á ¶ ®
By definition, the curren
ent is given by I = ;= ; I = n e A Vd
á á

44. Write a note on carbon n resistors. Carbon resistors:

Carbon resistors
rs consist of a ceramic core on which a thin
th layer of
crystalline carbon is dep
eposited. They are inexpensive, stable and
d compact in
size. Colour rings draw
rawn over it are used to indicate the value
va of the
resistance according to the rules in the table.
Color Number Multiplier
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Color M
Multiplier Tolerance
Gold 10 -1 5%
Silver 10-2 10 %
No Ring
20 %
(Colourless)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 35
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

There is three coloured

co bands on its left and one metall
tallic coloured
band on its right side.. Th
The first and second rings are the significan
cant figures of
the resistance and the e third ring indicate the decimal multiplier
ier after them.
the fourth metallic ring shows the tolerance of the resistor.
Example:
For the given car
carbon resistor, The first digit = 5 (green),), the second
digit = 6 (blue), decimalal multiplier = 10 (orange) and tolerance
3 e = 5% (gold).
The value of resistance e = 56 × 103 Ω or 56 kΩ with the tolerance e value
v 5%.

45. Define temperature coe oefficient of resistivity. Obtain an expression

ion for it.
Temperature coefficient ent of resistivity:
Resistivity of the substance depends on the temperature.. Let L
resistivity at T0 C = (K ; resistivity at TC C = (û
0 0

(û = (K + (K ü [(T c T0)] …………… (1)

Where, ü → Temp mperature coefficient of resistivity.
From equation (1) (û = (K + (K ü (T c T0) ; (û c (K = (K ü (T c T0)
èý ½ è ∆è
ü= ;=
è þ( ½ ¿ è ∆û
Where ∆( = (û c (K → Change in resistivity,
∆ = T - T0 → Ch Change in temperature
It is defined ass tthe ratio of increase in resistivity per deg
degree rise in
temperature to its resist
istivity at To. Its unit is per0C.
For conductors α is positive. (i.e) If the temperature off a conductor
increases, the average age kinetic energy of electrons in the he conductor
increases.
Thus resistance eaat T0C RT = R0 [1+ α (T - T0)]
For semiconducto ctors α is negative.(i.e) If the temperaturere increases,
resistance decreases. s. A semiconductor with a negative temperaturete
coefficient of resistance
ce is called a thermistor.

46. Write a note on electric

ric cells in series.
Cells in Series:
Let n cells, eac ach of emf ξ volts and
internal resistance r ohms are connected in
series with an externall resistance
r R.
The total emf off th
the battery = nξ
The total resistan
ance in the circuit = nr + R
By Ohm’s law, the current in the circuit is
Total emf
Total resistance
I= ;
P
= ………… (1
(1)
P Àð
P
ion (1) becomes, I =
If r << R, equation nl1 R∵ = ¥ X
ð Ô
(i.e.), if r is negligible wh
when compared to R the current supplied by the battery
is n times that supplie lied by a single cell. If r>>R, equation (1)
(1 becomes
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 36
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

P
I= ;= l1 (i.e)
(i.e If r is very very greater than R, current
nt due to the
P
whole battery is the sam
ame as that due to a single cell.

47. Write a note on electric

ric cells in Parallel.
Cells in Parallel:
Let n cells be con
onnected in parallel between
the points A and B and d a resistance R. Let ξ be the
emf and r the internall resistance
re of each cell.
The total emf off th
the battery = nξ
}
The total resistan
ance in the circuit = + R
¶
By Ohm’s law, the current in the circuit is
Total emf
Total resistance
I= ;
P
= ;= …………. (1)
Àð P Àð
ð
W
P
If r >> R, equationion (1) becomes, I = nl1 R∵ = ¥ X
ð Ô
(i.e) If r is negligib
igible compared to R the current supplied by the battery
is n times the that suppl pplied by the single cell.
P
If r << R, equationion (1) becomes I = ;=
P
l1
i.e) If r is very ver
very greater than R, current due to the whol
hole battery is
the same as due to sing ingle cell.

48. Explain the principle of P Potentiometer.

Principle of Potentiome eter:
A battery Bt. Th The battery, key and the potentiomete ter wire are
connected in series for forms the primary circuit. The positive terminal
ter of a
primary cell of emf ξ is connected to
the point C and negat ative terminal is
connected to the jock ockey through a
galvanometer G and a high h resistance
HR. This forms the secon condary circuit.
Let contact be e made at any
point J on the wire by jockey. If the
potential difference acro cross CJ is equal
to the emf of the cell ξ tthen no current
will flow through the galvanometer
gal tion. CJ is the
and it will show zero deflectio
balancing length l.
If r is the resistan
ance per unit length of the wire, then by Ohm
hm’s law.
Potential differenence across CJ = Irl
Since I and r are constants , ξ ü l
Hence ξ = Irl ; Sin
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 37
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

49. Explain Seebeck effect.

ct. Give its applications.
Seebeck effect:
Seebeck discover
vered that in a closed circuit
consisting of two diss issimilar metals, when the
junctions are maintained
ned at different temperatures
an emf (potential differe
ference) is developed. This is
called Seebeck effect.
The current thahat flows due to the emf
developed is called ther
ermoelectric current.
The two dissimila
ilar metals connected to form two junctionss iis known as
thermocouple. If hot an and cold junctions are interchanged, thee d direction of
current also reversed.. Hence
H Seebeck effect is reversible.
The magnitude e of emf developed in thermocouple depends de on,
(i) Nature of the metal
tals forming thermocouple (ii) Temperature re difference
between the junctions
Applications:
Seebeck effec
ffect is used in thermoelectric generators
(Seebeck generators).. Th
This effect is utilized in automobiles
a
as automotive thermo rmoelectric generators. Seebeck effectt is i used in
thermocouples and ther
hermopiles.

50. Explain Peltier effect.

Peltier effect:
When an electric
ric current is passed through a
circuit of a thermocoup uple, heat is evolved at one
junction and absorbed d at
a the other junction. This is
known as Peltier effect
ect. In Cu - Fe thermocouple,
the junctions A and B are a maintained at the same
temperature.
Let a current flow
low through the thermocouple.
At junction ‘A’, where ththe current flows from Cu to
Fe, heat is absorbed d and it becomes cold. At
junction ‘B’, where thee ccurrent flows from Fe to Cu,
heat is liberated and d it becomes hot. When the
direction current is reve
eversed, junction ‘A’ becomes
hot and junction ‘B’ beco
ecomes cold. Hence peltier effect is reversib
sible.

51. Distinguish between Peltier

Pe effect and Joule’s effect.

S. No. Peltier
er EEffect Joule’s Effect
Both heat libliberated and Heat liberated only occur
1
absorbed occccur
2 Occurs at junc
unctions Occurs all along the conduct
uctor
3 Reversible eff
effect Irreversible effect
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 38
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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ANT IN PHYSICS

52. Explain Thomson effect. ct.

Thomson effect:
Thomson showed ed that, if two points
in a conductor are at different
temperatures, the dens ensity of electrons at
these points will differ and as a result the
potential difference iss created between
these points. This is knownk as Thomson
effect.
Thomson effect ct is reversible. If
current passed throug ugh copper bar AB
which is heated at its mimidpoint C, the point C will be at higher pote
otential.
This indicates tha
that the heat is absorbed along AC and evolved
evo along
CB. Thus heat is trans nsferred in the direction of the current. t. It is called
positive Thomson effect ect. (e.g) Ag, Zn. Cd
When the copper er bar is replaced by an iron bar, heat is ev
evolved along
CA and absorbed alongg BC. Thus heat is transferred in the directio ction opposite
to the current. It is called
lled negative Thomson effect. (e.g.) Pt, Ni,, Co,
Co Hg

FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

53. Describe the microscocopic model of current and obtain gener

neral form of
Ohm’s law.
Microscopic model off cu
current and Ohm’ law:

Area of cross section of the conductor = m

Number of electronss per unit volume = N,
Applied electric field =/
ons = ö>,
Drift velocity of electrons
Charge of an electrons = §
Let ‘.0’ be the distancece travelled by the electron in time ‘.ù’, then
en
ø
vd = (2 ) .0 = vd .ù
á
The number of ele
electrons available in the volume of length
h ‘‘.0’ is
= A .0 X n ; = A vd .ù X n
charge in this volume element is, .› = m ¤. .ù N §
Then the total cha
™ šª ᶮ
By definition, the curren
ent is given by I = ;= ú ; I = n e A Vd
á á
Current density (J):
Current densityy ((J) is defined as the current per unit area
are of cross
ä P J ' ªú
section of the conductor
tor. J = ;= . J = ne ¤ . Its unit is Am-2
' '
®æ ¶® æ
ion, J = ne¤ ; J = neRc
In vector notation /X ; = c /
- -
¶® æ
Where, = & → Conductivity; ∴ J = c&/
-
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 39
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

But conven
ventionally, we take the direction of current
nt density as
the direction off el mes, J = &/
electric field. So the above equation become
This is called microscopi
opic form of Ohm’s law.

54. Obtain the macroscopic pic form of ohm’s law from its microscopi
opic form and
discuss its limitation.
Macroscopic form of Oh hm’s law:
Consider a segmgment of wire of length l
and cross sectional area
rea A.
When a potential differe
erence V is applied across
the wire, a net electric
ric field is created in the
wire which constitutess the current. If assume
that the electric field is uniform in the entire
Ù
length of the wire, the po
potential difference is given by, V = El (or)) E =
%
Ù
scopic form of Ohm’s law, J = &E ; = &
From the microsc
%
ä
By definition, the
e Current density is J =
'
ä Ù %
Hence, = & ; ∴ V = I R X; V = IR
' % ˜š
%
Where, = R → Resistance of the conductor. This his is called
˜š
macroscopic form of O Ohm’s law. The resistance is the ratio o of
o potential
difference across the e ggiven conductor to the current passingg through
t the
conductor.
From Ohm’s law,w, the graph between current versus voltage ge is straight
line with a slope equal
al tto the inverse of resistance R of the condu
ductor
Materials, for whi
hich the current against voltage graph is a straight line
through the origin, are
e ssaid to obey Ohm’s law and their behaviou iour is said to
be ohmic.
Materials or devevices that do not follow Ohm’s law are re said to be
non-ohmic. These mate terials have more complex (non - linear) relationships
re
between voltage and cu current.

54. Explain the equivalent ent resistance of a series and parallel

lel resistance
network.
Resistors in Series:
When two or more resistors are
connected end to end, d, they are said to be in
series. Let R1, R2, R3 be the resistances of
three resistors connectected in series. Let “V” be
the potential differenc ence applied across this
combination. In series ies connection i) Current
through each resisto stor will be same (I)
ii) But potential diffe fference across different
resistor will be different.
nt.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 40
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Let V1, V2, V3 bee the

t potential difference
across R1, R2, R3 respecectively, then from Ohm’s
law. V1 = IR1 ; V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
Total potential differenc
nce, V = V1 + V2+V3 ;
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
V = I[R1 + R2 + R3] ……………. (1)
Let Rs be the equivalent
ent resistance in series connection, then
V = IRs ………..(2)
From equation (1) and d (2
(2), we have
IRs = I [R1 + R2 + R3] ; ∴ Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
When resistancesces are connected in series, the equivalent ent resistance
is the sum of the individ
ividual resistances. The equivalent resistancance in series
connection will be greatater than each individual resistance.
Resistors in Parallel:
When two or mor ore resistors are connected across the sam ame potential
difference, they are said
aid to be in parallel. Let R1, R2, R3 be the resistances
res of
three resistors connectected in parallel. Let “V” be the potential tial difference
applied across this combmbination.
In parallel connection,, i)i Potential difference across each resistastance will be
the same (V) ii) But curre
rrent flows through different resistors will be different.

Let I1, I2, I3 be the

th currents flow through R1, R2, R3 respec
ectively, then
) ) )
from Ohm’s law. I1 = ; I2= ; I3 =
ð ð ðU
) ) )
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ; = + + ; I=VR + + X ………(1)
(1)
ð ð ðU ð ð ðU
Let Rp be the equivalent
nt resistance in parallel connection, then
)
I= ………
…………….. (2)
ð[
)
From equation (1) and
d (2
(2), we have =VR + + X
ð[ ð ð ðU

∴ =R + + X
ð[ ð ð ðU
When resistance ces are connected in parallel, the rec reciprocal of
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of ththe values of
resistance of the individ
vidual resistor.
The equivalentt re
resistance in parallel connection will be
e lesser
l than
each individual resistanc
ance.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 41
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

55. Explain the dete etermination of the internal resis

sistance of a
cell using voltmeter.
Internal resistance off a cell:
A real batteryy is i made of electrodes and electrolyte yte. There is
resistance to the flow w of
o charges within the battery and this resistance
re is
called internal resistanc
nce (r)
The emf of the he cell is measured by connecting high gh resistance
voltmeter across it witho
ithout connecting the external resistance R.. This circuit
may be considered ass o open, the voltmeter reading gives the emf
em (ñ) of the
cell. Then external resi
esistance is included in the circuit and current
cu ‘I’ is
established in the circuit
uit.

This circuit is the

then considered as close, the voltmeter reading
rea gives
the potential difference
ce (V) across ‘R’
)
By Ohm’s law, = IR (or) I = ……….(1)
ð
Due to internall rresistance of the cell, the voltmeter reads
ads the value
“V” which is less than th
the emf (ñ). It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir)
has dropped across thehe internal resistance ‘r’. Hence
V= ñ−ò − − − − (2) (or) ò = ñ − ï
½Ù ñcï
∴ = ; = R XÑ
ï
Since ñ, V and R are kno
known, internal resistance ‘r’ and total curren rent ‘I’ can be
determined.
o tthe circuit is, I = I ñ ; = I (V + Ir¿; = I (IR + Ir¿
The power delivered to
P = I2R + I2r
where, I2R→ power deliv
elivered to R
I2r → power deliv
elivered to

56. Explain Kirchhoff’s law.

w.
Kirchhoff first law (curre
rrent law) :
It states that the
he algebraic sum of currents
rcuit is zero . (∑ ò = 0).
at any junction in a circu
Explanation:
It is a statementnt of conservation of electric
charge. Thus all charges
ges that enter a given junction
in a circuit must lea leave that junction. Current
entering the junction is taken as positive and
junction is taken as negative.
current leaving the jun
nction ‘A’ I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
Applying this law at junc
(or) I1 + I2 = I3 – I4 – I5
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 42
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Kirchhoff second law (vo

(voltage law) :
It states that in
n a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the
e products
p of
the current and resista al to the total
stance of each part of the circuit is equal
ircuit ( ∑ í Ñ = ∑ ó)
emf included in the circu

Explanation:
It is a statement
nt o of conservation of energy for an isolated
d system.
s The
product ‘IR’ is taken a as positive when we proceed along the e ddirection of
current and taken as negative
ne when we proceed opposite to the e direction of
current. Similarly,
The emf is consid
sidered as positive, when we proceed from m negative to
positive terminal of the
e cell and as negative, when we proceed fr from positive
to negative terminal off tthe cell.

57. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in Wheatstone’s bridge.

Wheatstone’s bridge:
An important app
pplication of Kirchhoff’s laws is
the Wheatstone’s brid ridge. It is used to compare
resistances and also o helps in determining the
unknown resistance in the electrical network. The
bridge consists of fou four resistances P, Q, R, S
connected as shown. n. A galvanometer ‘G’ is
connected between B and D. A battery ‘ñ′ is
connected between A and C . Let I1, I2, I3, I4
currents through variouious branches and IG be the
current through the galv
alvanometer.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current
cur law at B and D,
I1 − IG − I3 = 0 − − − − (1)
I2 + IG − I4 = 0 − − − − (2)

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage

volt law ABDA and ABCDA,
I1 P + IG G – I2 R = 0 − − − − (3)
I1P + I3Q − I2R − I4S = 0 − − − − (4)

At balanced condndition, the potential at B and D are same,

e, and hence
the galvanometer showsws zero deflection. So IG = 0
Put this in equatio
ation (1), (2) and (3)
I1 − I3 = 0 (or)) I1 = I3 − − − − (5)
I2 − I4 = 0 (or)) I2 = I4 − − − − (6)
I1P − I2R = 0 (o or) I1P = I2R − − − − (7)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 43
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Put equation (5)) aand (6) in (4)

I1P + I1Q − I2R − I2S = 0 ; I1 (P + Q) − I2 (R + S) = 0
∴ I1 ( P+Q) = I2 (R + S) − − − − (8)
Divide equation (8(8) by (7)
ä ( À B¿ ä (ð
( À ¿ ( À B¿ (ð À ¿
= ; =
ä ä ð ð
B
1+ =1+ ;
ð
B
= (or)
ð
= ………..(9)
9)

58. Explain the determinatio

ation of unknown resistance using Meter Bridge.
Bri
Meter bridge:
Metre Bridge is anothe her form of
Wheatstone’s bridge. It consists
ts of uniform
manganin wire AB of 1m length. This wire is
stretched along a metre scale between
be two
copper strips C and D. E is anot
nother copper
strip mounted with two gaps G1 and G2 .An
unknown resistance P is conne nected in G1
and standard resistance connecte
cted in G2
A jockey J is connecte cted from E
through a galvanometer G and high
resistance HR. A Lechla lanche cell ñ and key K is connected across
oss the bridge
wire. The position of joc
ockey is adjusted so that the galvanometer
er shows zero
deflection. Let the point
int be ‘J’
The lengths AJ and JJB now replace the resistance R and nd S of the
ð• '
Wheatstone’s bridge. Th
Then = ; = ð•
' %
Where R → resis
sistance per unit length, = = ………(1
…(1)
%
%
(or) P = Q ………
……..(2)
%
Due to imperfect
ct contact of wire at its ends, some resistanc
ance might be
introduced at the conta
tact. These are called end resistances. Byy interchange
i
P and Q, This error can
an be eliminated, and the average value of P is found.
Let ¥ be the length anand r be the radius of wire, its specific fic resistance
èš èƒ}
(resistivity) is given be. ( = ;= ………….(3)
% %
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 44
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

59. How the emf of two cell

ells are compared using potentiometer?
Comparison of emf off two
tw cells:
Potentiometer wire CD is connected ted to battery
(Bt) and a key (K) in series. This is the
t primary
circuit. The end C is connected d to central
terminal M of DPDT switch and anot nother central
terminal N is connected to jockey ey through a
galvanometer G and high resistance ce HR. This is
the secondary circuit.
The cell whose emf ñ1 and ñ2 to be compared
are connected to M1N1 and M2N2 of DPDT
switch. Initially the cell of emf ñ1 is included in
the secondary circuit and the balanci cing length ¥1
is found by adjusting jockey for zero ro deflection.
emf ñ2 is included in the secondary circu
Similarly the cell of em ircuit and the
balancing length ¥2 is found.
fo Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit len
length and ‘I’
be the primary current,
t, then
t by the principle
ñ1 = Ir¥1 − − − − (1)
ñ2 = Ir¥2 − − − − (2)
Divide equation (1)
(1 by (2),
}% %
= ; = …….(3)
}% %

60. Explain the method off mmeasurement of internal resistance of a cell

ce using
potentiometer.
Internal resistance by potentiometer:
po
Potentiometer wire
wi CD is connected to
battery (Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the
primary circuit. The cell
c ñ whose internal
resistance ‘r’ to be mea
easured is connected to
the secondary circuit. A resistance box R and
a key K2 is connected d across
a the cell ñ. With
key K2 open, the balancncing point J is found out
and balancing length CJ = ¥1 is measured.
By the principle,
ñ ∝ ¥1 − − − − (1)
A suitable resista
tance is included in R and key K2 is closed. The current
flows through R and cell
ell is, I =
ÔÀ}
Hence potential differen
ence across R , V = IR = R
ÔÀ}
For this potential
ial difference, again the balancing point J is found out
and the balancing lenlength CJ = ¥2 is measured.
By the Principle R ∝ ¥2 ………… (2)
Ô
ÔÀ}
Divide equation (1
(1) by (2)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 45
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

% ÔÀ} % } %
= ; = ;1+ =
Å ðÈ % Ô % Ô %
Ú
} % % ½% % ½%
= c1 ; ;r=RR X ………. (3)
Ô % % %
By substituting, ¥1, ¥2 in equation (3) the internal resistance of the cell
can be measured. Here the internal resistance is not constant, and it
increased with increase of external resistance R.

UNIT - III (MAGNETISM AND

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT)
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define magnetism. Give its applications.

The property of attracting iron is called magnetism.
In olden days, magnets were used as magnetic compass for
navigation, magnetic therapy for treatment and magic shows.
In modern days most of the things we use in daily life contains magnets. For
example loud speaker, motors, dynamo, cell phones, pen-drive, CD, hard disc
in laptop etc..

2. Define Geomagnetism or Terrestrial magnetism.

The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s magnetic field is
called Geomagnetism .

3. What are the elements of the Earth’s magnetic field?

To specify the Earth’s magnetic field, three quantities must be
required. They are
(i) Magnetic declination (D)
(ii) Magnetic dip or inclination (I)
(iii) The horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field (BH)

4. Define geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.

A vertical plane passing through the geographic axis is called
geographic meridian and a great circle perpendicular to Earth’s geographic
axis is called geographic equator.
A vertical plane passing through magnetic axis is called magnetic
meridian and a great circle particular to Earth’s magnetic axis is called
magnetic equator.

5. Define magnetic declination.

The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical
meridian is called the magnetic declination (D). At higher latitudes, the
declination is greater whereas near the equator, the declination is smaller.

6. For Chennai, the magnetic declination angle is – "0 . Why it is negative?

The negative sign indicates that the magnetic meridian lies west to the
geographic meridian.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 46
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

7. Define magnetic inclination or dip.

The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic field n with the

For Chennai, angle of dip is 14°16

horizontal in the magnetic meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)

8. Define horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.

The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction
in the magnetic meridian is called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
field (BH)

9. Calculate the tangent of magnetic inclination or angle of dip.

Let n/ be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point ‘P’ and ‘I’ be the angle of
dip, then Horizontal component; BH = BE cos I ,
Vertical component; BH = BE sin I
Pä
∴ = ; tan I = ; Also BE = B! + B)
F ä

10. Define pole strength of the magnet.

The attracting property of the magnet is concentrated at its poles only

The S.I unit of pole strength is Ø "

and this property is called pole strength (M¦).

11. Define magnetic dipole moment.

Magnetic dipole moment (pm) is defined as the product of the pole
strength ( qm ) and magnetic length (2 ¥). i.e *" = " ! ô
In vector notation; +- = M- . [∵ | . | = 2 ¥]
Its SI unit is Am2. Its direction is from South Pole to North Pole.

12. Define magnetic field.

The magnetic field n at a point is defined as a force experienced by
³
the bar magnet of unit pole strength. n = . Its SI unit is NA-1m-1
$#

13. What are the types of magnet?

Magnets are classified in to natural magnets and artificial magnets.
Iron, cobalt, nickel etc are natural magnets. Strength of natural magnets are
very weak and the shape of the magnet are irregular.
Artificial magnets are made our desired shape and strength. Bar
magnets, cylindrical magnets, horse shoe magnets are some examples for
artificial magnets.

14. Define magnetic flux. Give its unit.

The number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit area is called
magnetic flux (Φn) Φn = n . m = B A cos θ
The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb) and CGS unit is Maxwell
(1 Wb = 108 Maxwell). Its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2A-1]
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 47
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

15. Define magnetic flux density.

The magnetic flux density can be defined as the number of magnetic
field lines crossing unit area kept normal to the direction of line of force. Its
S.I unit is tesla or Wbm-2

16. Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform magnetic field.

S. Uniform Magnetic field Non – Uniform Magnetic field

No.
1 Magnetic field is said to be uniform If it Magnetic field is said to be non-
has the same magnitude and direction uniform If the magnitude or
at all the points in a given region. direction or both varies at all its
points.
2 (e.g) Locally Earth’s magnetic field is (e.g) Magnetic field of a bar
uniform magnet

17. Discuss the types of force between two magnetic pole strength.
When North Pole (N) of magnet A and North Pole
(N) of magnet B or south pole (S) of magnet A and south pole (S) of magnet B
are brought close together, they repels each other.
On the other hand, when North Pole of magnet A and South Pole of
magnet B or South Pole of magnet A and north pole of magnet B are brought
close together they attracts each other. Thus like poles repels and unlike
poles attracts.

18. State Coulomb’s inverse square law of magnetism.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is
directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

19. What happens when a bar magnet is freely suspended in uniform and non-
uniform magnetic field?
Even though Earth has non- uniform magnetic field, it is locally (at
particular place) taken as uniform. So bar magnet suspended freely in
uniform magnetic field experience only torque (rotational motion)
When a bar magnet is freely suspended in non- uniform magnetic
field, it undergo translator motion due to net force and rotational motion due
to torque.

20. State tangent law.

When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two
mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the
direction of the resultant of the two fields.

21. Define magnetizing field.

The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a sample or specimen
is called the magnetizing field (H). Its unit is Am-1
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 48
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

22. Define magnetic permeability.

Magnetic permeability is defined as the measure of ability of the
material to allow the passage of magnetic lines through it or measure of the
capacity of the substance to take magnetization or the degree of penetration
of magnetic field through the substance.

23. Define relative permeability.

The relative permeability (ã} ) is defined as the ratio between absolute
permeability (ã ) of the medium to the permeability of free space (ãK ). It has
%
no unit and it is dimensionless quantity. ã} =
%
24. Define intensity of magnetization.
The net magnetic moment per unit volume of the material or is
known as intensity of magnetization or magnetization vector or
magnetization. For magnet the intensity of magnetization can be defined as
Ã# $#
the pole strength per unit area. M = = . Its unit Am-1. It is a vector
Ù š
quantity.

25. Define magnetic induction or total magnetic field.

The magnetic induction ( B) inside the specimen is equal to the
sum of the magnetic field ( nK ) produced in vacuum due to magnetizing
field and the magnetic field ( n- ) due to the induce magnetization
of the substance, & n = nK + n- '

Magnetic susceptibility ((¦) is defined as the ratio of the intensity of

26. Define magnetic susceptibility.

magnetization ( M) induced in the material due to the magnetizing field ( H ).

It is a dimensionless quantity.

27. What are the classifications of magnetic materials?

Magnetic materials are generally classified in to three types. They are
(i) Diamagnetic material (e.g.) bismuth, copper, water
(ii) Paramagnetic material (e.g.) Aluminum, platinum, chromium
(iii) Ferro magnetic material (e.g.) Iron, nickel, cobalt

28. Define Meissner effect.

Super conductors are perfect diamagnetic materials.
The exclusion of magnetic flux from a super conductor during its transition
to the superconducting state is known as Meisnner effect

29. Define Curie’s law.

The susceptibility of the material is inversely proportional to its Kelvin
temperature. (i.e.) the magnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in
temperature. (- ∝ (or) (- =
£
. Where, C → curie constant, this is
û
called Curie law.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 49
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

30. Define Curie temperature.

As temperature increases, the ferromagnetism decreases due to the
increased thermal agitation of the atomic dipoles. At a particular
temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. This
temperature is known as Curie temperature (TC).

31. State Curie - Weiss law.

The susceptibility of the material above the Curie temperature is given
by (- =
£
Where, C → Curie law; T → Kelvin temperature
½
This relation is called Curie - Weiss law.

32. What is Hysteresis?

Hysteresis means ‘lagging behind’. The phenomenon of lagging of
magnetic induction (B) behind the magnetizing field (H) is called hysteresis.

33. Define hysteresis loss.

During the magnetization of the specimen through a cycle, there is
loss of energy in the form of heat. This is known as hysteresis loss.
The energy lost per unit volume of the material when it is carried through one
cycle of magnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop.

34. What are the types of ferromagnetic materials?

Based on the shape and size of the hysteresis loop, ferromagnetic
materials are classified as two types.
They are
(i) Hard magnetic material - (e.g) Steel
(ii) Soft magnetic material - (e.g) Soft iron

35. State Right Hand Thumb Rule.

If we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand such that
the thumb points in the direction of current flow, then the fingers encircling
the wire points in the direction of the magnetic field lines produced.

36. State Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule.

This rule is used to determine the direction of the magnetic field.
If we advance a right handed screw along the direction of current, then the
direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field.

37. Define magnetic dipole moment of current loop.

The magnetic dipole moment of any current loop is equal to the
product of the current and area of the loop. & +- = 1 m'

38. State Right Hand Thumb Rule.

This rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic moment.
If we curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of current in the loop, then
the stretched thumb gives the direction of the magnetic moment associated
with the loop.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 50
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

39. Define gyro-magnetic ratio.

The ratio of magnetic moment (ã*) of the electron to its angular
%+ ®
momentum (L) is called gyro- magnetic ratio. = = 8.78 x 1010 CKg−1
¹ -

40. Define Bohr Magnetron.

It is the unit of atomic magnetic moment.
The minimum value of atomic magnetic moment is called Bohr magnetron.
®-
1bohr magnetron= ã, = = 9.27 x 10-24 A m2
ƒ-

It state that the line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is μK
41. State Ampere’s circuital law.

times net current enclosed by the loop. ∮ n . .¥ = μK IK

42. Define Lorentz force.

If the charge is moving in the electric field ( / ) and magnetic field
( n ), the total force experienced by the charge is given by
º = q& / + b ¤ x n d' . It is known as Lorentz force.

43. Define one tesla.

The strength of the magnetic field is one tesla if unit charge moving in
it with unit velocity experiences unit force.

44. What are the limitations of cyclotron?

i) The speed of the ion is limited. (ii) Electron cannot be accelerated.
iii) Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.

45. Write a note on fast-neutron cancer therapy.

When a deuteron is bombarded with a beryllium target, a beam of high
energy neutrons are produced. These high energy neutrons are sent into the
patient’s cancerous region to break the bonds in the DNA of the cancer cells.
This is used in treatment of fast-neutron cancer therapy.

46. State Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (FLHR).

Stretch for finger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand in
mutually perpendicular directions. If,
(i) Fore finger points the direction of magnetic field,
(ii) The middle finger points the direction of the electric current, then
(iii) Thumb will point the direction of the force experienced by the
conductor.

47. Define one ampere.

One ampere is defined as that current when it is passed through each
of the two infinitely long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one
metre apart in vacuum caused each conductor to experience a force of
2 x 10−7 Newton per metre length of conductor.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 51
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

48. Define figure of merit of a galvanometer.

It is defined as the current which produces a deflection of one scale
division in the galvanometer.

49. Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing
Ž / '
0 1
through it. Is = ;= ;=
ä

50. How the current sensitivity of galvanometer can be increased?

By increasing the number of turns (N)
By increasing the magnetic induction (B)
By increasing the area of the coil (A)
By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire

51. Why Phosphor - bronze is used as suspension wire?

Because, for phosphor - bronze wire, the couple per unit twist is very small.

52. Define voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.

It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across
Ž / '
0 1
it. Is = ;= ;=
ä

53. How galvanometer can be converted in to ammeter?

A galvanometer is converted in to an ammeter by connecting a low
resistance (shunt) in parallel with the galvanometer.

54. How galvanometer can be converted in to voltmeter?

A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high
resistance in series with galvanometer.

55. Why ammeter should always connected in series to the circuit?

The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it will not change the
current passing through it. So ammeter is connected in series to measure
the circuit current. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

56. Why voltmeter should always connected in parallel to the circuit?

The voltmeter must offer high resistance so that it will not draw
appreciable current. So, voltmeter is connected in parallel to measure the
potential difference. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 52
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

57. What are the properties of bar magnet? Properties of magnet:

(i) A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north - south
direction.
(ii) The attractive property of the magnet is maximum near its end or pole.
This is called pole strength.
(iii) Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.
(iv) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet
with poles at its ends.
(v) The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and length
between two magnetic poles in a bar magnet is called magnetic length.
The magnetic length is always slightly smaller than geometrical length.
(i.e.) magnetic length: geometrical length = 5 ∶ 6
58. Write a note on pole strength. Pole strength:
The attracting property of the magnet is concentrated at its poles only
and this property is called pole strength (Mm). It is a scalar quantity with
dimension [L A]. Its SI unit is Am (or) NT-1 .
North Pole of the magnet experiences a force in the direction of the
magnetic field and South Pole experiences force opposite to the magnetic
field. Pole strength depends on the nature of materials of the magnet, area
of cross-section and the state of magnetization.
If a magnet is cut in to two equal halves along the length, then pole
strength is reduced to half. If the magnet is cut into two equal halves
perpendicular to the length, then pole strength remains same. If we cut the
magnet in to two pieces, we will not separate north and south poles. Instead
we get two magnets. (i.e) isolated mono pole does not exist in nature.

59. Give the properties of magnetic field lines. Properties of magnetic field
lines:
They are continuous closed lines. Their direction is from North Pole to
South Pole outside the magnet and South Pole to North Pole inside the
magnet. The tangent drawn at any point on the magnetic field lines gives the
direction of magnetic field at that point.
They never intersect each other. The degree of closeness of the field
lines determines the relative strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic
field is strong where magnetic field lines crowd and weak where magnetic
field lines thin out.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 53
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

60. Explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in

magnetism.
Coulomb’ inverse squaruare law in magnetism:
Consider two barar magnets A and B as shown.
Let , Pole strength of A = ›¦m ; Pole strength of B = ›¦B
Distance between A and nd B=
Then by Coulomb mb’s law, the force of attraction or repulsio
lsion between
two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole
strengths and inversely ance between
ely proportional to the square of the distanc
̂ (or) º = 2
™#ž ™#8 ™#ž ™#8
them. Hence º ∝ ̂
} }
™#ž ™#8
In magnitude, f = k
Where, 2 → proportiona
}

≅ 10-7Hm-1
nality constant.
%
In SI unit, the value of 2 is, k =
ƒ
% ™#ž ™#8
Then the force,, F = . Where, ã2 → permeab
ability of free
ƒ }
space or vacuum [ã2 = 4 ° : 10−7 ; ¦−1]

61. Calculate the torque acting

act on a bar magnet in uniform magnetic
tic field.
Torque acting on a bar ar magnet:
Consider a maggnet of length ‘2¥’ of pole
strength ‘M¦’ kept in uniniform magnetic field n.
Force experienced byy the North Pole along the
direction of the field.
º3 = qm n
Force experienced byy th the South Pole opposite to
the direction of the field
ld
º4 = cqm n . Hen ence total force; º = º3 + º4 = 0
So, that there iss n
no translator motion.
But these two fo forces constitute a couple, which tends to rotate the
magnet along the directi ction of the field n .
Hence momentt of force or torque about ‘O’ is
_ = ON x F/ + OS x F ; = ON x (q I n¿ +OS x (cq I n¿
Here, gON g = gOS g = ¥ and gq I n¿g = g (cq I n¿g
Hence the magnit nitude of the torque,
_ = ¥M¦ n sin o + ¥M¦ n sin o
_ = 2¥M¦ n sin o [M¦2¥ = +¦]
p = *" 7 qrs t
In vector notation
ion, _ = +- 5 ,
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 54
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

62. Obtain an expression n ffor potential energy of a bar magnet pl placed in an

uniform magnetic field.
ld. Potential energy of a bar magnet:
Let a bar magnegnet of dipole moment +- is
agnetic field n. at an angle .
placed in a uniform mag

p = *" 7 qrs t
The magnitude of the torque
to acting on the dipole is

So work done bt external torque (_§0ù) for a

small angular displacem
ement against the torque (p) is
.< = _§0ù .o = _ .o
= +¦ n sin o .o.
Hence the totall work
w done to rotate the bar magnet from o to o is ,
” ”
W =z • dW ; z • pm B sin θ dθ ; W = pmB &– Ò2Ó o' ;
o
” ” o
= – pI n •Ò2Ó o c Ò2Óo “

Hence U = – pI n •cos o c Ò2Óo “f initial angle be o =900 then

This work done is stored
red as potential energy of the bar magnet.
′

U = – pI n cos o.
o The potential energy stored in a bar mag
agnetic field is, U = – pI . n
agnet placed
in a uniform magn
i) If t = 0 then:: U = – ?@ 7 = minimum.
hen: U = ?@ 7 = maximum.
0

ii) If t = 1800 the

Thus the potentiatial energy of a bar magnet is minimum whe
hen it is align
along the external field
eld and maximum when it align anti parall
rallel with the
external field.

63. What are the precaution

tions taken while using tangent galvanometeeters (TG)
Precautions:
All the nearby ma
magnets and magnetic materials are kept pt away from
the instrument. Using sprit
sp level, the leveling screws at the base are
a adjusted
so that the small magne
gnetic needle is exactly horizontal and also
o the circular
coil is exactly vertical.
al. The plane of the coil is kept along the magnetic
meridian. The pointer in the compass box should read 0° − 0°

64. Using the relation n = > ( H + M) , show that ?" = > c "
Proof: The totall magnetic
m induction, n =ãK ( H + M) …………
…… (1)
A
By definition, ?" = (or) C = (- ; & n = > ;
B
ation (1) > ; = ãK ( ; + (- ; ¿
Put this in equatio
%
> ; = ãK ;(1+(- ¿ ; = 1+(-
%
(or¿ ã} = 1+(- ; ∴ ?" = > c "
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 55
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

65. What are called dia, para and ferro magnetic material?
Materials which exhibit weak magnetism in the direction opposite to
the applied field are known as diamagnetic materials. They are repelled by
the magnet. (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water
Materials which exhibit weak magnetism in the direction of the
applied field are known as paramagnetic materials. They are feebly
attracted by the magnets. (e.g.) Alluminium, Platinum, Chromium
Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the direction of the
applied field are known as ferromagnetic materials. They are strongly
attracted by the magnets. (e.g.) Iron, Cobalt, Nickel

66. Explain dia magnetism.

Diamagnetic material:
The orbital motion of electron produce a magnetic field perpendicular
to the plane of the orbit. Thus each electron orbit has finite orbital magnetic
dipole moment. But the resultant magnetic moment for each atom is zero.
In the presence of an external magnetic moment, some electrons are
speeded up and some are slowed down. According to Lenz’s law, the
electrons whose moments were anti-parallel are speeded up which
produces induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the field.
The induced moment disappears as soon as the external field is
removed. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it has tendency to
move the material from stronger to weaker part of the field. This action is
called diamagnetic action and such materials are known as diamagnetic
materials. (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water

67. Explain paramagnetism.

Paramagnetic material:
In some magnetic material, each atom or molecule has net dipole
magnetic moment which is vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments
of electrons. But due to random orientation of these moments, the net
magnetic moment of the material is zero.
In the presence of external magnetic field, the torque acting on the
atomic dipoles will align them in the field direction. Thus a net magnetic
dipole moment induced in the direction of the applied field.
The induced dipole moment is present as long as the external field
exists. When placed in a non-magnetic field, these materials will have a
tendency to move from weaker to stronger part of the field. Materials which
exhibit weak magnetism in the direction of the applied field are known as
paramagnetic materials. (e.g.) Aluminium, Platinum, Chromium
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 56
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

68. Explain ferro magnetism

ism.
Ferromagnetic material
rial:
Ferro magnetic m material also possesses net
magnetic dipole momen ent as paramagnetic material.
A ferro magnetic mater terial is made up of smaller
regions called ferromagn
agnetic domain.
Within each domamain, the magnetic moments
are aligned in same e direction due to strong
interaction arising from
rom electron spin. So each
domain has net magne netization in a direction. But
the direction of magnagnetization is different for
different domains. Henc
ence the net magnetization of
the specimen is zero.
In the presence ce of external magnetic field, the dom main having
magnetic moments para arallel to the field grow in size and the oth
ther domains
are aligned with the field.
f It results; a strong net magnetiza
ization of the
material in the directio
tion of the applied field is produced. Mateaterials which
exhibit strong magnetism
tism in the direction of the applied field is ccalled ferro
magnetic materials. (e.g
(e.g.) Iron, Nickel, Cobalt

69. List the properties of Diamagnetic

Dia materials.
Properties of Diamagne netic materials:
Magnetic suscep eptibility is negative. Relative permeability
ility is slightly
less than one. The magnetic
m field lines are excluded by d diamagnetic
materials when place ced in a magnetic field. Susceptibility lity is nearly
temperature independendent.

70. List the properties of Paramagnetic

Pa materials.
Properties of Paramagn gnetic materials:
Magnetic suscept
eptibility is small positive value. Relative per
ermeability is
greater than one. The e magnetic
m field lines are attracted in to paramagnetic
pa
materials when placed ced in a magnetic field. Susceptibility is i inversely
proportional to temperat
rature.

71. List the properties of Ferromagnetic

Fe materials.
Properties of Ferromagn
agnetic materials:
Magnetic suscep eptibility is positive and large, Relative perm
ermeability is
very, very greater than
no one , The magnetic field lines are strongly
ly attracted in
to the ferromagnetic ma
materials when placed in a magnetic field. Susceptibility
Su
is inversely proportional
al to temperature.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 57
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

72. Explain the applicationsns of hysteresis loop.

Applications of hysteres
resis loop :
The main signifi
nificance of hysteresis loop is that it pr provides the
following information. (i) Retentively (ii) Coercively (iii) Perme eability (iv)
Susceptibility (v) Ener
nergy loss during on cycle of magnetization
These informatio tion will help us in selecting proper and an suitable
material for a given pururpose. For example, the materials (Steel
el and
a Alnico)
with high retentively,, hi
high coercively and high permeability are
re ssuitable for
making permanent mag agnets.
The materials (So
(Soft iron and Mumetal) with high initial permeability,
pe
low retentively, low coer
oercively and thin hysteresis loop with small
aller area are
preferred to make elect
ectro magnet. The materials (Soft iron) with
ith high initial
permeability, large magagnetic induction and thin hysteresis loop
pw with smaller
area are needed to desi
esign transformer cores.

73. What are the difference ces between soft and hard ferromagneticc materials?
m
Soft ferromagnetic mat aterials:
When external field
fie is removes, its magnetization will disapp
appear.
Area of the loop is small
all, Low retentively, Low coercively
High susceptibility anddmmagnetic permeability, less hysteresis loss
ss
Used as solenoid core,, transformer
t core and electromagnets,
(e.g.) Soft iron, Mumetal
tal, Stelloy
Hard ferromagnetic mat aterials:
When external field
fie is removes, its magnetization will persis
sist.
Area of the loop is large
ge, High retentively, High coercively, Low susceptibility
su
and magnetic permea eability, More hysteresis loss, Used ass permanent
magnets (e.g.) Steel, Aln
Alnico, Lodestone.

74. Explain the magnetic field

fie around a straight current carrying cond
onductor.
Current carrying straigh
ight conductor:
When a magneti etic compass is kept near a current carryi rrying straight
conductor, the magne gnetic needle deflects
which indicates there exists,
ex a magnetic field.
If we trace the dire irection shown by the
magnetic needle, we can ca draw the magnetic
field lines which are concentric
con circles having
their centre at the axiss of
o the conductor.
It may be eitherr clockwise
c or anti-clock
wise depending on the e direction of current in
the conductor. If stren ength of the current is
increased, then the density
de of the magnetic field will also increase.
inc The
strength of the magneti etic field decreases at the distance from the conductor
increases.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 58
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

75. Explain the magnetic field

fie around the current carrying circular loop.
loo
Circular coil carrying current:
cur
If we keep a magnetic comp pass near a
cu
current carrying circular conductor, then the
th magnetic
n
needle deflects which indicates the existence
ex of
m
magnetic field. Tracing the direction of the
he deflection,
it shows the magnetic lines are circular near
ne A and B
a
and nearly parallel to each other near theth centre of
th
the loop.
Thus the field present near the centre
ce of the
coil is almost uniform.m. The strength of the magnetic field iss increased
in if
either the current in the coil or the number of turns or both are re increased.
The polarity (North Polele or South Pole) depends on the directionn of
o current in
the loop.

76. State and explain Biot - Savart law.

Biot - Savart law :
According to Biot ot - Savart law, the
magnitude of magnetictic field at a point
‘P’ at a distance e ‘r’ from the small
elemental length ‘dl’l’ of the current ‘I’
ries, (i) .n ∝ ò (ii) .n ∝
carrying conductor varie
.¥ (iii) .n ∝ sin o (iv) .n ∝ Hence, dB
}
% E·¶” % E·¶”
∝ ; (or) dB =k ………..(1)
} }
%
Where k→constant,
t, SI unit, k = k =
ƒ
% % E·¶”
Hence, dB = k = ………..(2)
ƒ }
ã0 % 5 }̂
In vector notation, .n = ………..(3)
4° }
dicular to both ò.¥ and ̂ . From superpositio
Here .n is perpendi ition principle
> í >ô H
ld due to entire conductor is, 7 = z >7 =
the total magnetic field z !
ˆ
ˆG

77. Give the difference betw

etween Coulomb’s law and Biot- savart’s law law.
S. No. Coulombmb’s law Biot- savart’s
’s law
l
1 Electric field is calcu
lculated Magnetic field is calculated
Produced by a scalaalar source Produced be vector source
so
nt ò.¥
2
(i.e) charge ‘q’ (i.e.) current element
It is directed alongg tthe position vector It is directed perpendi dicular to
3 joining the source e and the the position vector and the
point at which the fie
field is calculated. current element
Depends on the angle gle between
and ò.¥ and ̂
4 Does not dependss o on angle
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 59
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

78. Explain the current loop

oop acts as a magnetic dipole and calculat late its dipole
moment.
Biot - Savart’s law.
law Current loop as a magnetic dipole:
The magnetic field
ield from the centre of a current loop of radiu
dius
% Ô
xis. n =
‘R’ along the axis U 2J ;
(Ô ÀI ¿
At larger distance
ce, Z >> R and hence R2 + Z2 Z2
2J ; = 2J Here °K → area of the loop
% Ô % ƒÔ
n=
IU ƒ IU
J J
U2 ; = U 2 ………... (1)
% š % š
n=
ƒI ƒ I
We know that, ma
magnetic field at a distance ‘L’ along the axia
xial line is
% Ã#
n=
ƒ IU
………
…... (2)
Compare equation (1)) anand (2) +- = 1 m (or) pm = I A
This implies thahat a current carrying circular loop beh ehaves as a
magnetic dipole of dipo
ipole moment pm. So the magnetic dipole le moment
m of
any current loop is equa
ual to the product of the current and area of
o the loop.

79. Explain current carrying

ing solenoid behaves like a bar magnet.
Current carrying conduc uctor:
A solenoid is a long
lo coil
of wire closely wound nd in the
form of helix. When n current
flows through the so solenoid,
magnetic field is producuced. It is
due to the superposi osition of
magnetic fields of eachch turn of
the solenoid.
Inside the solenonoid, the
magnetic field is nearly
arly uniform and parallel to its axis. Butt outside
o the
solenoid, the field is ne
negligibly small. Depending on the direction
ion of current,
one end of the solenoidoid behaves like North Pole and the other enden behaves
like South Pole.
The direction off m
magnetic field is given by right hand palm
m rule. (i.e.) if
the current carrying sole
olenoid is held in right hand such that the fingers
fin curl in
the direction of current,
nt, then extended thumb gives the direction n of
o magnetic
field. Hence magnetic field
fie of a solenoid looks like the magneticc field
fi of a bar
magnet.
Uses:
Solenoid can be used as electromagnets which produ duces strong
magnetic field that canan be turned ON or OFF.
The strength off tthe magnetic field can be increased by keeping
k iron
bar inside the solenoidoid. They are useful in designing varietyy of o electrical
appliances.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 60
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ANT IN PHYSICS

80. Write a note in MRI.

MRI :
MRI is Magnetic tic Resonance Imaging which helps the physicians
ph to
diagnose or monitorr treatment for a variety of abnormal al conditions
happening within the he head, chest, abdomen and pelvis. It is a non
n invasive
medical test.
placed in a circular opening and large curr
The patient is pla urrent is sent
through the super cond nduction wire to produce a strong magnetic
etic field. This
magnetic field produceses radio frequency pulses which are fed to a computer
which produce pictures es of organs which helps the physicianss tto examine
various parts of the bod
ody

81. Define Lorentz force. Give

Giv the properties of Lorentz magnetic forc
orce.
Lorentz force:
When an electr ctric charge ′M′ moves in the magne netic field n ,
it experiences a forcerce called Lorentz magnetic force.
Fm = Bqv sin t
In vector notation, º- = qb ¤ x nd

Properties of Lorentz m
magnetic force:
(i) º- is directly pro
proportional to the magnetic field ( n )
(ii) º- is directly pro
proportional to the velocity ( ¤ )
(iii) º- is directlyy proportional to sine of the angle between
b the
velocity and magn
agnetic field.
(iv) º- is directly pro
roportional to the magnitude of the charge
(v) The direction of º- is always perpendicular to ¤ and n
(vi) The direction of º- on negative charge is opposite to the th direction
of º- on positivitive charge
(vii) arge is along the magnetic field, then º- is zero.
If the of the charg z

82. Write a note on velocity

ity selector.
Velocity selector:
Let an electric charge ‘q’’ of
o mass ‘m’
enters in to a region of o uniform
magnetic field n with veloc locity ¤ . Due
to Lorentz force, the charg
arged particle
moves in helical path. By B applying
proper electric field / , th the Lorentz
force can be balanced b by Coulomb
force. Here Coulomb force ce acts along
the direction of electric fiel
ield, whereas
the Lorentz force is perp
erpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
ield.
Therefore in orde
der to balance these forces, both electric and
an magnetic
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 61
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ANT IN PHYSICS

fields must be perpen endicular to each other. Such an arran

rangement of
perpendicular electricc and
a magnetic fields are known as cross
ss fields. The
ge due to these fields is, º = q& / + b ¤ x nd'
force on electric charge
For a positive ccharge, the electric force on the char arge acts in
downward direction whe hereas the Lorentz forces acts upwards. When
W these
two forces balance one e another, the net force º = 0. Hence qE = Bq ¤2
D
∴ ¤2 =
,
This means forr a given magnitude of electric field / and an magnetic
field n, the forces act ononly for the particle moving with particularr speed
s ¤2.
This speed is independe dent of mass and charge,
(i) If ¤ > ¤2, then charge
rged particle deflects in the direction of Lore
orentz force.
(ii) If ¤ < ¤2, then charge
rged particle deflects in the direction of Coul
oulomb force.
(iii) If , then no deflection
tion and the charged particle moves in straig ight line.
Thus by proper ch
choice of electric and magnetic fields, thee particle
p with
particular speed can be selected. Such an arrangement of fields lds is called a
velocity selector. This principle
p is used in Bainbridge mass spec ectrograph to
separate the isotopes.

83. How Galvanometer can an be converted in to Ammeter.

Galvanometer to an AmAmmeter:
Ammeter is an instrument used to
measure current. A galva
lvanometer is converted
into an ammeter by connecting a low
resistance called shununt in parallel with the
galvanometer. The sc scale is calibrated in
amperes. Galvanomete eter resistance = RG;
Shunt resistance = S
Current flows through ga
galvanometer = IG
Current flows through sshunt resistance = IS
Current to be measureded = I
The potential difference
d across galvanometer is sam ame as the
hunt resistance. (i.e.) V Galvanometer = V shunt
potential difference shu
IG RG = IS S
N
IG RG = ( I - IG) S − − − (1) ; S = RG
½N
From equation (1 (1) IG RG = S I – IG S
4
4ÀÔN
IG (S + RG) = S I ; IG = I
= +
4
Let Ra be the resi
esistance of ammeter, then
ÔP ÔN
ÔN 4
⟹ Ra =
4
Here, RG > S > Ra
ÔN À4
Thus an ammeter ter is a low resistance instrument, and nd it always
connected in series to
o the
th circuit. An ideal ammeter has zero res
resistance.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 62
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ANT IN PHYSICS

84. How Galvanometer can an be converted in to voltmeter?

Galvanometer to a voltmltmeter:
A voltmeter is an n instrument used to
measure potential diffe
fference across any two
points. A galvanometeeter is converted in to
voltmeter by connectin
cting high resistance in
series with the galvananometer. The scale is
calibrated in volts.
Galvanometer resistancnce = RG,
High resistance = Rh
Current flows through gagalvanometer= IG
ed = V, Total resistance of this circuit = RG + Rh
Voltage to be measured
Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as the curre rrent passing
through the galvanomet eter. (i.e) IG = I
Ù ) )
IG = (or) RG + Rh = ; ∴ Rh = c RG
ÔN ÀÔQ äR äR
ce of voltmeter, then RV = RG + Rh . Here, RG < Rh < Rv
Let RV be the resistance
Thus an voltmeteter is a high resistance instrument, and it always
connected in parallell to
t the circuit element. An ideal ammete eter has zero
resistance.

85. Differentiate Scalar, Vec

Vector and Tensor.
Scalar:
It has only one co
component. It has no direction (i.e) no unit
it vector
v
Since it has no direction
ion, its rank is zero.
Vector:
It has resolved in to components. It has only one directio tion. (i.e.) has
one unit vector. Since ea each component have one direction, its ran
ank is one
Tensor:
It has resolved int
into components. It has more than one direc
rection
(i.e) has more than one ne unit vector. If each component associate
iated with two
direction, then its rank k is two and if each component associatedted with three
direction, then its rank k is three.
In general, if eac
ach component associated with ‘n’ direction
tion, then it is
called tensor of rank ‘n’
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 63
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
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FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

86. Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail.

Earth’s magnetic field:
A freely suspended magnet comes to rest approximately along the
geographical north - south direction.
To explain this, William Gilbert
proposed that, Earth itself like a gigantic
powerful magnet, but this theory was not
accepted.
Gover suggested that the Earth’s
magnetic field is due to hot rays coming out
from the Sun. So many theories have been
proposed, but none of the theory completely
explains the cause for the Earth’s
magnetism.
The north pole of magnetic compass needle is attracted towards the
magnetic south pole of the Earth which is near the geographic North Pole.
Similarly the south pole of magnetic compass needle is attracted towards the
magnetic north pole of the Earth which is near the geographic South Pole.
The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s magnetic field is
called Geomagnetism (or) Terrestrial magnetism.
The Earth spins about an axis called geographic axis and vertical line
passing through the geographic axis is called geographic meridian, and a
great circle perpendicular to Earth’s geographic axis is called geographic
equator.
The straight line which connects magnetic poles of Earth is known as
magnetic axis and the vertical lies passing through magnetic axis is called
magnetic meridian and a great circle perpendicular to Earth’s magnetic axis
is called magnetic equator.
The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical
meridian is called the magnetic declination (D). The angle subtended by the
Earth’s total magnetic field with the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I) at that point.
The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction
in the magnetic meridian is called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
field (BH). Let BH be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point on the surface
of the Earth, then Horizontal component;
BH = BE cos ò …………… (1)
Vertical component;
BV = BE sin ò …………… (2)
Equation (2) divides by equation (1) tan I =
i) At magnetic equator: At magnetic equator, I = 00, then BH = BE , BV = 0
ii) At magnetic poles: At magnetic poles, I = 900, then BH = 0 , BV = BE
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 64
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

87. Calculate the magnetic

etic induction at a point on the axial line
lin of a bar

li ( 7,W<= ) :
magnet.
Magnetic field at axiall line

magnet ‘NS’ of moment +¦ = M¦ 2¥

Consider a bar ma
Let C be the point
int on its axis at a distance ‘r’ from centre ‘O’
‘O
ole (M¦ß = 1 m ¦) is placed at ‘C’
Let unit north pole
The repulsive forc
orce experienced by unit North Pole (i.e.) magnetic
ma field
at ‘C’ due to North Pole..
V̂ …………. (1)
%
7S =
³T $#
;=
$#U ƒ (}½%¿
The attractive forc
orce experienced by unit North Pole (i.e.) magnetic
ma field
le. 7X = V̂ ………….. (2)
³Ý ã0 $#
at ‘C’ due to South Pole ;= c (2
$#U 4° (}À%¿
netic field at “C” is 7,W<= = 7S + 7X
Then total magne
V̂ + Rc (}À%¿ V̂X ; = M- R(}½%¿ c (}À%¿¿ X V̂
% $# % $# %
=
ƒ (}½%¿ ƒ ƒ

X [â
%
M- R (}½%¿¿ ((}À%¿ X V̂ ;= M- R
% (}À%¿¿ ½(}½%¿
½ } À% À } %½} ½% À } %
Y(}½%¿ (}À%¿ZZ
=
ƒ ƒ

â[ ; = â[ ;
% }% % }$# %
= M- (} ½% ¿
ƒ ƒ (} ½% ¿

7,W<= =
% } Ã#
[â …………. (3)
ƒ (} ½%% ¿
Where M- 2 ¥ = +- → magnetic dipole moment.
If r >> ¥, then ( c¥ ¿ r4. So 7,W<= =
% } Ã#
[â
ƒ }Æ
â[ [+- V̂ = *" ]
%
7,W<= =
Ã#
ƒ }U
%
7,W<= =
*"
…………. (4)
ƒ }U
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 65
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ANT IN PHYSICS

88. Obtain the magnetic in induction at a point on the equatorial line

lin of a bar
magnet.
Magnetic field at equato
atorial line ( ):
Consider a bar ma
magnet ‘NS’ of moment
+- = M- 2¥
Let C be the point
po on its equatorial line at a
distance ‘r’ from centre
re ‘O’ Let unit north pole
(M-\ = 1 m ¦) is placeded at ‘C’
The repulsive for
force experienced by unit North

% M¦
Pole (i.e.) magnetic field
ield at ‘C’ due to North Pole BN =
³T
= (along NC)) …
………….. (1)
M¦Ò ƒ 2

% M¦
The attractive for
force experienced by unit North
³Ý
Pole (i.e.) magne
netic field at ‘C’ due to South Pole BS = =
M¦Ò ƒ 2
(along CS) ……………….. (2)
Here, BN = BS

s o V̂ + BN sin o ]̂
Resolve these two magnetic fields into their components.. Hence
H
n3 = c BN cos
n4 = c BS cos o V̂ – BS sin o ]̂
Then the total ma
magnetic field at ‘C’ is
n®$¬¾á«} = n3 + n4
= c BN cos o V̂ + BN sin o ]̂ c BS cos o V̂ – BS sin o ]̂
c o V̂ c BS cos o V̂
n®$¬¾á«} = c BN cos
co o V̂
n®$¬¾á«} = c2 cos
%
[∵ BN = BS]
cos o V̂
$#
= c2
ƒ }
% $#
n®$¬¾á«} = c cos o â̂ ………….. (3)
ƒ ((} À% ¿
^3 % %
But ∆NOC, cos o = = =
¢3 }
(} À% ¿

%
Then equation (3) becomes,
V̂
$# %
n®$¬¾á«} = c2 2 +¥2 d
ƒb (} À% ¿

n®$¬¾á«} = c
% $# %
3
[â ; n®$¬¾á«} = c % Ã#
3
[â
ƒ 2 +¥2 d2
ƒ 2 +¥2 d2
b b
Where M- 2 ¥ = +- → magnetic dipole moment.
U
If r >> ¥, then ( +¥ ¿
%
[
r3. So

U â [+- V̂ = *" ]
Ã#
n®$¬¾á«} =
ƒ }
% *"
n®$¬¾á«} = ……… (4)
ƒ }U
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 66
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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ANT IN PHYSICS

89. What is tangent law? ?D Discuss in detail. Explain the principle,, cconstruction
and working of tangent nt galvanometer.
Tangent Galvanometer: er:
It is a device used
ed to measure very small currents.
It is a moving magnett ttype galvanometer. Its working is based d on tangent
law.
Tangent law:
When a magnet etic needle or magnet is freely suspend nded in two
mutually perpendicular ar uniform magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the
direction of the resultan
ant of the two fields.
Let B be the mag agnetic field produced by passing currentt through
t the
coil of tangent galvanom ometer and BH be the horizontal componen ent of Earth’s
magnetic field.
Under the actionon of two magnetic fields, the needle come es to rest at
an angle with BH, such h th
that B = BH tant
Construction:
It consists of copp
opper coil wound on a non-magnetic circular lar frame. It is
fixed vertically on a horiz
orizontal turn table providing with three level
veling screws.
At centre, a compasss box is placed which consists of a sma all magnetic
needle which is pivoted d at its centre. A thin aluminium pointer is attached
a to
the magnetic needle no normally and moves over circular scale.
The circular scaleale is divided in to four quadrants and graduated
gr in
degrees. In order to avo void parallax error in measurement, a mirroirror is placed
below the aluminium po pointer. Here the centre of magnetic needle le will exactly
coincide with the centretre of the circular coil.
The coil has thre ree sections of 2, 5 and 50 turns which are a different
thickness and are used d to measuring currents of different strength
gths.
Theory:
When no current nt is passed through the coil,
the small magnetic n needle lies along horizontal
component of Earth’s magnetic
m field
When current pass through th the coil, it produces
magnetic field in directio
ction perpendicular to the plane
of the coil. Now there ar are two fields, which are acting
mutually perpendicular ar tto each other.
They are, (i) Th The magnetic field ‘B’ due to
current in the coil
(ii) Horizontal componen ent of Earth’s magnetic field ‘BH’
Thus the magnetic need edle deflects through an angle ‘ ’. By tangent
ent law,
B = BH tan θ − − − − − − − − (1)
When current ‘I’ passing ing through a circular coil of radius ‘R’ havin
ving ‘N’ turns,
the magnitude of magne netic field at the centre is,
_ ` a
B = − − − − − − − − (2)
!
Put equation (2)) iin (1)
b / ä % 3 ä
= BH tan θ ; BH = Å È − − − − − − − (3)
ð Ô QcP Ž
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 67
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ð
Also the current is, I = tan o = K tan o − − − − − (4)
b /
ð
→ Reduction factor of TG
b /
Where, K =

90. Define Hysteresis. Expla

plain it with help of diagram.
Hysteresis:
Hysteresis meanans ‘lagging behind’, The phenomenon of lagging of
magnetic induction ( n ), behind the magnetizing field ( ; ) is called
hysteresis.
Hysteresis loop:
Let a Ferro magnetic materia rial (iron) is
magnetized slowly by a magnetizi tizing field ; .
The magnetic induction n is incr creases from
point A and attains saturated leve vel at C. This
is shown by the path AC.
The maximum point up to which the
material can be magnetized by applyinga the
magnetizing field is called Saturation
magnetization.
If magnetizing field is now reduced,
red the
magnetic induction also decreas eases but in
different path CA.
When magnetizing field is zero, the th magnetic
an it has positive value. (i.e.) some magne
induction is not zero and gnetism is left
in the material even whehen H=0.
The ability of the material to retain the magnetism in them even
magnetizing field vanish
ishes is called remanence or retentively.
To remove the remanen ence, the magnetizing field is gradually incre
creased in the
reverse direction, so ththat the magnetic induction decreases along alo DE and
becomes zero at ‘E’
The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for which h the
t residual
magnetism of the mater terial vanishes is called its coercively. Furth
rther increase
of in the reverse directio
tion, the magnetic induction increases alon ng EF until it
reaches saturation att F in the reverse direction. If magnetizi tizing field is
decreased and then n increased with direction reversed, the magnetic
induction traces the path
ath FGKC.
This closed cur urve ACDEFGKC is called hysteresis loop lo and it
represents a cycle of magnetization. In the entire cycle, the magnetic
induction ‘B’ lags behi hind the magnetizing field ‘H’. This phen enomenon is
called hysteresis
Hysteresis Loss:
Due to hysteresis
sis there is a loss of energy in the form of heheat and It is
found that the energyy lost
lo per unit volume of the material when n it is carried
through one cycle of m magnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis
energy for a complete cycle is, ∆E = ∮ ; . .n
loop. Thus the loss of en
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 68
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ANT IN PHYSICS

91. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a point due to oa

an infinitely
long straight conductor
or carrying current.
Magnetic field due to long
lo straight current carrying conductor:
Consider a long stra
traight wire NM carrying a current I
Let P be a point
int at a distance ‘a’ from ‘O’ Consider an n element of
length ‘.¥’ of the wire at a distan ance ‘¥’ from
point ‘O’ Let be the vectorr joining the
element ‘.¥’ with the point ‘P’ and nd ‘o’ be the
angle between and .¥. Then the magnetic
field at ‘P’ due to the element is,
> í >ô =< t
>7 = !
Ê − − − − − (1)
ˆG
Where, N → unit vector normall tto both ò .¥
and
(or) – ù•No =
¾ ¾
In ∆PAO, tan (° c o) = (or)
% %
¥=– = – • cot o
¾
QcP ”
Differentiate, .¥ = – •(– cosec2 o¿¿ do
d
= a cosec2 o
¾
Also from ∆PAO, sin (° c o) = (or)
}
¾
sino = (or)
}
¾
= = • cose
sec o
P”
Put ¥ and in equ
quation 1
ã0 ¾ \«E®\ ” ” E·¶”
.n = N
4° ¾ \«E®\ ”
ã
.n = 0 ÓâNo .o ÊN
4° ¾
ed in terms of angular coordinate ‘o ’. Hen
Here .n is expressed ence the net
d e2
%
magnetic field at ‘P’. n = zd .n ; = z ÓâNo .o ÊN
ƒ ¾ e1
% d %
n= &– cos o''d ÊN ; n = [cos e c cos e ] ÊN ………
……. (2)
ƒ¾ ƒ¾
traight wire, e = 0 and e = ° (1800).
For an infinitely long stra
%
etic field is n =
Then the magneti [1c(c1¿“ ÊN
ƒ¾
%
n= [2“ ÊN ;
ƒ¾
%
n= ÊN -------
-------- (3)
ƒ¾
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 69
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ANT IN PHYSICS

92. Obtain a relation for ththe magnetic induction at a point along the th axis of a
circular coil carrying cur
current.
Magnetic field due to current
cu carrying circular coil:
Consider a circula
ular coil of radius ‘R’ carrying a current ‘I’
I’ in anti-clock
wise direction. Let ‘P’ be the point on the axis at a distance ‘z’ from
rom centre ‘O’
Consider two diametric trically opposite line elements of the coilil of each of
length .¥ at C and D. Le Let be the vector joining the current elem lement ò .¥ at
C to the point P.

PC = PD = r = √RR + Z and ∠lßÌ = ∠ljÌ= o

From Pythagoras theore
orem,

Savart law, the magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the current

According to Biot - S
% %
element ò .¥ is, .n = ÊN [ ∵ o = 900]
ƒ }
Where ÊN unit vector normal
no to both ò .¥ &
Here, .n can be resolvolved in to two components.
(i) .n Sin o − horizontal component (Y - axis)
(ii) .n cos o − vertical component (Z - axis)
Here horizontal compononents of each element cancel each other.
But vertical compponents alone contribute to total magnetic
tic field at the
%
point ‘P’ n = z .n = z .n cos o h2 ; n = z cos o h2 …………
%
…… (1)
ƒ }
Ô ð
Also from ∆POD, cos o = =
}
(ð Àg ¿
b ä
But from equation (1) n = z (ð
4% ð
Ê2
Àg ¿
(ð Àg ¿
b äð
n= U z .¥ h2 , Where, z .¥ = 2°R →total length of the co
coil.
(ð Àg ¿
b äð _ a !
n= U [2 °K““ h2 ; 7 = ‡
hl
(ð Àg ¿ !b ! Àk ! d!
Here 7 points aloalong the direction from ‘O’ to ‘P’, If the curr
urrent flows in
clockwise direction, then
en points along the direction from ‘P’ to ‘O’
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 70
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ANT IN PHYSICS

93. Compute the magnetic tic dipole moment of revolving electron.

n. And hence
define Bohr magnetron on.
Magnetic dipole momen ent of revolving electron:
Let an electron n moves in circular motion
around the nucleus. The circulating electron
in a loop is like currentt iin a circular loop.
The magnetic dipdipole moment due to current
carrying circular loop is,
ã m = I m . In magnitudede, ãm = I A − − − − − (1)
If T is the time e period of an electron, the
®
revolving electron is, ò = c , where ‘ce’ → charge of
current due to rev
û
an electron.
If ‘R’ be the radiu
dius and ‘¤’ be the velocity of electron in the circular
ƒ ƒÔ
n
orbit, then T = =
ª
® ®
Then equation (1) becomes, ãm = c A ; = c p °K
û
q
Where, m = °R2 → area of the circular orbit
> = −
ìÑ
∴ − − − − (2)
!
By definition, ang
ngular momentum of the electron about ‘O’’ is
i
*= Kx +

* = Rp = mvR
In magnitude, angular
ang momentum is given by,
− − − − (3)
%+ ®Ù Ô ®
Dividing equation
on (2) by (3), =− ;=−
¹ -ªÔ -
ion, ã m = − * − − − − (4)
®
In vector notation
-
Here negative sisign indicates that the magnetic dipole moment
m and

>m
angular momentum are in opposite direction.
= 8.78 : 1010 Ckg-1 = Constant.
m !"
In magnitude, =
This constant iss ccalled gyro-magnetic ratio.
According to Bohr ququantization rule, angular momentum of an electron is,
-
L = nћ = n ; Where,
W ℎ → Plank’s constant (ℎ = 6.63 X 10−34 s Ó)
ƒ
N → Positive integ
teger (N = 1, 2, 3, )
- o
∴ ã¹ = *; = ; ã¹ = n
!" !"
n − − − − (5)
ƒ ˆƒ"
The minimum ma stituting N = 1
agnetic moment can be obtained by substit
o
(ã¹ )min = >B =
"
= 9.27 X 10-24 Am2
ˆƒ"
The minimum va value of magnetic moment of revolving
g electron is
called Bohr magnetron (>7)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 71
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94. Using Ampere’s law,, o obtain an expression for magnetic fieldld due to the
current carrying wire of infinite length.
Magnetic field due to current
cu carrying straight wire using Ampere
ere’s law:
Consider a strai traight conductor of infinite
length carrying currentt ‘I‘I’
Imagine an Amperian ci circular loop at a distance ‘r’
from the centre of the e conductor. From Ampere’s
circuital law, ∮ n . .¥ = ãã2 ò
Here .¥ is the line element along the
tangent to the Amperi erian loop. So, the angle
between n and .¥ is zero (o = 0°). Thus, ∮ n .¥
= ã2 ò
Due to symmetry, try, the magnitude of the magnetic field is u
uniform over
the Amperian loop and dh hence, n ∮ .¥ = ã2 ò
For circular loop,p, ∮ .¥ = 2 ° n (2 ° ) = ã2 ò
%« %«
7= N, In vec
ector notation, n = N
ƒ} ƒ}

95. Obtain an expression n for magnetic field due to long curren rrent carrying
solenoid.
Magnetic field due to current
cu carrying solenoid:
Consider a solen
lenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns. To calculate
ca the
magnetic field at any po
point inside the solenoid,

consider an Amperia
rian loop ‘abcd’. From Ampere circuital law,
∮ n. .¥ = ã2òK − − − − − (1)
The LHS of equati
ation (1) can be written as
t \ ¾
∮ n . .¥ = z¾ n . .¥ + zt n . .¥ + z\ n . .¥ + z n. .¥
t t t
z¾ n . .¥ = z¾ n .¥ Ò2Ó 0K = B z¾ .¥ = Bh
\ \
zt n . .¥ = zt n .¥ Ò2Ó 90K = 0 ; z\ = 0
¾ ¾
z n . .¥ = z n .¥ Ò2Ó 90K = 0
Here ab = h . Iff we
w take large loop such that it is equal to le
length of the
solenoid, we have ∮ n . .¥ = B m − − − − − − − (2)
Let ‘I’ be the curre
rrent passing through the solenoid of ‘N’ tur
turns, then
òK = Nò − − − − − − − (3)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 72
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and (3) in (1) BL = ã2Nò

Put equation (2)) a
3
B = ã2 ò − − − − − − − (4)
¹
3
Let “n” be the num
number of turns per unit length, then = n. Hence,
H
¹
b uv
B= = ã2n ò− − − − − − − (5)
¹
Since ‘n’ and µ0
0 are constants, for fixed current ‘I’ the ma
magnetic field
‘B’ inside the solenoid is also constant.

96. Obtain the magnetic fie

fields at various points on the toroid.
Toroid :
A solenoid is bent
ent in such a way its ends are joined togethe
ther to form a
closed ring shape is call
alled toroid.

Open space interior to the toroid (P) :

o th
To calculate the e magnetic field BP at ‘P’, consider an Am mperian loop
(1) of radius r1. Then Ammperian circuital law for loop 1 is ∮ nw . .¥ = ã2òK
Since the loop 1 e encloses no current, I0 = 0,
then ∮ nw . .¥ = 0 ∴ nw . =
Open space exterior to the t toroid (Q):
To calculate mag agnetic field BQ at ‘Q’ construct Amperian n loop (3) of
radius r3. Then Amperianian circuital law for loop 3 is ∮ n™ . .¥ = ã2òK
Since in each tur
turn of the toroid loop, current coming outt o of the plane
of paper is cancelled by the current going into plane of the paper, r, Thus I0 = 0
∮ n™ . .¥ = 0 ∴ n™ . =
Inside the toroid (S) :

of the loop 2; *2 = 2°r2 and the loop encloses

To calculate mag agnetic field BS at ‘S’ construct Amperian n loop (2) of
radius r2. The length o en the
current ; I0 = NI , Then AAmperian circuital law for loop 2 is ∮ n4 . .¥ = ã2òK
BS ∮ dl = ã2NI ; BS (2°r2) = ã2NI
%«3
Bs =
ƒ}
3
Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then = n.
ƒ}
Hence, Bs = ã2nI
nI
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 73
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97. Obtain the expression

n fo
for force on a moving charge in a magnetic
etic field.
Force on moving charge
rge in a magnetic field:
Consider a charged particle of charge ge ‘q’ having
mass ‘m’ enters perpendicular to uniformorm magnetic
field ‘B’ with velocity ¤
So this charged particle experience Lo Lorentz force
which acts perpendicular to both n and d ¤ it is º =
q(¤ x n )
Since Lorentz force alone acts on
n tthe particle,
the magnitude of this force is F= n M ¤ [o
o = 90°]
Hence charged p particle moves in a circular orbit and the necessary
-ª
ovided by Lorentz force. (i.e.) n M ¤ =
centripetal force is provi
}
-ª Ã
,$ ,$
The radius of the
he circular path is, r = = − − − − (1)
Where, ¦ ¤ = + → linea
near momentum
ƒ} ƒ- ª
ª ,$
Let ‘T’ be the time
me period, then = =
ª
ƒ-
,$
= − − − − (2) It is called cyclotron time period.
,$
Let ‘f’ be the frequ
equency, then f = = − − − − (3)
û ƒ-

,$
In terms of angula ular frequency, x = ! G y = − − − − (4)
-
It is called cyclotron freq
requency or gyro-frequency.

quency ( z ) depends only on specific char

From equation (2 (2), (3) and (4), we infer that time period (T),
(T) frequency
(f) and angular frequ arge, but not
velocity or the radius of the circular path.
Special cases:
If a charged particle moves in uniform
magnetic field, such ch that its velocity is not
perpendicular to the ma agnetic field, then its velocity is
resolved into two compo ponents.
One componentt iis parallel to the field and the
other component is perp erpendicular to the field.
Here parallel com omponent remains unchanged and the perpendicular
pe
component keeps on changing ch due to Lorentz force. Hence the e path of the
particle is not circle; itt is helix around the field.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 74
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98. Describe the principle,e, cconstruction and working of Cyclotron.

Cyclotron :
It is a device use
sed to accelerate the charged particles to gain large
kinetic energy. It is also
lso called as high energy accelerator. It is iinvented by
Lawrence and Livingston ton.
Principle:
When a charged ed particle moves normal to the magne netic field, it
experience magnetic Lorentz
Lo force.
Construction:
It consists two tw semi circular metal
containers called Dees. s.
The Dees are enclosed ed in an evacuated chamber
and it is kept in a region
ion of uniform magnetic field
acts normal to the plane ne of the Dees.
The two Dees are kept separated with a gap
and the source ‘S’ of charged particles to be
accelerated is placed d at the centre in the gap
between the Dees.
Dees are conne nnected to high frequency
alternating potential diff
ifference.
Working:
Let the positive io
ions are ejected from source
‘S’. It is accelerated to towards a Dee-1 which has
negative potential at that instant. Since the
magnetic field is normamal to the plane of the Dees,
the ion undergoes circ ircular path. After one semi-
circular path in Dee-1, 1, the ion reaches the gap
between Dees.
At this time the e polarities of the Dees are
reversed, so that the he ion is now accelerated
towards Dee-2 with a greater velocity. For this
circular motion, the cen entripetal force of the charged particle is provided
p by
"ö! @|
Lorentz force, then = Bqv ; r = }~
;∴ ∝ö
Thus the increase
ase in velocity increases the radius of the circular
cir path.
Hence the particle un undergoes spiral path of increasing radiu dius. Once it
reaches near the edge ge, it is taken out with help of deflector tor plate and
allowed to hit the target
et T. The important condition in cycloclotron is the
resonance condition. (i.e
(i.e.) the frequency ‘{’ of the charged partic
rticle must be
o the electrical oscillator ‘{2ÓÒ’ . Hence
equal to the frequencyy of
{2ÓÒ =
I
I
The time period of oscill
cillation is, = ,

The kinetic energy of the charged particle is, KE = ¦¤ =

I
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 75
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Limitations of cyclotron
on:
(i) The speed of the e ion is limited
(ii) Electron cannott be
b accelerated
(iii) Uncharged particl
ticles cannot be accelerated.

99. Obtain an expression for fo the force on a current carrying conducto ctor placed in
a magnetic field. Forcece on current carrying conductor in magnetic etic field:
When a current nt carrying conductor is
placed in a magne gnetic field, the force
experienced by the wire ire is equal to the sum of
Lorentz forces on the in individual charge carriers
in the wire.
Let a currentt ‘I’ flows through a
conductor of length ‘L’’ a and area of cross-section
‘A’. Consider a small se segment of wire of length
‘.¥’
The free electrons
ons drift opposite to the direction of currentt with
w
velocity ¤. . The relation
ion between current and drift velocity is,
I = n A e vd
If the wire is kept
ept in a magnetic field, then average force e experienced
e
by the electron in the wire
wi is
º = −e ( ¤d x n) . Let ‘n’ be the number of free electro trons per unit
volume, then the totall number
n of electrons in the small elementent of volume
(V = A .¥) is N = N A .¥ . Hence Lorentz force on the small elem ement,
>• = − e n A .¥ ( öd x 7) − − − − − − (1)
Here length .¥ is along the length of the wire and hence e the current
element is = − N m § .¥ . ¤d
ation (1), .º = ò .¥ x n − − − − − − (2)
Put this in equatio
Therefore, the force
rce in a straight current carrying conductorr of o length ‘ô’
placed in a uniform mag agnetic field. º = ò ¥ x n − − − − − − (3))
In magnitude, F = BI¥ sint − − − − − − (4)
Special cases:

∴•=
(i) If the curre
rrent carrying conductor placed along the e direction of
magneticc fi field, then = 0 0

(ii) If the curre

rrent carrying conductor is placed perpendic dicular to the
magneticc fi field, then = 90 0 ∴ F = BIô = maximum
um.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 76
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100. Obtain a force betweenen two long parallel current carrying conduc
uctors.
Hence define ampere.
Force between two paraarallel conductors carrying current:
Consider two straight
st parallel
current carrying conduct
uctors ‘A’ and ‘B’
separated by a distancece ‘r’ kept in air.
Let I1 and I2 be the currents
cu passing
through the A and B in ssame direction
(z-direction) . The nett magnetic field

h = c%
due to I1 at a distance ‘r
‘r’.
% €
V̂
€
n = (cV¿
ƒ} ƒ}
Here n acts per erpendicular to plane of paper and inwards.
ds.
force acts on the length element .¥ in conductor
Then Lorentz for co ‘B’
e to this magnetic field n
.º = ò .¥ x n = cò2 .¥ h
carrying current I2 due
% €
2x V̂
( h2 x V̂) ; .º
ƒ}
% € • ú€ % € • ú€
.º =c =c ]̂
ƒ} ƒ}
By Fleming’s left
eft hand rule, this force acts left wards. The
Th force per
% € •
]̂ − − − − − − (1)
³
unit length of the condu
ductor B. =c
% ƒ}
% €
agnetic field due to I2 at a distance ‘r’ is n =
Similarly, net mag V̂
ƒ}
Here n acts perp
erpendicular to plane of paper and outwards
rds.
force acts on the length element .¥ in conductor
Then Lorentz for co ‘A’
e to this magnetic field n .
carrying current I1 due
% €
.º = ò .¥ x n = ò .¥ h2 x V̂
( h2 x V̂) ; .º =
ƒ}
% € • ú€ %
]̂
€ • ú€
.º =
ƒ} ƒ}
By Fleming’s left
ft hand rule, this force acts right wards. The
Th force per
% € • ú€
]̂ − − − − − − (2)
³
ductor A. =
unit length of the condu
% ƒ}
Thus the force experienced
ex by two parallel current carrying
ng conductors
is attractive if they carr
arry current in same direction. On the othe her hand, the
force experienced by tw two parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if
they carry current in opp
pposite direction.
Definition of ampere:
One ampere is de defined as that current when it is passed ththrough each
of two infinitely long parallel
par conductors kept a distance of one em metre apart
in vacuum causes each ch conductor experience a force of 2 x 10 Newton per
−7

meter length of conductuctor.

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 77
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ANT IN PHYSICS

101. Deduce an expression n ffor torque on a current loop placed in ma agnetic field
when unit vector ̂ is perpendicular
pe to n .
Torque on a current loop
oop:
Consider a rect ectangular current loop
PQRS kept in uniform magnetic
m field n with its
Let PQ = RS= a →
Length of the loop QR = SSP = b → Breadth of
plane parallel to the field.
fie

the loop
Let N be the un unit vector normal to the
plane of the current loop
op.
Let the loop is div
divided in to four sections
PQ, QR, RS and SP. Th The Lorentz force on each loop can be calculatedca as
follows.

ºw™ = ò Ì› x n ; ºw™ = ò(PQ) (c‡¿ h x BV̂ ; = c ò • n (J‡ x V̂̂ )

Force on section n PQ

•ë; = í , 7l h ……………….
…… (1)

h x BV̂ ; = ò … n (â[ x V̂ )
Force on section n QR
º™Ô = ò ›K x n ; º™Ô = ò(QR) (â¿
•;Ñ = ………
……………. (2)

ºÔ4 = ò K‚ x n ; ºÔ4 = ò(RS) ]̂ x BV̂ ; = ò • n (‡J x V̂ )

Force on section n RS

•ÑX = cí , 7l h ………………. (3)

º4w = ò ‚Ì x n ; º4w = ò(SP) (â¿ h x BV̂ ; = cò … n (â[ x V̂ )

Force on section n SP

•Xë = ………
……………. (4)
The net force on
n the
t rectangular loop is,
º}®E = ºw™ + º™Ô + ºÔ4 + º4w
º}®E = í , 7l
h + + cí , 7l h+
º}®E =
Hence the net force
fo on the rectangular loop in this conf
nfiguration is
zero. But the net torque
ue due to these forces about an axis pass
ssing through
the centre, _}®E = x ºw™ + x º™Ô + 3 x ºÔ4 + 4 x º4w
t
_}®E = (cV̂¿ x ò • n2J + 0 + t V̂ x ò • n(c2J¿ + 0
_}®E = c x ò • n (â[ x 2J¿ c 2 x ò • n (â[ x 2J¿
t …

_}®E = c x ò • n (‡J ¿ c 2 x ò • n (c‡J¿

t …

_}®E = ò • n ]̂̂ + ò • n ‡J
t t

_}®E = ,ƒ í 7 „̂̂ = Øí7 „̂ ………………. (5)

Where, • … = m → area of the rectangular loop.

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 78
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when unit vector Ê is at an angle with 7.

102. Deduce an expression n ffor torque on a current loop placed in ma agnetic field

Torque on a current loop

oop:
Consider a rectactangular current loop
PQRS kept in uniform m magnetic field 7 with
its plane inclined to thee field.
ngth of the loop , QR =
SP = b → Breadth of the loop
Let PQ = RS = a → Leng

Let Ê be the u unit vector normal to

the plane of the currentnt loop.
Let be the angle
an between normal
vector Ê and magnetic etic field 7
Force on section PQ,

ºw™ = ò Ì› x n ; ºw™ = ò(PQ) (c‡¿ h x BV̂ ; = c ò • n (‡J x V̂̂ )

Force on section n PQ

•ë; = í , 7l h ……………….
…… (1)

›K = b cos (900 – o¿â[ + b sin (900 – o¿(2¿

Force on section n QR

›K = b sinoâ[ – b cos o2 ; º™Ô = ò ›K x n

º™Ô = ò&b sino â[ – b cos o2' x BV̂
= cí ƒ 7 ˆ = o (2 h x V̂ )
º™Ô =cí ƒ 7 ˆ = o ]̂ ………………. (2)

ºÔ4 = ò K‚ x n ; ºÔ4 = ò(RS) ]̂ x BV̂ ; = ò • n (J‡ x V̂ )

Force on sectionn RS

•ÑX = cí , 7l h ………………. (3)

‚Ì = b cos (900 + o¿(câ[ ) + b sin (900 + o¿(2¿

Force on sectionn SP

‚Ì = c b sinoâ[ + b cos o2 ; º4w = ò ‚Ì x n

º4w = ò&cb sinoâ[ + b cos o2 ' x BV̂
= í ƒ 7 ˆ = o (2h x V̂ )
º4w = í ƒ 7 ˆ = o ]̂ ………………. (4)
The net force on n the
t rectangular loop is,
º}®E = ºw™ + º™Ô + ºÔ4 + º4w
º}®E = í , 7lh c í ƒ 7 ˆ = o ]̂ c í , 7lh + í ƒ 7 ˆ = o ]̂
º}®E =
Since the forces es on sections QR and SP are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction a and in same line, no torque produce by these two
sections. On the otherer hand forces on sections PQ and RS are re equal and
opposite but in differerent lines and hence these two forces constitute
c a
couple.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 79
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Hence the net torque

tor produced by these two forces about
ut the axis of
the rectangular loop is
_}®E = lm x ºw™ + ln x ºÔ4
_ = &cos b90K – od(cV̂¿ + sin b90K – od2J' x ò • n2
h
t
}®E

&cos b90K – od(V̂¿ + sin b90K – od(c2J¿' x cò • n 2

h
t
+
_}®E = •c sin o â̂ + coso 2“ x ò • n2
h c •sin o â̂ c coso 2“ x ò • n 2
h
t t

t t
_}®E = sin o ò • n (c]̂¿+ 0c sin o ò • n (c]̂¿
t t
_}®E = c sin o ò • n ]̂ + sin o ò • n ]̂
_}®E = a b I B sin o ]̂ ; _}®E = A I B sin o ]̂ ………………. (5)
ipole moment; +- = I A, then
But magnetic dipo
_}®E = +- B sin o ]̂ = +- x n
Special Case:
i) o = 90K , then _}®E = +- B]̂ = A I B]̂ = max.
ii) o = 0K , then _}®E = 0 iii) o = 180K , then _}®E = 0

103. Describe the principl iple, construction and working of m moving coil
galvanometer.
Moving coil galvanomet eter:
It is a device whic
hich is used to indicate the flow of current.
Principle:
When a currentt carrying
c loop is placed in a uniform magngnetic field it
experiences a torque.
Construction:
It consists of a rec
rectangular coil PQRS of insulated thin copp
pper wire.
A cylindrical soft-iron n ccore is placed symmetrically inside the coil. This
rectangular coil is suspe pended freely between two pole pieces off a horse-shoe
magnet by means off phosphor - bronze wire. Lower end of the coil is
connected to a hair sprinpring which is also made up of phosphor bronronze.
A small plane mi mirror is attached on the suspension wire e tto measure
the deflection of the co coil with help of lamp and scale arrangeme ent. In order
to pass electric current nt through the galvanometer, the suspens nsion strip W
and the spring S are con onnected to terminals.
Working:

an breadth …, such
Consider a single gle turn of rectangular
coil PQRS of length ¥ and
that PQ = RS = ¥ ; QR = SP = b
Let ‘I’ be the electr ctric current flowing
through the rectangular lar coil
The horse-shoe e type magnet has
hemi-spherical magne netic poles which
produces a radial mag agnetic field. Due to
this radial field, the side
ides QR and SP are always parallel to the magnetic
ma field
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 80
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‘B’ and experience no force. But the sides PQ and RS are always
perpendicular to the magnetic field ‘B’ and experience force and due to the
torque is produced. For single turn, the deflecting couple is, _ ®Š = F b = B I ¥
b=BIA
For coil with N turns, we get p> y = NB I A …………(1)
Due to this deflecting torque, the coil gets twisted and restoring torque
is developed. The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional to amount of
twist and it is given by p = = K t…………(2)
Where ‹ → restoring couple per unit twists (or) torsional constant
Œ
At equilibrium, _ ®Š = p = ; NB I A = K Ç ; I = Ç = G Ç…………(3)
`}:
Œ
Where, G = ` } : → Galvanometer constant (or) current reduction factor.

UNIT - IV (ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND

ALTERNATING CURRENT)
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define magnetic flux.

The magnetic flux through an area ‘A’ in a magnetic field is defined as
the number of magnetic field lines passing through that area normally. The
S.I unit of magnetic flux is Tm2 (or) weber

2. Define electromagnetic induction.

Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil changes, an emf
is induced and hence an electric current flows in the circuit. This emf is
called induced emf and the current is called induced current. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

3. What is the importance of electromagnetic induction?

There is an ever growing demand for electric power for the operation
of almost all the devices used in present day life. All these are met with the
help of electric generators and transformer which function on
electromagnetic induction.

4. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

(i) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is
induced in the circuit.
(ii) The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to the time
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.

5. State Lenz’s law.

Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that
is always opposes the cause responsible for its production.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 81
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6. State Fleming’s right hand rule.

The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched
out in mutually perpendicular directions. If index finger points the direction
of magnetic field and the thumb points the direction of motion of the
conductor, then the middle finger will indicate the direction of the induced
current. Fleming’s right hand rule is also known as generator rule.

7. What are called eddy currents? How are they produced?

When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the form of a sheet or a
plate changes, an emf is induced. As a result, the induced current flow in
concentric circular paths which resembles eddies of water. Hence these are
known as Eddy currents or Foucault currents.
8. A spherical stone and a spherical metallic ball of same size and mass are
dropped from the same height. Which one will reach earth’s surface first?
Justify your answer.
The stone will reach the earth’s surface earlier than the metal ball.
Because when the metal ball falls through the magnetic field of earth, the
eddy currents are produced in it which opposed its motion. But in the case of
stone, no eddy currents are produced and it falls freely.

9. What is called inductor?

Inductor is a device used to store energy in a magnetic field when an
electric current flows through it. (e.g.) solenoids and toroids

10. What is called self induction?

The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil, when the magnetic flux
linked with the coil itself changes is called self induction. The emf induced is
called self-induced emf.

11. Define self inductance or coefficient of self induction.

Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil, when
1 A current flows through it. Its S.I unit is H (or) WbA-1 (or) VsA-1 and its
dimension is [ML2T-2A-2]

12. Define the unit of self inductance (one Henry)

The inductance of the coil is one Henry, if a current changing at the
rate of 1 A s-1 induces an opposing emf of 1 V in it.

13. What is called mutual induction?

When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an
emf is induced in the neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as
mutual induction and the emf is called mutually induced emf.

14. Define mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction.

Mutual inductance is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the
one coil, when the rate of change of current through the other coil is 1 A s-1
Its S.I unit is H (or) WbA-1 (or) VsA-1 and its dimension is [ML2T-2A-2]
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 82
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

15. What the methods of producing induced emf?

By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
By changing the area ‘A’ of the coil
By changing the relative orientation o of the coil with magnetic field.

16. How an emf is induced by changing the magnetic field?

Change in magnetic flux of the field is brought about by,
(i) The relative motion between the circuit and the magnet
(ii) Variation in current flowing through the nearby coil

17. What is called AC generator or alternator?

AC generator is a device which converts mechanical energy used to
rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical energy.

18. State the principle of AC generator (alternator)

It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. (i.e.) The
relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field changes the
magnetic flux linked with the conductor which in turn induces an emf.
The magnitude of the induced emf is given by Faraday’s law and its
direction by Fleming’s right hand rule.

19. State single phase AC generator.

In a single phase AC generator, the armature conductors are
connected in series so as to form a single circuit which generates a single -
phase alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase alternator.

20. State three phase AC generators.

If there are three separate coils, which would give three separate
emf’s then they are called three phase AC generators.

21. What are the advantages of three phase AC generators?

For a given dimension of the generator, three - phase machine
produces higher power output than a single -phase machine. For the same
capacity, three phase alternator is smaller in size when compared to single
phase generators.
Three phase transmission system is cheaper. A relatively thinner wire
is sufficient for transmission of three phase power.

22. What is called transformer?

It is a stationary device used to transform electrical power from one
circuit to another without changing its frequency. The applied alternating
voltage is either increased or decreased with corresponding decrease or
increase in current in the circuit.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 83
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

23. Distinguish between step up and step down transformer.

Step up transformer Step down transformer

If the transformer converts an If the transformer converts an
alternating current with low alternating current with high
voltage in to an alternating voltage in to an alternating current
current with high voltage is called with low voltage is called
step up transformer. step down transformer.

24. State the principle of transformer.

The principle of transformer is the mutual induction between two
coils. (i.e.) when an electric current passing through a coil changes with time,
and emf is induced in the neighbouring coil.

25. Define the efficiency of the transformer.

The efficiency (•) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful
^¬áìá w«Ž®}
output power to the input power. • =
¶Ã¬á w«Ž®}
x 100%

26. Define Sinusoidal alternating voltage.

as sinusoidal alternating voltage and it is given by, V = Vm qrs z•

If the waveform of alternating voltage is a sine wave, then it is known

27. Define mean value or average value of AC.

The mean or average value of alternating current is defined as the
average of all values of current over a positive half cycle or negative half
#
cycle. ò avg = = 0.6371 ò- .
ƒ

28. Define RMS value of AC.

The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the
square root of the mean of the square of all currents over one cycle.
#
òRMS = = 0.707 ò- .
√

29. Define effective value of alternating current.

RMS value of AC is also called effective value of AC. The effective
value of AC (ò§{{) is defined as the value of steady current which when
flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same amount of
heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.

30. The common house hold appliances, the voltage rating is specified as 230
V, 50 Hz. What is the meaning of it?
The voltage rating specified in the common house hold appliances
indicates the RMS value or effective value of AC. (i.e.) Veff = 230 V
Its peak value will be, Vm = Veff √2 = 230 x 1.414 = 325 V. Also 50 Hz
indicates, the frequency of domestic AC supply.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 84
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

31. Define phasor and phas asor diagram.

A sinusoidal alternrnating voltage or current can be represe esented by a
vector which rotates abo
about the orgin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity ‘x’. Suc
Such a rotating vector is called a phasor. The
T diagram
which shows various pha
phasors and phase relations is called phasor
sor diagram.

32. ram for an alternating voltage ö = ì" =< z•

Draw the phasor diagram z

33. Define inductive reactan

tance.

nd it is given by XL = x* = 2°{* ; Its unit is ohm (•)

The resistance ooffered by the inductor in an ac circui cuit is called
inductive reactance and

34. An inductor blocks ACC but

b it allows DC. Why?
The DC currentt fl
flows through an inductor produces uniform
orm magnetic
field and the magnetic
tic flux linked remains constant. Hence ther ere is no self
induction and self induduced emf (opposing emf). So DC flowss through an
inductor.
But AC flows throu
rough an inductor produces time varying ma
magnetic field
which in turn inducess se
self induced emf and this opposes any change
cha in the
current. Since AC varies
ies both in magnitude and direction, it flow
w is opposed
by the back emf induced
ced in the inductor and hence inductor blockcks AC.

35. Define capacitive reacta

ctance.
The resistance o offered by the capacitor is an ac circu
cuit is called

n¢
capacitive reactance an
and it is given by XC = = ; Its unitt is ohm (•)
ƒŠ¢

36. A capacitor blocks DC C but

b it allows AC. Why?
When DC flowss through capacitor, electrons flows from rom negative
terminal and accumula ulated at one plate making it negative e and hence
another plate becomess positive. This process is known as chargin ging and once
rged, the current will stop and we say capac
capacitor is fully charge pacitor blocks
DC.
But AC flows throu
rough capacitor, the electron flow in one dire
irection while
charging the capacitorr aand its direction is reversed while dischargi
rging. Though
electrons flow in the ccircuit, no electrons crosses the gap betweenbe the
plates. In this way, AC flo
flows through a capacitor.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 85
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

37. Define resonance.

When the frequency of the applied source is equal to the natural
frequency of the RLC circuit, the current in the circuit reaches it maximum
value. Then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance. The frequency at
which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency. Hence the
condition for resonance is : XL = XC

38. What are the applications of series RLC resonant circuit?

RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators,
voltage multipliers etc., An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in
the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems. To receive the signal of a
particular station among various broadcasting stations at different
frequencies, tuning is done.

39. Resonance will occur only in LC circuits. Why?

When the circuits contains both L and C, then voltage across L and C
cancel one another when VL and VC are 180 out of phase and the circuit
becomes purely resistive. This implies that resonance will not occur in a RL
and RC circuits.

40. Define Q - factor or quality factor.

Q - Factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across L or C to the
applied voltage at resonance.

41. Define power in an AC circuits.

Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption of electric
energy in that circuit. It is the product of the voltage and current.

Power factor (cos ‘) of a circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle

42. Define power factor.

of lead or lag. Power factor is also defined as the ratio of true power to the
apparent power.

43. Define wattles current.

If the power consumed by an AC circuit is zero, then the current in
that circuit is said to be watt-less current. This wattles current happens in a
purely inductive or capacitive circuit.

44. What are called LC oscillations?

Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a pure inductor of
inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C, the energy oscillates back
and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of
the capacitor. Thus the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are
generated. These oscillations are called LC oscillations.

45. Define Flux linkage.

The product of magnetic flux (ϕn) linked with each turn of the coil and
the total number of turns (N) in the coil is called flux linkage (Nϕn)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 86
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

46. Define impedance of RL RLC circuit.

The effective opp
pposing by resistor, inductor and capacitorr to the circuit
current in the series RLC
LC circuit is called impedance (Z)
Z = R + (X” c X£ ¿

THREE MA
MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

47. Establish the fact thatt thet relative motion between the coil and d the
t magnet
induces an emf in the e cocoil of a closed circuit.
Faraday’s experiment - 1:
Consider a closed ed circuit consisting
of a coil ‘C’ and a ggalvanometer ‘G’.
Initially the galvanom ometer shows no
deflection. When a bar ba magnet move
towards the stationary ry coil with its north
pole (N) facing the e coil, there is a
momentary deflecti
ction in the
galvanometer.
This indicates that an electric current is
set up in the coil. If th the magnet is kept
stationary inside the coil, the
galvanometer doess not indicate
deflection.
The bar magnet et is now withdrawn from the coil; the galvanometer
ga
again gives a momenta tary deflection but is opposite direction. ThThis indicates
current flows in opposite
site direction.
Now if the magne
gnet is moved faster, it gives a larger deflec lection due to
a greater current in the circuit. The bar magnet is reversed (i.e. i.e.) the south
pole now faces the coil oil and the experiment is repeated, same e results are
obtained but the directioctions of deflection get reversed. Similarly if the magnet
is kept stationary and th the coil moved towards or away from the e coil, similar
results are obtained.
Thus the above e experiments concluded that, whenever er there is a
relative motion between en the coil and the magnet, there is a defle flection in the
galvanometer, indicating ing the electric current set up in the coil.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 87
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

48. Prove that experimenta ntally if the current in a one closed circuitit changes,
c an
emf is induced in anoth ther circuit.
Faraday’s experiment - 2 :
Consider a clo closed circuit
called primary consistinting of coil ‘P’, a
battery ‘B’ and a key ‘K’
‘K’. Consider an
another closed circuit
cir called
secondary consisting of coil ‘S and a
galvanometer ‘G’. Here re the two coils
‘P’ and ‘S’ are kept at rest in close
proximity with respe pect to one
another.
When the primaryary circuit is closed, current starts flowing in this circuit.
At this time, the galvanonometer gives a momentary deflection. After ter that, when
current reaches a steady st value, no deflection is observ rved in the
galvanometer.
Similarly, if the pprimary circuit is broken, current starts ts decreasing
and there is again a momentary
m deflection but in the opposite
site direction.
When current becomes es zero, the galvanometer shows no deflec flection. From
the above observations, ns, it is concluded that whenever the electri tric current in
the primary changes, the galvanometer in secondary shows a defle eflection.

49. How we understood the he conclusions obtained from Faraday’s exp experiment.
Faraday’s experiment - Explanation:
Experiment - 1 :
In the first experi
eriment, when a bar magnet is placed clos lose to a coil,
then there is some mag agnetic flux linked with the coil. When the ebbar magnet
and coil approach e each other, the magnetic flux linked with wi the coil
increases and this incre crease in magnetic flux induces an emf an and hence a
transient current flowss in i one direction. At the same time, when n they
t recede
away from one another, er, the magnetic flux linked with the coil decrcreases.
The decrease in magnetic flux again induces an emff in i opposite
direction and hence an electric current flows in opposite directio tion. So there
is deflection in the galv
alvanometer, when there is a relative motio tion between
the coil and the magnet. et.
Experiment - 2 :
In the second e experiment, when the primary coil ‘P’ carries an
electric current, a magn gnetic field is established around it. The ma agnetic lines
of this field pass through
ugh itself and the neighbouring secondary co coil ‘S’. When
the primary circuit is op open, no current flows in it and hence the magnetic
flux linked with seconda dary coil is zero .
When the primar ary circuit is closed, the increasing curren
rent increases
the magnetic flux link inked with primary as well as secondary ary coil. This
increasing flux inducess a current in the secondary coil.
When the curren rent in the primary coil reaches a steady dy value, the
magnetic flux linked with ith the secondary coil does not change andnd the current
in it will disappear.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 88
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Similarly, when the

th primary circuit is broken, the decreas asing current
urrent in the secondary coil, but in opposite
induces an electric curre e direction.
d
So there is a deflection
on in the galvanometer, whenever there is a change in
the primary current.

50. State and explain Farad

raday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
Faraday’s first law:
Whenever magne gnetic flux linked with a closed circuit chang
nges, an emf
is induced in the circui
cuit. The induced emf lasts so long as the change in
magnetic flux continues.
es.
Faraday’s second law:
The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal al to the time
rate of change of mag agnetic flux linked with the circuit. If ma
magnetic flux
anges by .Φn in time dt, then the induced
linked with the coil chan d emf
e is given
•8
by, =c
á
The negative sign in the above equation gives the direc
rection of the
•8
oil consisting of ‘N’ turns, then = cN
induced current. If a coil
á
(/•8 ¿
=c . Here
H Nϕn is called flux linkage.
á

51. Give an illustration off de

determining direction of induced current by using
Lenz’s law.
Explanation of Lenz’s law:
la
Let a bar mag agnet
move towards the solen lenoid
with its north pole poin
ointing
the solenoid. This mo otion
increases the magnetic tic flux
linked with the solen lenoid
and hence an elec lectric
current is induced.
Due to the flow w of induced current, the coils become a magnetic
dipole whose two magn agnetic poles are on either end of the coil.
coi Here the
cause producing the indinduced current is the movement of the magn
agnet.
According to Len enz’s law, the induced current should flow
low in such a
way that it opposed the th movement of the North Pole toward rds coil. It is
possible if the end neare
arer to the magnet becomes North Pole.
Then it repels theth north pole of the bar magnet and opposed
op the
movement of the magn gnet. Once pole end are known, the direcrection of the
induced current could be found by using right hand thumb rule.
When the bar magnet
ma is withdrawn, the nearer end beco
comes South
Pole which attracts Nor orth Pole of the bar magnet, opposing the e receding of
the magnet. Thus the e d direction of the induced current can bee found from
Lenz’s law.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 89
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

52. Show that Lenz’s law w is in accordance with the law of cons nservation of
energy.
Conservation of energy gy - Lenz’s law:
According to Len
enz’s law, when a magnet is moved either er towards or
away from a coil, the e iinduced current produced opposes its m motion. As a
result, there will always
ys be a resisting force on the moving magnet et.
So work has to be done by some external agency to move e the magnet
against this resistive fforce. Here the mechanical energy off tthe moving
magnet is converted into the electrical energy which in-turn getss cconverted in
to Joule heat in the coil.
il. (i.e) energy is conserved from one form to another
On the contraryy to Lenz’s law, let us assume that the induduced current
helps the cause respon onsible for its production. If we push the magnet
m little
bit towards the coil, the
he induced current helps the movement of the magnet
towards the coil.
Then the magnet et starts moving towards the coil withoutt any
a expense
of energy, which is impopossible in practice. Therefore the assumpti
ption that the
induced current helps theth cause is wrong.

53. Obtain an expression fo for motional emf from Lorentz force.

Motional emf from Lore orentz force:
Consider a straigaight conductor rod AB of
length ‘¥’ in a uniform m magnetic field n , which is
directed perpendicularl larly in to plane of the
paper. Let the rod move m with a constant
velocity ¤ towards righ ight side. When the rod
moves, the free electr ctrons present in it also
move with same velocity city ¤ in n.
As a result, the LoLorentz force acts on free
electron in the directio tion from B to A and it is
given by, º, = c§( ¤ x n¿ …….…… (1)
Due to this force ce, all the free electrons are accumulate at the end A
which produces the potentialp difference across the rod which
wh in-turn
establishes an electricc field
f / directed along BA. Due to the electr
ctric field, the
Coulomb force starts act acting on the free electron along AB and it is given by,
ºD = c§ / − − − − (2)
At equilibrium, g º, g = g ºD g ; g§( ¤ x n¿g= gc§ / g
B e v sin 900 = eE ; Bv = E …………. (3)
ifference between two ends of the rod is, V = E ¥ = Bv¥
The potential diffe
Thus the Lorentz force e on the free electrons is responsible to maintain
m this

–=Bôv
potential difference and nd hence produces an emf
− − − − (4)
Since this emf is produced due to the movement of the rod, rod it is often
called as motional emf. f.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 90
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ANT IN PHYSICS

54. Obtain an expression fo for motional emf from Faraday’s law.

Motional emf from Faraaraday’s law:
Consider a rectan
tangular loop of width ‘¥’ in
ield n which is directed
a uniform magnetic field
perpendicularly in to pla
plane of the paper. A part
of the loop is in the ma
magnetic field, while the
remaining part is outsid
side the field. If the loop is
pulled with a constantt velocity
v ¤ towards right
side, then the magne gnetic flux linked with the
loop will decrease. Acco
ccording to Faraday’s law,
current is induced in the
th loop which flows in a
direction so as to opposose the pull of the loop.
Let ‘0’ be the leng
ngth of the loop which is
etic field, then its area = ¥ 0 . Then the magnetic
still within the magnetic ma flux
linked with the loop is,
Φ, = z n.. .m = z n .m Ò2Ó0K = B A = n¥0
As this magnetic
tic flux decreases, the magnitude of the indu
duced emf is
˜8
given by, ∈ = = (n¥0) = n¥ ; ∈ = n¥v ……………. (1)
ø
á á á
This emf is know
own as motional emf, since it is produced
ed due to the
movement of the loop in the magnetic field. From Lenz’s law, itt is found that
the induced current flow
lows in clockwise direction.

55. Explain energy conserva rvation.

Energy conservation:
Let a loop placeded in a magnetic field n
is pulled with a consta tant velocity ¤ towards
right side. Due to this is movement, the loop
experiences magnetic fo forces.
Let º , º , ºO forces acting on the
three segments of the e loop. Here º , and ºO
are equal in magnitu itude and opposite in
direction and cancell e each other. Therefore
the force º alone acts cts on the left segment
towards left side whic hich is given by, º =
â ¥ x n (or) F1 = â ¥n sin 90K = â ¥n …….. (1)
In order to move e tthe loop a constant force º is applied whi
hich is equal
to the magnetic force º . So, º = c º
∈ ,%ª
In magnitude, F1 = â ¥n = ¥n ; ¥n
Ô Ô
, % ª
F= ……………. (2)
istance of the loop, ∈→ emf
Ô
Where, R →resista

The rate at which

ich the mechanical work is done to pull the loop (i.e.)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 91
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2
n2 ¥ ¤
the power is P = º . ¤ ; º¤ Ò2Ó0K = º¤ ; P = ] ^¤
K
;
2
n2 ¥ ¤2
K
P= ……………. (3)
When the induced current flows in the loop, Joule heating takes place.
The rate at which thermal energy (i.e.) power dissipated in the loop is,
P = i2R = R X K ; = R X K; P =
∈ ,%ª
2
n2 ¥ ¤2
K
……………. (4)
Ô Ô
Thus equation (3) and (4) are same. (i.e.) the mechanical work done in
moving the loop appears as thermal energy in the loop.

56. Define eddy currents. Demonstrate the production of eddy currents.

Eddy currents:
When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the form of a sheet or a
plate changes, an emf is induced. As a result, the induced current flow in
concentric circular paths which resembles eddies of water. Hence these are
known as Eddy currents or Foucault currents.
Demonstration:
Let a pendulum that can be freely suspended between the poles of a
powerful electromagnet. Keeping the magnetic field switched off, If the
pendulum is made to oscillate, it executes a large number of oscillations
before stops. Here air friction is a only damping force.
When the electro magnet is switched on, and the pendulum is made
to oscillate, it comes to rest within a few oscillations. Because eddy currents
are produced in it and it will oppose the oscillations (Lenz’s law).
However some slots are cut in the disc, the eddy currents are reduced
and now the pendulum executes several oscillations before coming to rest.
This clearly demonstrates the production of eddy current in the disc of the
pendulum.

57. What are the drawbacks of Eddy currents? How it is minimized?

Drawbacks of Eddy currents:
When eddy currents flow in the conductor, a large amount of energy is
dissipated in the form of heat. The energy loss due to flow of eddy current is
inevitable but it can be reduced.
To reduce eddy current losses, the core of the transformer is made up
of thin laminas insulated from one another. In case of electric motor the
winding is made up of a group of wire insulated from one another.
The insulation used does not allow huge eddy currents to flow and
hence losses are minimized.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 92
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ANT IN PHYSICS

58. Explain self induction an

and define coefficient of self induction on
n the
t basis of
(1) Magnetic flux and (2 2) induced emf Self induction:
When an electricric current flowing through a coil
changes, an emf is ind induced in the same coil. This
phenomenon is known wn as self induction. The emf

Let ϕn be the m
induced is called self-ind
induced emf.
magnetic flux linked with each
turn of the coil of turn
urn ‘N’, then total flux linkage
rtional to the current ‘â’
(Nϕn) is directly proporti
Nϕn ∝ â (or¿ Nϕ ϕn = L â ;
/ϕ
∴L= ………… …. (1)
·
Where, L →consnstant called coefficient of self inductio tion (or) self
inductance. When the cu
current (â) changes with time, an emf is induced
ind in the
(3ϕ8 ¿ (¹·¿ ·
coil and it is given by, = c ;=c ; = c*
á á á
∈
∴L=c úÎ …………. (2)
ÅúšÈ
Coefficient of self induc
uction - Definition:
Self inductance of
o a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil, when
1 A current flows throug
ough it. Self inductance of a coil is also def
efined as the
opposing emf induced ed in the coil, when the rate of change ge of current
through the coil is 1 A s-1

59. How will you define the

he unit of inductance? Unit of inductance:
Inductance is a sc
scalar and its unit is WbA-1 (or) VsA-1 (or) He
enry (H)
It dimension is [ML T A ]
2 -2 -2

3 ϕ,
Definition - 1 :
ance is given by, › =
The self inductanc
·
The inductance eoof the coil is one Henry if a current of 1 A produces
unit flux linkage in the co
coil.

∈
Definition - 2 :
ance is given by, L = c
The self inductanc úÎ
ÅúšÈ
The inductance
eoof the coil is one Henry if a current chan
anging at the
rate of " As induces an opposing emf of 1 V in it.
-1
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 93
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

60. Discuss the physical sig

significance of inductance.
Physical inductance of inductance:
Generally inertia
ia means opposition to change the
state of the body. In ttranslational motion, mass is a
measure of inertia, whehereas in rotational motion, moment
of inertia is a measur sure of rotational inertia. Similarly
inductance plays the same
sa role in a circuit as the mass
and moment of inertia a play
p in mechanical motion.
When a circuit is switched on, the increasing
current induces an em emf which opposes the growth of
current in a circuit. Similarly,
Si when a circuit is broken,
the decreasing currentent induces an emf in the reverse
direction which oppose sed the decay of the current. Thus
inductance on the coilil o
opposes any change in current and
tries to maintain the orig
riginal state.

61. Assuming that the leng ength of the solenoid is large when comp mpared to its
diameter, find the equa uation for its inductance.
Self inductance of a long
lon solenoid (L):
Consider a longg ssolenoid of length ‘¥’, area of cross section
tion ‘A’ having
‘N’ number of turns. Le Let ‘N’ be number of turns per unit length gth (i.e.) turn
density. When an electr ctric current ‘â’ is passed through the coil,il, a magnetic
field at any point inside e the solenoid is, B = ã2 N â
Due to this field,
d, tthe magnetic flux linked with the solenoidid is,
ϕn = ∮ n. .m = ∮ n m cos 90K = B A
ϕn =•ãK N â“ A

œϕn = œ ã2 n â m = (N ¥) ã2 N â m
Hence the totall magnetic
m flux linked (i.e.) flux linkage

œϕn = > n2 < Ø ô

Let ‘L’ be the self
elf inductance of the solenoid, then
3ϕ 8 % ¶ ·š %
L= = ; L = ãK n2 Ø ô
· ·

‘ã ’, then L= > > n Ø ô = > n Ø ô

If the solenoid is ffilled with a dielectric medium of relative
e permeability
p
2 2

Thus, the inductatance depends on

(i) Geometry of the solenoid
(ii) Medium pr
present inside the solenoid
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 94
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

62. An inductor of inducta ctance ‘L’ carries an electric current ‘<’.’. How much
energy is stored whileee establishing the current in it?
Energy stored in an sole
olenoid:
Whenever a cur urrent is established in the circuit, the e inductance
opposes the growth off the
th current. To establish the current, work
rk has
h to done
against this opposition.
n.
This work done e iis stored as magnetic potential energy. Consider
C an
inductor of negligible res
resistance, the induced emf ‘∈’ at any instan
tant ‘t’ is
∈ = c*
.â
.ù
Let ‘dW’ be the e work done in moving a charge ‘dq’ in a time ‘dt’

.< = − ∈ .M = − ∈ â .ù
against the opposition,, tthen

.< = − Rc* X â .ù = L â .â
.â
.ù
Total work donee in establishing the current ‘â’ is

.â = * R X = *â
·
< = ∫ .< = ∫ * â .
·
K
This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. (i.e)
.e)
uB = *â
The energy
rgy stored per unit volume of the space is called
ca energy
®¶®}•ž (¬8 ¿
d it is given by, C, =
density (Cn) and
Ù«%¬-® š %
¹· (% ¶ š %¿· % ¶ ·
= ;= ; C, =
š% š%
,
C, = [∵ n = ã2 N â]
%

63. Explain mutual inducti ction. Define coefficient of mutual induct

uction on the
basis of (1) magnetic flux
fl and (2) induced emf
Mutual induction:
When an elec lectric current passing
through a coil changesges with time, an emf is
induced in the nei neighbouring coil. This
phenomenon is known na as mutual induction and
the emf is called mutual
ually induced emf.
Consider two coil
oils 1 and 2 which are
placed close to each oth
other. If an electric current
‘â1’ is sent through coil
oil -1, the magnetic field
produced by it also linke
ked with the coil -2

of N2 turns due to coil -1,

Let ‘Φ21’ be the magnegnetic flux linked with
each turn of the coil-2 o
then the total flux lilinked with coil -2 is

N2 ϕ21 ∝ â (or)r) N2 ϕ21 = C â

proportional to the curre
rrent ‘â1’ in the coil -1 (i.e.)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 95
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ANT IN PHYSICS

3 ϕ
∴C = − − − − (1)
·
Here M21 → cons nstant called coefficient of mutual induction
tion or mutual
inductance coil -2 withh rrespect to coil -1 . When the current ‘â1’ ch
changes with
time, an emf ‘∈2’ is indu
duced in coil -2 and it is given by,
b3 ϕ d ( · ¿ ·
‘∈2’ = c =c = cC
á á á
∈
∴C =c úÎ − − − − (2)
úš
3 ϕ
Similarly, C = − − − − (3)
·
∈
&C =c úÎ − − − − (4)
úš
Here M21 → cons nstant called coefficient of mutual induction
tion or mutual
inductance coil -2 with
h rrespect to coil -1
Coefficient of mutuall in
induction - Definition:
The mutual inducuctance is defined as the flux linkage off the
th one coil,
when 1 A current flow ow through other coil. Mutual inductance e is also the
opposing emf induced in one coil, when the rate of change of curr
urrent through
other coil is 1 As-1

64. Show that the mutuall ininductance between a pair of coils is same
me
(M12 = M21)
Mutual inductance betwetween a pair of coils:
Consider two long
ng co-axial solenoids of same length
Let A1 and A2 be the ararea of cross section of the
solenoids. Here A1 > A2
Let the turn dens
nsity of these solenoids are
N1 and N2 respectively ely. Let ‘â1’ be the current
flowing through soleno noid -1, then the magnetic
field produced inside it iis, B1 = ã2 N1 â1
Hence the magnetictic flux linked with each turn
of solenoid -2 due to
solenoid -1 is ϕ = ∮ n . .m = ∮ n .m Ò2Ó0K = B1A2
ϕ = (ãK N â ¿ m
Then total flux linkage o
of solenoid -2 of N2 turns is
N2ϕ = (N N ¥¿ ãK N â ¿ m
N2ϕ = ãK N N2 ¥ â m ……………. (1)
So the mutual inductance
ind of solenoid -2 with respect to solenoid
so -1 is
3 Ÿ % ¶ ¶ %· š
given by, M21 = =
· ·
M21 = ãK N N ¥m − − − − (2)
Similarly, Let ‘â2’ be the current flowing through solenoid d -2, then the
ed inside it is, B2 = ãK N â
magnetic field produced
Hence the magnetic tic flux linked with each turn of solenoid -1 due
du to
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 96
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ANT IN PHYSICS

solenoid -2 is ϕ = (∮ n . .m = ∮ n .m Ò2Ó0K = B2A2

ϕ = (ãK N â ¿ m
Then total flux linkage o
of solenoid -1 of N1 turns is
N1ϕ = (N N ¥¿ ãK N â ¿ m
N1ϕ = ãK N N2 ¥ â m ……………. (3)
So the mutual inductance
ind of solenoid -1 with respect to solenoid
so -2 is
3 ¡ % ¶ ¶ %· š
given by, M12 = =
· ·
M12 = ãK N N ¥m − − − − (4)
From equation (2 (2) and (4), M12 = M21
In general, the mu
mutual inductance between two long co-axia xial solenoids
is given by M = ãK N N ¥m
If the solenoid is ffilled with a dielectric medium of relative permeability
p
‘ã} ’, then M = ãK ã} n" n! A! ô = > n" n! A! ô
Thus, the inducta
ctance depends on (i) Geometry of the sole olenoids
(ii) Medium prpresent inside the solenoids
(iii) Proximity of
o the two solenoids

65. How will you induce anne emf by changing the area enclosed by the coil.
EMF induced by changinging area enclosed by the coil
Consider a con
onducting rod of length ‘¥’
moving with a velocit city ‘¤’ towards left on a
rectangular metallic frame work. The whole
arrangement is placedd iin a uniform magnetic field
n acting perpendicul ular to the plane of the coil
inwards. As the rod movoves from AB to DC in a time
‘dt’, the area enclosed
d by the loop and hence the
magnetic flux through the
th loop decreases.
The change in mmagnetic flux in time ’dt’ is
.ϕ, = n .m = n (¥ x ¤ .ù¿
ϕ8
= n ¥¤
á
This change in m
magnetic flux results and induced emf and
nd it is given
ϕ
by, ∈ = 8 ; ∈ = n ¥¤
á
This emf is called
lled motional emf. The direction of induced
ced current is
found to be clock wise
e from
f Fleming’s right hand rule.

66. What are the advantage ages of stationary armature - rotating fieldd alternator?
a
Advantages of stationarnary armature - rotating field alternator:
The current is drawn
dra directly from fixed terminals on the stator
sta without
the use of brush contac tacts. The insulation of stationary armature
ure winding is
easier.
The number of slislip rings is reduced. Moreover the slidingg contacts
c are
used for low-voltage DC C source. Armature windings can be constr structed more
rigidly to prevent deform
rmation due to any mechanical stress.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 97
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

67. Explain various energyy llosses in a transformer.

Energy losses in a trans nsformer:
(i) Core loss or Iron loss:
ss:
Hysteresis loss an and eddy current loss are known as core re loss
l or Iron
loss. When transformer er core is magnetized or demagnetized repeatedly
rep by
the alternating voltage ge applied across primary coil, hysteresis takes place
and some energy lostt in the form of heat. It is minimized by using usi silicone
steel in making transforformer core.
Alternating magn gnetic flux in the core induces eddy cur urrents in it.
Therefore there is ener ergy loss due to the flow of eddy currentt called
c eddy
current loss. It is minim
nimized by using very thin laminations off transformer
t
core.
(ii) Copper loss:
The primary and secondary coils in transformer have ave electrical
resistance. When an electric
el current flows through them, some e amount of
energy is dissipated due ue to Joule’s heating and it is known as copper
cop loss. It
is minimized by using w wires of larger diameter (thick wire)
(iii) Flux leakage:
The magnetic flu flux linked with primary coil is not complepletely linked
with secondary. Energy gy loss due to this flux leakage is minimize
ize by winding
coils one over the other.er.

68. Discuss the advantages es of AC in long distance power transmissio sion.

Long distance power transmission:
tra
The electric power is
generated in power st stations using
AC generators are tran ansmitted over
long distances through h transmission
lines to reach towns o or cities. This
process is calle
lled power
transmission.
But during
ng power
transmission, due to Joule’s
Jou heating
((I2R) in the transmissio sion lines, sizable fraction of electric power
er is lost. This
power loss can be red educed either by reducing current (I) orr b by reducing
resistance (R)
Here the resistantance ‘R’ can be reduced with thick wires of o copper or
aluminium. But this inc increases the cost of production of transm mission lines
and hence this method d iis not economically viable.
Thus by using tra transformer, the current is reduced by step epped up the
alternating voltage and d thereby reducing power losses to a greaterter extent.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 98
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Illustration:

lines of resistance 40 Ω at 10 kv and 100 kv

Let an electric po
power of 2 MW is transmitted through the tr
transmission

(i) P = 2 MW, K = 40 Ω, ï = 10 kv, then

5 K¢
I= = = 20
200A
) K 5 KU
00)2 x 40 = 1.6 x 106 < 1.6 x 106 W
Power loss = I2R = (200)
.£ 5 K¢
5 K¢
% of Power loss = = 0.8 = %

(ii) Ì = 2 MW, R = 40 Ω, V = 100 kv , then

5 K¢
I= = = 20A
) KK 5 KU
Power loss = I2 R = (20)
0)2 x 40 = 0.016 x 106 w 0.016 x 106 W
K.K £ 5 K¢
5 K¢
% of Power loss = = 0.008 = . %
Thus it is clearr that,
t when an electric power is transmitt
itted at high
voltage, the power loss
ss is reduced to a large extent.
So at transmit itting point the voltage is increased ed and the
corresponding current nt is decreased by using step-up trans nsformer. At
receiving point, the voltage
vol is decreased and the current is increased
in by
using step-down transfo
sformer.

69. Obtain the expression n fo

for average value of alternating current.
Average or Mean value ue of AC:
The average valu alue of AC is defined as the
average of all valuess of o current over a positive
half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
ha
Expression:
The average orr m mean value of AC over one
complete cycle is zero. o. Thus the average or mean
value is measured over er one half of a cycle.
The alternating currentt at
a any instant is
â = â- ÓâNxù = â- ÓâNo
The sum of alll cucurrents over a half-cycle is given by area
ea of positive
half-cycle (or) negativee half-
h cycle. Consider an elementary strip
p of
o thickness
cle, Area of the elementary strip = â .o
‘.o’ in positive half-cycle
ƒ ƒ ƒ
ositive half-cycle, = z â .o = z â- ÓâNo = â- •c cos o“K
Then area of posi
K K
câ- •cos ° c cos 0“ ; câ- •c1 c 1“ ; = 2â-
Then Avera
erage value of AC,
ëE·á·ª® «} ¶®•¾á·ª® -¾%Š½\ž\%®
¾}®¾ «Š ëE·á·
ò¾ª =
t¾E® %®¶•á- «Š -¾%Š½\ž\%®
#
ò¾ª = ; = 0.637ò
0.6 -
ƒ
For negative half--cycle ; Iavg = − 0.637í"
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 99
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ANT IN PHYSICS

70. Obtain an expression fofor RMS value of alternating current.

RMS value of AC (IRMS ) :
The root mean n square value of an
alternating current is defined
d as the square
root of the mean of the
he squares of all currents
over one cycle.
Expression:
The alternating cu
current at any instant is
â = â- ÓâNxù = â- ÓâNo
The sum of the square ares of all currents over
one cycle is given by ththe area of one cycle of
squared wave. Consider er an elementary area of thickness ‘.o’ in the
th first half-
cycle of the squared cur
urrent wave.
ment = â2 .o
Area of the eleme
Area of one cycle
le of squared wave,
ƒ ƒ ƒ
½ F ”
=z â .o = z ò- ÓâN o .o ; = ò- z R X .o
K K K
si 2o]
[∴ cos 2o = 1 – 2 sin
ƒ ƒ ƒ
# # P ”
= ]zK .o c zK cos 2o .o^ ; = Ro c X
K
# P ƒ PK
= R2° c c0+ X [∴ sin 0 = sin 4° = 0]
#
= •2°“ ; = ò- °

Hence, IRMS = ¥
¾}®¾ «Š «¶® \ž\%® «Š E$¬¾}® Ž¾ª®
t¾E® %®¶•á- «Š «¶® \ž\%®

IRMS = ¥ # = ¥ # IRMS = # = 0.707 Im

ƒ
ƒ √
Similarly for altern
ernating voltage, it can be shown that,
Ù#
√
VRMS = = 0.707 Vm
RMS value of AC C iis also called effective value (ò§{{)

71. Draw the phasor diagra gram and wave diagram for that currentt ‘<’
‘ leads the
voltage ‘V’ by phase ang
angle of ‘¦’
Phasor and wave ve diagram of ‘<’ leads ‘V’ by ‘¦’

¤ = ï¦ sin xù
Let the alternating curre
rrent and voltage at any instant is,

â = ò¦ sin (xù + ‘
‘)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 100
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

72. Find out the phase re relationship between voltage and current ent in a pure
resistive circuit.
AC circuit containing pu
pure resistor:
Let a pure resistor of resistance “R” R” connected
across an alternating voltage source rce “v”. The
instantaneous value of the alternatinging voltage is

¤ = ¤- sin xù ……………..(1)
given by

Let ‘â’ be the alternating curren

ent flowing in
the circuit due to this voltage, then the
th potential
drop across “R” is
VR = â R ………….... ((2)
’s lloop rule, ¤ c ¤Ô = 0 (or) ¤ = ¤Ô
From Kirchhoff’s
¤- sin xù = â R ; â = # sin xù ; â = ò- sin xù…………..
ª
….. (3)
Ô
ª#
Here, = ò- → Peak
P value of AC
Ô
From equauation (1) and (3), it is clear that, the appl
pplied voltage
and the current are in phase
p with each other. This is indicated in the phasor
and wave diagram.

73. Find out the phase re relationship between voltage and current ent in a pure
resistive circuit.
AC circuit containing pu
pure Inductor:
Let a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected
acr
across an alternating voltage source ‘¤. . The
ins
instantaneous value of the alternating voltaltage is given

¤ = ï¦ sin xù
by,
− − − − (1)
Let ‘â’ be the alternating current flow
flowing in the
circ
circuit due to this voltage, which induces a self
se inducted
emf (back emf) acrosss ““L” and it is given by
∈=−L
·
− − − − (2)
á
From Kirchhoff’s loop rule, ¤ – (c∈¿ = 0 (2 ) ¤ = c∈
Vm sin xù =c (− L ¿ ; Vm sin xù = L
· ·
á á
Ó⦠xù .ù
Ù#
∴ di =
¹
Integrate on both
th sides,
– F ná
z Ó⦠xù .ù ; â =
Ù# Ù#
â= Å È;
¹ ¹ n
R ÓâN Å c xùÈX; â =
Ù# ƒ Ù# ƒ
â= RcÓâN ÓâN Åxù c È
n¹ n¹
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 101
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ANT IN PHYSICS

â = ò- ÓâN Åxù c È − − − − (3)

°
2
Ù#
= ò¦ → Peak value of AC
n¹
Where,
From equation (1(1) and (3), it is clear that, current lagss behind the
°
applied voltage by . thi
this is indicated in the phasor and wave diag
iagram.
2

ve circuit, ‘x *’ is the resistance offered byy the

Inductive reactance (XL) :
In pure inductive t inductor
ive reactance (XL). Its unit is ohm (•)
XL = z m = ! G y m
and it is called inductive

74. Find out the phase re relationship between voltage and current ent in a pure
capacitive circuit.
AC circuit containing pu
pure capacitor:
Let a pure capacitor of capac acitance ‘C’
co
connected across an alternating voltage e source ‘¤’.
Th
The instantaneous value of the alternating
ing voltage is

¤ = ï¦ sin xù
gi
given by,
− − − − (1)
Let ‘q’ be the instantaneous char
harge on the

capacitor. The emff a

across the capacitor at that instant is,
∈ = − − − − (2)
$
¢
’s lloop rule, ¤c ∈ = 0 (or) ¤ = ∈
From Kirchhoff’s
ï¦ sin xù = ∴ q = C ï¦ sin xù
$
¢
( P ná¿
x
$
current, â =
By the definition off cu ; C ï¦ ; = C ï¦ (cosxù¿
(
á á
â = ω C ï¦ sin Å + xùÈ ;= sin Å + xùÈ
ƒ ª# ƒ
Ũ È
U
â = ò- ÓâN Åxù + È
°
− − − − (3)
2
ª#
Where, = ò¦ → Peak value of AC
Ũ È
U
From equation (1)
(1 and (3), it is clear that current leadss the
t applied
ƒ
voltage by .This is indi
ndicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 102
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Capacitive reactance (X
X C) :

nU
In pure capacitive
e ccircuit, ‘ ’ is the resistance offered by th
the capacitor
itive reactance (XC). Its unit is ohm (•)
and it is called capacitiv

nU ƒŠ\
XC = =

75. Explain resonance in series

se RLC circuit.
Resonance on series in RLC circuit:
When the fre frequency of applied
alternating source iss inincreases, the inductive
reactance (XL) increase
ases, where as capacitive

frequency (xÔ ), XL = XC
reactance (XC) decr ecreases. At particular

At this stage, theth frequency of applied

source (xK) is equal to the natural frequency of
the RLC circuit; the e current in the circuit
reaches its maximum va value.
Then the circuitit is said to be in electrical resonance. The frequency
fr at

nce, XL = XC
which resonance ce takes place is called resonant frequency.cy.
Thus at resonanc
xÔ * = ; xÔ
1
=
xK ß ¹¢
Hence the resona
nant angular frequency,
xÔ =
√¹¢ ƒ √¹¢
; and resonant frequency, fR =
Effects of series resonan
nance:
When series resonance
res occurs, the impedance of the circuit is
minimum and is equal al tto the resistance of the circuit. So the current
cu in the
ª#
circuit becomes maximu mum. (i.e.) At resonance, Z = R and ò- =
Ô
The maximum ccurrent at resonance depends on the value of
resistance (R). For smalaller resistance, larger the current with sha
sharper curve
is obtained. But for large
rger resistance, smaller the current with flflat curve is
obtained.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 103
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
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76. Define quality factor. Obtain an expression for it. Definition:

Q - Factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across L (or) C to the applied
voltage at resonance.
Expression:
The current in the series RLC circuit becomes maximum at resonance.
Due to the increase in current, the voltage across L and C are also increased,
This magnification of voltages at series resonance is termed as Q - factor.
Ù«%ᾕ® ¾\}«EE ¹ («}¿¢ # ©+
By definition, Q factor = ; Q factor =
šÃÃ%·® Ù«%ᾕ® #Ô

; Q factor = ¥
©+ n ¹ ¹ ¹
√¹¢ Ô
Q factor = ;= ; Q factor =
Ô Ô Ô ¢
The physical meaning is that Q - factor indicates the number of times
the voltage across L (or) C is greater than the applied voltage at resonance.

77. Obtain an expression for average power of AC over a cycle. Discuss its
special cases.
Average power of AC:
Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption. It is given by
the product of the voltage and current. The alternating voltage and

¤ = ï¦ sin xù
alternating current in the series RLC circuit at an instance are given by,

â = ò¦ sin(xù + ‘)

Ì = ¤ â = ï¦ sin xù ò¦ sin (xù + ‘)

Then the instantaneous power is given by,

Ì = ï¦ ò¦ sin xù (sin xù cos ‘ − cos xù sin ‘)

Ì = ï¦ ò¦ (ÓâN2 xù cos ‘ − sin xù cos xù sin)
Here the average of ÓâN2 xù over a cycle is and that of sin xù cos xù is zero.
Thus average power over a cycle is
Ù# #
Pavg = Vm Im Å Ò2Ó‘È = Ò2Óϕ
√ √
Pavg =VRMS IRMS Ò2Ó‘
Where VRMS IRMS → apparent power, cos ϕ → power factor.
The average power of an AC circuit is also known as the true
power of the circuit.
Special Cases
(i) For a purely resistive circuit, ϕ = 0 and cos ϕ = 1. ∴ Pavg = VRMS IRMS

ϕ = and cos ϕ = 0 ∴ Pavg = 0

(ii) For a purely inductive or capacitive circuit,
ƒ

(iii) For series RLC circuit, ϕ = ù•N½ R

©+ ½©ª
X ∴Pavg = VRMS IRMS cos ϕ
Ô

ϕ = 0 and cos ϕ = 1. ∴ Pavg = VRMS IRMS

(iv) For series RLC circuit at resonance
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 104
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

78. Write a note on watt-fu

full current and wattles current. Watt-full current and
Watt-less current:
C ccircuit in which the voltage (VRMS ) leadss the current
Consider an AC
(IRMS) by phase angle
le ‘ϕ’ . Resolve the current in to two perpendicular
pe
components,

(i) IRMS ˆ =ϕ - Com

omponent along VRMS
(ii) IRMS =< - Com
mponent perpendicular to VRMS
Here the component of ccurrent (IRMS ˆ =ϕ) which is in-phase with
ith the voltage

= VRMS IRMS ˆ =ϕ .It is known as watt-full current

is called active compone nent. The power consumed by this compone
nent

The other compo ponent of current which has a phase angle

le of with the
voltage is called reactive
tive component. The power consumed by this
thi current is
zero. It is known as watt
attles current.

79. Define power factor inn various

v ways. Give some examples for pow ower factor.
Power factor - Definition
ions:

(Power factor = = cos ϕ)

(i) The cosine of the
he angle lead or lag is called power factor

Ô Ô®E·Eᾶ\®
=
I
(ii) Power factor =
·-î ¾¶\®

Ù \«E • C§ Ì2«§
(iii) Power factor = =
Ù m++• §Nù +2«§

rcuit, ϕ = 0 and cos ϕ = 1

Examples:

For purely inductive orr ccapacitive circuit, ϕ = ¬ and cos ϕ = 0

For purely resistive circu
ƒ

For RLC circuit, powerr factor

fa lies between 0 and 1

80. What are the advantage ages and disadvantages of AC over DC?
Advantages of AC over er DC:
The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC
When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the transmission losses ses are small
compared to DC transm smission. AC can easily be converted intooD DC with the
help of rectifier.
Disadvantages of AC ov over DC:
Alternating voltag
ltages cannot be used for certain applic lication. (e.g)
charging of batteries,, el
electroplating, electric traction etc.,
At high voltages, it is more
mo dangerous to work with AC than DC.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 105
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81. Show that the total energy is conserved during LC oscillations.

Conservation of energy LC oscillations:
During LC oscillations, the energy of the system oscillates between the
electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor.
Although these two energies vary with time, the total energy remains
constant. (i.e) U = UE + UB = + *â = ß2NÓù•Nù
$
¢
Case (i) When the charge in the capacitor, q = Qm and the current
through the inductor, i = 0, U = # + 0 ; = # …………(1)
™ ™
¢ ¢
The total energy is wholly electrical.
Case (ii) When charge q = 0 ; current = Im , the total energy is
U = 0 + *ò- ; = *ò-
(›- cos xù¿ ; = ›- ω sin xù ; = ò- sin xù
$
∴â= ;=c
á á

Hence, ò- = ›- x = ; ∴U= *R X =
™# ™# ™#
√¹¢
…………(2)
¹¢ ¢
The total energy is wholly magnetic.
Case (iii) When charge = q; current = i, then the total energy is
+ *â . Here q = ›- cos xù¿ & â = ›- ω sin xù
$
U=
¢
™# \«E ná
U= + *›- x ÓâN xù
¢
™# \«E ná ¹ ™# E·¶ ná
Since, x = ;U= +
¹¢ ¢ ¹¢
(Ò2Ó xù + ÓâN xù¿ ; =
™# ™#
U= …………(3)
¢ ¢
From equation (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that the total energy of the
system remains constant
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
82. Explain the applications of eddy currents (or) Foucault currents.
Induction stove:
It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less consumption. Below
the cooking zone, there is a tightly wound coil of insulated wire. A suitable
cooking pan is placing over the cooking zone. When the stove is switched on,
an AC flowing in the coil produces high frequency alternating magnetic field
which induces very strong eddy currents in the cooking pan.
The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of heat due to Joule
heating which is used to cook the food.
Eddy current brake:
This types of brakes are generally used in high speed trains and roller
coasters. Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the rails. To stop the
train, electromagnets are switched on. The magnetic field of these magnets
induces eddy currents in the rails which oppose the movement of the train.
This is eddy current linear brake.
In some cases, the circular disc connected in train is made to rotate in
between the pole of a electromagnet. When there is a relative motion
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 106
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

between the disc and d the magnet, eddy currents are induced d in the disc
which stop the train. This
Th is eddy current circular brake.
Eddy current testing:
It is one of the nnon - destructive testing methods to find d defects
d like
surface crakes, air bubbbbles present in a specimen.
A coil of insulated
ted wire is given an alternating electric curre
rrent, so that
it produces an alternatin
ting magnetic field.
When this coilil is i brought near the test surface, eddy dy current is
induced in it, and the presence
p of defects caused the change in phase and
amplitude of the eddyy current.
c Thus the defects present in the specimen
sp are
identified.
Electromagnetic dampin ping:
The armature off the
t galvanometer coil is wound on a soft iron
ir cylinder.
Once the armature iss d deflected, the relative motion between theth soft iron
cylinder and the radiall magnetic
m field induces eddy current in the
e cylinder.
c
The damping forcorce due to the flow of eddy current brings the
th armature
to rest immediately andnd the galvanometer shows a steady deflecti ction.
This is called electromagagnetic damping.

83. Show mathematicallyy that

th the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field
fie over one
rotation induces an alte
lternating emf of one cycle.
Induction of emf byy cchanging relative orientation of the coil co with the
magnetic field:
Consider a rectangularr coil of ‘N’
turns kept in a uniform magnetic
ma field
‘B’. The coil rotates in anti-clockwise
an
direction with an angular ar velocity ‘x’
about an axis. Initially lett tthe plane of
the coil be perpendicular ar to the field
(o = 0) and the flux linkenked with the
coil has its maximum value lue.
(i.e.) Φ¦ = n m

gle o (= xù),
In time‘t’, let the th coil be
rotated through an angle

NΦ, = œ n m cos xù = NΦ- cos xù

then the total flux linked is,
is

According to Fara
raday’s law, the emf induced at that instant nt is,
∈ = c (œΦ, ¿ = c (œΦ- cos xù¿
á á
cœΦ- b– sin xùd
xù
∈ = œΦ- x sin xù …………….. (1)
When o = 90°,, then the induced emf becomes maximum
given by, ∈- = œΦ- x ; = N B A x …………….. (2)
um and it is

∈ =∈- sin xù…………….. (3)

Therefore the valu
alue of induced emf at that instant is then gi
given by,

Thus the induced

ed emf varies as sine function of the timeme angle and
this is called sinusoidal
al emf or alternating emf.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 107
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
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If this alternating voltage is given to a closed circuit, a sinusoidal

given by, < = Im qrs z•

varying current flows in it. This current is called alternating current an is
− − − − − (4)
Where, Im → peak value of induced current

84. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC generator.

AC generator - construction:
AC generator (alternator) is an energy conversion device. It converts
mechanical energy used to rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical
energy.
It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It consists of
two major parts stator and rotor. In commercial alternators, the armature
winding is mounted on stator and the field magnet on rotor
Stator: It has three components
(i) Stator frame:
It is used for holding stator core and armature windings in proper
position. It provides best ventilation with the help of holes provided in the
frame itself.
(ii) Stator core (Armature) :
It is made up of iron or steel alloy. It is a hollow cylinder and is
laminated to minimize eddy current loss. The slots are cut on inner surface
of the core to accommodate armature windings.
(iii) Armature windings:
It the coil wound on slots provided in the armature core. One or more
than one coil may be employed, depending on the type of alternator. Two
types of windings are commonly used and they are single-layer winding and
double-layer winding.
Rotar :
It consists magnetic field windings. The magnetic poles are
magnetized by DC source. The ends of field windings are connected to a pair
of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about which rotor rotates. Slip
rings rotate along with rotor. To maintain connection between the DC source
and field windings, two brushed are used which continuously slide over the
slip rings
There are two types, namely
(i) Salient pole rotor:
The word salient means projecting. This rotor has a number of
projecting poles having their bases riveted to the rotor. It is mainly used in
low-speed alternators
(ii) Cylindrical pole rotor:
This rotor consists of a smooth solid cylinder. The slots are cut on the
outer surface of the cylinder along its length. It is suitable for very high speed
alternators. The frequency of alternating emf induced is directly proportional
to the rotor speed. In order to maintain the frequency constant, the rotors
run at a constant speed.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 108
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

85. Explain the working of o a single - phase AC generator with ith necessary
diagram.
Single phase AC genera
erator:
In a single pha hase AC generator, the armature cond nductors are
connected in series so as to form a single circuit which generates g a
single-phase alternating
ing emf and hence it is called single-phase alternator.
al
Principle:
Electromagnetic ic iinduction
Construction:
Consider a stato
ator core consisting of 2 slots in which 2 armature
conductor PQ and RS S a are mounted to form single - turn rectan tangular loop
PQRS
Rotor has 2 salient pol
poles with field windings which can be mag agnetized by
means of DC source.
Working:
The loop PQRS S iis
stationary and is
perpendicular to th the
plane of the pape per.
Assume the initia
itial
position of the fiel field
magnet is horizontal.l. A At
that instant, th
the
direction of magneti etic
field is perpendicularr tto
the plane of the loo loop
PQRS. The induced em mf is zero. It is represented by origin ‘O’’ in the graph.
Let the magnetic field rotate
ro in clock-wise direction.
When the field ld magnet rotates through 90, the mag agnetic field
becomes parallel to PQ PQRS. The induced emf’s across PQ and nd RS would
become maximum. Acco ccording to Fleming’s right hand rule, the e direction
d of
induced emf for PQ is downwards and for RS is upwards. Therefore Th the
current flows along PQR
QRS. The point A in the graph represents this maximum
emf.
When field magn gnet rotates 1800, the field is again perpe rpendicular to
PQRS and the induced de emf becomes zero. This is represented byy point
p B
When field magnet rota otates 270 , the field is again parallel to PQRS, the
0

induced emf is maximum um but the direction is reversed.

Thus the current
nt flows
f along SRQP. This is represented byy point
p C.
On completion of 360,0, thet induced emf becomes zero and it iss represented
r
by the point D.
From the graph, h, it is clear that, when field magnet com ompletes one
rotation, the emf induce
uced in PQRS is alternating in nature.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 109
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ANT IN PHYSICS

86. How are the three differ

fferent emfs generated in a three-phase AC generator?
Show the graphical repr
epresentation of these three emfs.
Three phase AC generat rator:
If the AC generat
rator consists three
separate coils, which h would give three
separate emfs, then it is called three-
phase generators.
Construction:
It has 6 slots, cut
cu in its inner rim.
Each slot is 600 awayy fr from one another.
six armature conductors ors are mounted in
these slots. The conduc uctors 1 - 4, 2 - 5 and 3 - 6 aare joined in
series to form coils 1, 2 and 3
So these coils are rectactangular in shape and
are 1200 apart from one ne another.
Working :
The initial positio
tion of the field magnet
is horizontal and field direction is
perpendicular to the p plane of the coil - 1.
When it rotated from that th position in clock-
wise direction, alternatin
ating emf ‘∈1’ in coil - 1
begins a cycle from origi
rigin ‘O’
When it rotat tated through 1200,
alternating emf ‘∈2 ’ in coil
c - 2 starts at point
‘A’
When it rotat tated through 2400,
alternating emf ‘∈3 ’ in coil
c - 3 starts at point
‘B’
Thus these emff p produced in the three phase AC generator tor have 1200
phase difference betwee een one another.

87. Explain the principle, construction

co and working of transformer.
Transformer :
It is a stationary
ry device used to transform electrical powe wer from one
circuit to another witho
ithout changing its frequency. It is done e with either
increasing or decreasin ing the applied alternating voltage with corresponding
cor
decrease or increase of current in the circuit.
If the transformer er converts an alternating current with low voltage in
ent with high voltage, it is called step-up transformer.
to an alternating curren tran If
the transformer convert erts an alternating current with high voltag
ltage in to an
alternating current with
th low voltage, it is called step-down transfor
former.
Principle:
Mutual inductionon between two coils.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 110
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Construction:
It consists of two coils of high mutual
inductance wound over er the same transformer
core made up of silicon one steel. To avoid eddy
current loss, the core e is
i generally laminated.
The alternating voltag tage is applied across
primary coil (P), and the
he output is taken across
secondary coil (S)
The assembled ccore and coils are kept in a container which wh is filled
with suitable medium forfo better insulation and cooling purpose.
Working:
The alternating g voltage given to the primary coil,, set s up an
alternating magnetic fluflux in the laminated core. As the result of flux
f change,
emf is induced in bothhp primary and secondary coils.
The emf induced ed in the primary coil ‘∈Ì’ is almost equall and
an opposite
•8
ïÌ’ and is given by, VP = ∈Ì = cœw
to the applied voltage ‘ï ---------
------- (1¿
á
The frequency of al
alternating magnetic flux is same as the frequency
fr of
applied voltage. There refore induced in secondary will also haveh same
frequency as that of ap
applied voltage, The emf induced in the sec
econdary coil
•8
‘∈‚’ is, VS = ∈S = cœ4 --------- (2¿
á
3Ý
--------- (3¿
ÙÝ
=
3-
Dividing equating (1) by (2),
Ù-
Where, K → Transformaation ratio
For an ideal trans
nsformer, Input Power = Output Power
--------- (4¿
ÙÝ ·-
ïw âw = ï4 â4 ; =
Ù- ·Ý
From equation (3
(3) and (4), we have
3Ý
= K --------- (5¿
ÙÝ ·-
=
3-
=
Ù- ·Ý
(i) If K > 1 (or) NS > NP, tthen ï4 > ïw and <s < <P
This is step up transformer in which voltage increase sed and the

(ii) If K < 1 (or) NS < NP, tthen VS < VP and <s > <P
corresponding currentt is decreased.

This is step dowown transformer in which voltage decrease

ased and the
corresponding currentt is increased.

Efficiency of a transform
ormer:
The efficiency (•)) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of
o the useful
output power to the inpu
put power.
^¬áìá w«Ž®}
•=
¶Ã¬á w«Ž®}
x 100%
«Ž®}
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 111
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

88. Derive an expression n for

f phase angle between the applied voltage v and
current in a series RLC
C circuit.
c
Series RLC circuit:
Consider a circuit containing a resistor of
resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductancnce ‘L’ and a
capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connectedted across an
alternating voltage source.

¤ = ¤- sin xù
The applied alternating voltage is given
ven by,
− − − − − (1)
Let ‘â’ be the curren rrent in the
circuit at that instant.
Hence thee voltage developed across R, L and C
ïÔ = âK (VR is in
n phase
p withâ )
ƒ
ï¹ = â:¹ (VL leads
ds â by )
ƒ
ï¢ = â:¢ (VC lags
gs â by )
The Phasor rent along lò ,
sor diagram is drawn by representing curren
VR along lm, VL along ln and VC along lß ,
If VL > VC then the net voltage drop across LC combination
on is (VL – VC)
which is represented by mj
By parallogram law, the diagonal l/
gives the resultant volta
ltage”v”
¤ = Vð + (V” c V£ ¿ ;
¤ = i R + (iX X” c iX£ ¿
¤ = â R + (X ” c X£ ¿ (or)
ª
â= (or)
ð À(¯° ½¯± ¿
ª
â=
I
Where, Z = R + (X” c X£ ¿ is called
impedance of the circuircuit, which refers to the
effective opposition to the
th circuit current by the series RLC circuit.
it.
From the Phasoror d
diagram, the phase angle between ‘¤’ and nd ‘â’ is found
out by tan ϕ =
)° ½)± ¯° ½¯±
=
)² ð

(i) When XL > XC, the pha hase angle ϕ is positive

Special cases:

It means that ö le leads < by ϕ.

(<. . ) ö = ì" qqrs z• & < = í" qrs(z• − ϕ)

(ii) When XL < XC, the phphase angle ¦ <= ³a•<ö .

This circuit is indu
ductive.

It means that ö la lags behind < by ϕ.

(<. . ) ö = ì" qqrs z• & < = í" qrs(z• + ϕ)
This circuit is capa
apacitive
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 112
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ANT IN PHYSICS

(iii) When XL = XC the p phase angle ϕ <= ´ .

It means that ö inin-phase with <
(<. . ) ö = ì" qrsq z• & < = í" qrs z•
This circuit is resi
esistive

89. What are called LC oscil

scillations? Explain the generation of LC osc
scillations.
LC oscillations:
Whenever energy rgy is given
to a circuit containing ing a pure
inductor of inductance ce L and a
capacitor of capacitanc nce C, the
energy oscillates back k and forth
between the magnetic tic field of
the inductor and the electric
ele field
of the capacitor. Thus T the
electrical oscillations ofo definite
frequency are generate ated. These
oscillations are ca called LC
oscillations.
Generation of LC oscilla
illations:
Whenever energy rgy is given
to a circuit containingg a pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor
c of
capacitance C, the ene nergy oscillates back and forth between theth magnetic
field of the inductor and
nd the electric field of the capacitor.
Thus the electric
trical oscillations of definite frequency are
re generated.
These oscillations are cacalled LC oscillations.

Generation of LC - oscill
cillations:
Stage -1 :
Consider the cap harge ›¦. So
apacitor is fully charged with maximum cha
;!
"
that the energy storedd in the capacitor is maximum (i.e.) U =
!µ
As there is no currentt in the inductor, UB = 0 . Therefore the tota
total energy is
wholly electrical.
Stage - 2 :
The capacitor nonow begins to discharge through the inductor
ind that
establishes current ‘â’’ cclockwise direction. This current produces
es a magnetic
field around the inductotor and energy stored in the inductor whichh iis given by
¹·
UB =
As the charge in tthe capacitor decreases, the energy store
ored in it also
!
decreases and is givenn by
b UB =
!µ
Thus the total ene
nergy is the sum of electrical and magnetic
ic energies.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 113
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
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Stage - 3 :
When the charge in the capacitor becomes zero, its energy becomes
zero (i.e.) UE = O
In this stage maximum current (ò¦) flows through inductor and its
¹#
energy becomes maximum. (i.e.) UB =
Thus the total energy is wholly magnetic.
Stage - 4 :
Even though the charge in the capacitor is zero, the current will
continue to flow in the same direction. Since the current flow is in decreasing
magnitude, the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite direction.
Thus a part of the energy is transferred from the inductor back to the
capacitor. The total energy is the sum of the electrical and magnetic
energies.
Stage - 5 :
When the current in the circuit reduces to zero, the capacitor becomes
fully charged in the opposite direction. Thus the energy stored in the
capacitor becomes maximum and the energy stored in the inductor is zero.
So the total energy is wholly electrical.
Stage - 6 :
This state of the circuit is similar to the initial state but the difference
is that the capacitor is charged in opposite direction. So it will starts
discharge through inductor in anti-clockwise direction. The total energy is the
sum of the electrical and magnetic energies.
Stage - 7 :
The processes are repeated in opposite direction and finally the circuit
returns to the initial state. Thus when the circuit goes through these stages,
an alternating current flows in the circuit. As this process is repeated again
and again, the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are generated.
These are known as LC oscillations.

90. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC circuit with the mechanical

Oscillations of block- spring system to find the expression for angular
frequency of LC oscillators mathematically.
Analogies between LC oscillations and simple harmonic oscillations:
Electromagnetic Oscillation Mechanical Oscillation
This circuit consists inductor and capacitor This circuit consists spring and block
Charge “q” Displacement “x”
$ ø
Current â = Velocity¤ =
á á
Inductance “L” Mass “m”
Reciprocal in capacitance Force constant “k”
¢
Electrical Energy = R X M Potential Energy = 20
¢
Mechanical Energy = *â Kinetic Energy = ¦¤
Electromagnetic energy = R X M + *â Mechanical Energy = 20 + ¦¤
¢
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 114
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Angular frequency of LC Oscillations:

The electromagnetic energy is U = R X M + *â = Constant
¢
È + * Å2â
¨ $ $
Differentiate, = Å2M È=0
á ¢ á á
+*
¨ $ $ $ $ $
= R á Å á ÈX = 0 ∴ Râ = X
á ¢ á á á
$ $
(or) L + = 0 ……….. (1)
Its solution is , q(t) = ›- Ò2Ó(xù + ‘¿
á ¢

Differentiate with respect to “t”

â(ù¿ = á = á •›- Ò2Ó(xù + ‘¿“
$

â(ù¿ = c›- x ÓâN(xù + ‘¿ = cò- ÓâN(xù + ‘¿

Again differentiate with respect “t”
= c›- x Ò2Ó(xù + ‘¿ = cò- xÒ2Ó(xù + ‘¿
$
á
Put this in equation (1), the angular frequency of
LC oscillations is, x =
√¹¢
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 115
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - V (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define displacement current.

The displacement current can be defined as the current which comes
into play in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux are
changing with time. That is whenever the change in electric field takes place,
displacement current is produced.

2. Define electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves which move with
speed equals to the speed of light (in vacuum)

3. Define intensity of electromagnetic wave.

The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave is called the intensity.

4. Define radiation pressure.

The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on unit area of a
surface is called radiation pressure.

5. What is called pointing vector? Give its unit.

The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as pointing
vector for electromagnetic waves. The pointing vector at any point gives the
direction of energy transport from that point. The unit for pointing vector is
Wm-2.

6. Give the modified form of Ampere’s circuital law.

If IC and ID are the conduction and displacement current, then the
modified Ampere’s circuital law is given by, ∮ n . .¥ = ãK (ò¢ + ò¶ ¿ (or)
∮ n. .¥ = ãK ò¢ + ãK K á z / . .m
This is also known as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.

7. Define electromagnetic spectrum.

The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves in terms of
wavelength or frequency is called electromagnetic spectrum.

8. Define dispersion.
When white light is made to pass through the prism, it is split in to its
seven constituent colours. This phenomenon is known as dispersion of light.
The pattern of colours obtained on the screen after dispersion is
called spectrum.

9. Define emission spectra.

The spectrum obtained from a self luminous source of light is called
emission spectrum. Each source has its own characteristic emission
spectrum.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 116
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

10. Define absorption spectra.

When light is allowed to pass through an absorbing substance, then
the spectrum obtained is known as absorption spectrum. It is the
characteristic of absorbing substance.

11. Define Fraunhofer lines.

When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is examined, it consists of
large number of dark lines (line absorption spectrum). These dark lines in
the solar spectrum are known as Fraunhofer lines.

12. What are the uses of Fraunhofer lines?

The absorption spectra for various materials are compared with the
Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, which helps to identifying elements
present in the Sun’s atmosphere.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

13. Discuss briefly the experiment conducted by Hertz to produce and detect
electromagnetic spectrum. Hertz experiment:
The theoretical prediction of existence of electromagnetic wave by
Maxwell was experimentally confirmed by Henrich Hertz. His experimental
set up consists of two metal electrodes which are made of small spherical
metals.
These are connected to larger spheres and the ends of them are
connected to induction coil which produces very high emf. Due to this high
voltage, the air between the electrodes gets ionized and spark is produced.
A receiver (ring electrode) kept at a distance also gets spark which
implies that the energy is transmitted from electrode to the receiver as a
wave known as electromagnetic waves. If the receiver is rotated by 900, then
no spark is observed by the receiver.
This confirms that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves as
predicted by Maxwell. Hertz detected radio waves and also computed the
speed of radio waves which is equal to the speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1).

14. Obtain an expression for energy density associated with an electromagnetic

wave propagating in vacuum or free space.
Energy density of electromagnetic wave:
The energy per unit volume (i.e.) the energy density of electromagnetic
wave is, C = C/ + Cn ; C = K / + n …………. (1¿
%
Where, CD = K/ → Energy density in electric field.
CD = n → Energy density in magnetic field.
%

„ % „ %
The velocity of electromagnetic waves, C = (or) C2 =
If E = BC then, CD = C- . Hence equation (1) becomes
C= K/ = n
%
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 117
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

The average energy density for electromagnetic waves,

(C¿ = K/ = n
%

15. Explain the sources of electromagnetic waves.

Sources of electromagnetic waves:
Any stationary source charge produces only electric field. When the
charge moves with uniform velocity, it produces steady current which gives
rise magnetic field around the conductor in which charge flows. If the
charged particle accelerates, in addition to electric field, it also produces
magnetic field.
Here both electric and magnetic fields are time varying fields.
The linked electric and magnetic fields have wave properties which
propagate in the direction perpendicular to the plane containing electric and
magnetic field vectors.
This is known as electromagnetic waves and it is transverse in nature.
Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating motion, so when the charge
oscillates about their mean position, it produces electromagnetic waves.

Ey = sin(2L − xù)
Let, electric and magnetic vectors are given by,

Ex = sin(2L − xù)
then the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves are along Z -axis
Here the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is equal to the
frequency of the source (oscillation charge)
In free space or vacuum, the ratio between E0 and B0 is equal to the
D
,
speed of electromagnetic wave which is equal to speed of light (c) C =

16. Write a note on Radio waves.

Radio waves:
It is produced by oscillators in electric circuits.
Wavelength range: 1 x 10−4 m − 1 x 104 m
Frequency range ∶ 3 x 109 Hz − 3 x 104 Hz
They obey reflection and diffraction
It is used in,
(i) Radio and television communication systems
(ii) Cellular phones to transmit voice communication in the ultra
high frequency band

17. Write a note on infra microwaves. Microwaves:

It is produced by electromagnetic oscillators in electrical circuits
Wavelength range: 1 x 10−3 m − 3 x 10−4 m
Frequency range: 3 x 1011 Hz − 1 x 109 Hz
They obey reflection and polarization
It is used in,
(i) Radar system for aircraft navigation,
(ii) Speed of the vehicle,
(iii) Microwave oven for cooking
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 118
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

(iv) Very long distance wireless communication through satellites

18. Write a note on infra red rays. Infra red rays:

It is produced from hot bodies and also when the molecules undergo
rotational and vibrational transitions.
Wavelength range: 8 x 10−7 m − 5 x 10−3 m
Frequency range : 4 x 1014 Hz − 6 x 1010 Hz
It provides electrical energy to satellites by means of solar cells
It is used in,
(i) Producing dehydrated fruits
(ii) Green housed to keep the plants warm,
(iii) Heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain
(iv) TV remote as a signal carrier, to look through haze off or mist
(v) Night vision or infrared photography

19. Write a note visible light. Visible light:

It is produced by incandescent bodies and also it is radiated by excited
atoms in gases.
Wavelength range: 4 x 10−7 m − 7 x 10−7 m
Frequency range: 7 x 1014 Hz − 4 x 1014 Hz
It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
polarization, photo -electric effect and photographic action.
It can be used to,
(i) Study the structure of molecules
(ii) Arrangement of electrons in eternal shells of atoms and
(iii) Sensation of our eyes

20. Write a note on ultra violet rays. Ultra violet rays:

It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases.
Wavelength range: 6 x 10−10 m − 4 x 10−7 m
Frequency range : 5 x 1017 Hz − 7 x 1014 Hz
It has less penetrating power
It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and harmful to human body.
It is used to,
(i) Destroy bacteria (ii) Sterilizing the surgical instruments,
(iii) Burglar alarm (iv) Detect the invisible writing, finger prints and
(v) Study of molecular structure

21. Write a note on X - rays. X - Rays:

It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration of high speed
electrons at high atomic number target, also by electronic transitions among
the innermost orbits of atoms.
Wavelength range : 1 x 10−13 m − 1 x 10-8 m
Frequency range : 3 x 1021 Hz − 1 x 1016 Hz
It has more penetrating power than UV - rays.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 119
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

It is used in,
(i) Studying structures of inner atomic electron shell and crystal
structures.
(ii) Detecting fracture, diseased organs, formation of bones and
stones, observing the progress of healing bones
(iii) Detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes in a finished metal
product

22. Write a note on gamma rays. Gamma rays:

It is produced by transitions of atomic nuclei and decay of certain
elementary particles.
Wavelength range : 1 x 10−14 m − 1 x 10−10 m
Frequency range : 3 x 1022 Hz − 3 x 1018 Hz
They produce chemical reactions on photographic plates,
fluorescence, ionization, diffraction.
Its penetrating power is higher than X-rays and UV rays.
It has no charge but harmful to human body.
It is used in,
(i) Providing information about the structure of atomic nuclei
(ii) Radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and tumour
(iii) Food industry to kill pathogenic micro organism

FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

23. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form. Maxwell equations -

Integral form:
Electrodynamics can be summarized into four basic equations, known
as Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s equations completely explain the
behaviour of charges, currents and properties of electric and magnetic fields.
This equation ensures the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Equation - 1 :
It is nothing but Gauss’s law
It relates the net electric flu to net electric charge enclosed in a surface.
™ª€¸¹ºú
Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as, ∮ / . .m = ……..(1)
„
Here, / → Electric field, ›¢%«E® → Charge enclosed
This equation is true for either discrete or continuous distribution of
charges. It also indicates that the electric field lines start from positive
change and terminate at negative charge.
The electric field lines do not form a continuous closed path (i.e.)
isolated positive or negative charges can exist.
Equation - 2 :
It has no name. But this law of similar to Gauss law in electrostatics.
Hence this law can be called as Gauss’s law in magnetism. According to this
law, the surface integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.
Mathematically, this law can be expressed as, ∮ n. .m = 0 ……..(2)
n → Magnetic field.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 120
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

This equation imp

implies that the magnetic field lines form a continuous
closed path. (i.e.) no isol
solated magnetic monopole exists
Equation - 3 :
This is Faraday’s
y’s laws of electromagnetic induction. This is law relates
electric field with the ch
changing magnetic flux. This equation impliplies that, the
line integral of the electr
ctric field around any closed path is equall to the rate of
change of magnetic fluxlux through the closed path bounded by the e surface.
s
•8
Mathematically it is expressed as, ∮ / . .¥ = …………...(
..(3)
á
/ → Electric field
ield
The electrical ene
nergy supplied to our houses from electrici
ricity board by
using Faraday’s law off induction.
in
Equation - 4 :
It is modified AmAmpere’s circuital law and also called as Ampere -
Maxwell’s law. This laww relates the magnetic field around any closed
clo path to
the conduction currentt aand displacement current through that pat
ath.
Mathematically, ∮ n. .¥ = ãK (ò¢ + ò¶ ¿ (or)
∮ n . .¥ = ãK ò¢ + ãK K áz / . .m. Here, n → Magnetic field.
f
It implies that bo
both conduction and displacement curren
rent produces
magnetic field.

24. Explain the modification

tion of Ampere’s circuital law. Maxwell’s corrections
cor to
Ampere’s circuital law:
According to Fara
raday’s law of electromagnetic induction, th
the change in
magnetic field produces
es an electric field. Mathematically
∮ / . .¥ = c »á ϕ, = c »á ∮ n. .m
» »

It implies that the electric field / is induced along a clos

ic fflux ϕ n in the region encircled by the loop
losed loop by
the changing magnetic op.
The converse off tthis statement that is change in electric flux
flu produces
magnetic field is explain
ained by Maxwell.
∮ n . .¥ = c »á ϕ,D = c »á ∮ / . .m
» »

This is known ass M

Maxwell’s law of induction.
To understand h how the changing electric field
produces magnetic field
ield, let us consider the situation
of charging a parallel plate
pla capacitor.
The electric curre
rrent passing through the wire is
the conduction current ‘‘IC’.
This current gene
enerates magnetic field around
the wire connected acro
cross the capacitor. To calculate
the magnetic field at a point
p ‘P’ near the wire, let us
consider an amperian ian loop which encloses the
surface S1 . Thus ffrom Ampere circuital law,
∮ n. .¥ = ãK ò¢ ………….
…..(1)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 121
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Suppose the samame loop is enclosed by balloon shaped d surface S2,

then the boundaries of two surfaces are same but shape of the enclosing
surfaces are different.
t. Ampere’s law does not depend on shape sh of the
enclosing surface and h
hence the integrals will give the same answ
swer.
But there is no
o ccurrent in between the plates of the capacitor,
cap the
magnetic field on the
e surface
s is zero. So the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero.
Hence, ∮ n. .¥ = 0 …… ………..(2)
Here there is ann iinconsistency between equation (1) and
d (2).
( Maxwell
resolved this inconsisten
tency as follows.
Due to externalnal source, the capacitor gets
charged up because of o current flowing through the
capacitor. This produce
uces an increasing electric field
between the capacitorr pplates. This time varying electric
field (or flux) existing
ng between the plates of the
capacitor also produ duces a current known as
displacement current.
aw, ϕD = ∮ / . .m = /m =
$
From Gauss’s law
„
ϕ8 $
The change in ele
electric flux is, = = ò
á „ á „
ϕ8 $
∴ò = K .W
Where, = ò → Displacement Current
á á
The displacement
ent current can be defined as the current w
which comes
in to play in the region
on in which the electric field and the elect
ectric flux are
changing with time.
So Maxwell modif
dified Ampere’s law as
∮ n . .¥ = ãK ò = (ò\ + ò ¿ …………..(3)
Where, ò = ò\ + ò → Total Current

25. Explain the propertiess of

o electromagnetic waves.
Properties of electroma agnetic waves:
Electromagneticic w
waves are produced by any accelerated charge.
ch
They do not require anyny medium for propagation. So electromagn agnetic waves
are non-mechanical wav ave. They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the oscillating
electric field vector,, oscillation
o magnetic field vector and direction
d of
propagation are mutuallally perpendicular to each other. They travel
vel with speed

„ %
of light in vacuum or free space and it is given by, C = = 3x1
x108ms-1

m. (i.e.) ö < ˆ
In a medium wit
with permittivity ‘ ’ and permeability ‘ã’, th
the speed of
electromagnetic wave is less than speed in free space or vacuum.
of the medium is, ã = = √ } ã}
¢
Hence, refractive indexx o
ª
They are not defleflected by electric or magnetic field.
They show interferference, diffraction and polarization.
The energy dens nsity (energy per unit volume) associated
ted with and
propagating in free space is C = K / = n
%
electromagnetic wave pr
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 122
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

The average energy density for electromagnetic wave is

(C¿ = K/ = n
%
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave is called the intensity.

They carry energy and momentum. The force exerted by an

electromagnetic surface is called radiation pressure.
If the electromagnetic wave incident on a material surface is
completely absorbed, then the energy delivered is ‘U’ and the momentum
¨
imparted on the surface is + = ,
¢
If the incident electromagnetic wave of energy ‘U’ is totally reflected
from the surface, then the momentum delivered to the surface is
¨ ¨ ¨
∆+ = c Åc È = 2
\ \ \
The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as pointing
vector for electromagnetic waves. ‚ = b / x nd = Ò K b / x n d
%

26. Explain in detail the emission spectra.

Emission spectra:
The light from self luminous source gives emission spectrum.
Each source has its own characteristic emission spectrum.
The emission spectrum can be divided in to three types;
(i) Continuous emission spectra :
Incandescent solids, liquids gives continuous spectra.
It consists of wavelengths containing all the visible colours ranging from
violet to red.
(e.g.) Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent filament lamp, etc
(ii) Line emission spectra:
Light from excited atoms gives line spectrum. They are also known as
discontinuous spectra.
The line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths or
frequencies. It is different for different elements
(e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, etc
(iii) Band emission spectra:
The light from excited molecules gives band spectrum. It consists of
several numbers of very closely spaced spectral lines which overlapped
together forming specific coloured bands. This spectrum has a sharp edge at
one end and fades out at the other end.
Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule.
(e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the discharge tube, etc
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 123
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

27. Explain in detail the absbsorption spectra.

Absorption spectra:
When light is allo
llowed to pass through an absorbing subst bstance, then
the spectrum obtained d is known as absorption spectrum. It is ch characteristic
of the absorbing substantance.
Absorption spectrum is classified
c into three types;
(i) Continuous absor
sorption spectrum:
When the lightt is passed through a medium, it is disper persed by the
uous absorption spectrum. For instance, when
prism, we get continuou wh we pass
white light through a blu
blue glass plate, it absorbs everything excepept blue. This
is an example for contin
tinuous absorption spectrum.
(ii) Line absorption sspectrum:
When light fromm incandescent lamp is passed through cold co gas, the
spectrum obtained throu rough the dispersion due to the prism is line
ine absorption
spectrum. For example, le, when light from carbon arc is made to passpa through
sodium vapour, a contin tinuous spectrum of carbon arc with two d dark lines in
the yellow region of sodi
odium vapour is obtained.
iii) Band absorption spepectrum:
When the white lilight is passed through the iodine vapour, r, dark bands
on continuous brightt background is obtained. This is known wn as band
absorption spectra. Itt is also obtained when white light is pass ssed through
diluted solution of blood
od or chlorophyll or through certain solutions
ons of organic
and inorganic compoundunds.

U
UNIT - VI (OPTICS)
TWO MARKS AND TTHREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
RS

1. Define reflection.
The bouncing bac ack of light in to the same medium when it encounters
a reflecting surface is ca
called reflection of light.

2. State the laws of reflect

ection.
(1) The inciden
dent ray, reflected ray and the normal to the he surface all
are coplana
anar.
(2) The angle of incidence (â) is equal to angle of reflect
le o ection ( ).
That is < =

3. What is the angle of dev

deviation due to reflection?
The angle betweeween the incident and deviated ray is calle
alled angle of
deviation (d) of the light
ht ray.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 124
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ANT IN PHYSICS

From figure (a),

= 1800 − (â + ) [â = ]
>=" 0−!<
The angle betweeeen the incident ray and the reflecting surfa
rface is called

lß = ü + ü = ! ½
glancing angle (ü). From
om figure (b),
. = ∠nl¼ + ∠¼l

4. What are the characterieristics of the image formed by the plane m mirror?
Characteristics of the im
image of the plane mirror:
Virtual, erect and
nd laterally inverted. Size of image is equal
al to the size
of the object. The dista
stance of the image behind the mirror is equal
e to the
distance of object in fron
ront of it. If an object placed between two plane
pl mirrors
inclined at an angle o , tthen the number (n) of images formed is,
O£K O£K
1) If R X even, the
hen ; N = R c 1X for objects placed symm
mmetrically or
” ”
un-symmetrically.
lly.
O£K O£K
2) If R X odd, then
en ; N = R c 1X for objects placed symme
metrically.
” ”
O£K O£K
3) If R X odd, then
en ; N = R X for objects placed un-symmet
etrically
” ”

5. Write a note on real and virtual images formed by a plane mirror. ror.
Virtual image:
When a real objec
ject is placed at a point ‘O’ in front of a plan
lane mirror, it
produces divergent raysys in all directions. After reflection at plane
e mirror, they
appear to come from a point ‘I’ behind the mirror. This image ge cannot be
formed on the screen but
bu only seen with eyes. It is called virtuall image.
im
Real image:
If convergent rays
ays incident on a plane mirror and after refleeflection, they
pass through a point ‘ I ‘ in front of the mirror. This image can be formed
f on a
screen and can also be e seen with eyes. It is called real image.

6. What are the conditions

ns for nature of objects and images regardi
rding
plane mirror
Nature of Object /
Condition
Image
Real Image Ra actually converge at the image
Rays
Virtual Image Ra appear to diverge from the image
Rays
Real Object Ra actually diverge from the object
Rays
Virtual Object Ra appear to diverge at the object
Rays
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 125
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ANT IN PHYSICS

7. Distinguish convex mirroirror and concave mirror?

Convex Mirrirror Concave Mirror
It is a spherical mirro
irror in which It is a spherical mirror in whic
ich
reflection takes plac
lace at reflection takes place at
the convex surface e and
a the concave surface and
other surface is silve
ilvered other surface is silvered

8. Define (1) centre of cur urvature, (2) Radius of curvature (3) pole,, (4)( principal
axis, (5) focus or focall point,
p (6) focal length, (7) focal plane
(1) Centre of curvatu
ature:
The centre of the he sphere of which the mirror is a part is ca called centre
of curvature (C)
(2) Radius of curvatu
ature:
The radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirrorr iis a part is
called the radiuss of curvature (R) of the mirror.
(3) Pole:
The middle poin oint on the spherical surface of the mirr irror (or) the
geometrical centrntre of the mirror is called the pole (P) of the
he mirror.
(4) Principal axis:
The line joiningg ththe pole (P) and the centre of curvature e ((C) is called
the principal axisis (or) optical axis of the mirror.
(5) Focus or Focal popoint:
Light rays travellelling parallel and close to the principal al axis when
incident on a sph pherical mirror, converge at a point for con oncave mirror
or appears to diverge
div from a point for convex mirror on the th principal
axis. This point is called the focus or focal point (F) of the mirror
m
(6) Focal length:
The distance betwetween the pole (P) and the Focus (F) is callealled the focal
length (f) of the mmirror.
(7) Focal plane:
The plane throughugh the focus and perpendicular to the princ rincipal axis is
called the focall plane
pl of the mirror.

9. Define paraxial rays and marginal rays.

Paraxial rays:
The rays travellin
lling very close to the principal axis and
d m
make small
angle with it are called
d paraxial
p rays.
Marginal rays:
The rays travellin
lling far away from the principal axis andd fall on the
mirror far away from the
he pole are called as marginal rays.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 126
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ANT IN PHYSICS

10. Obtain the relation betw

etween focal length (f) and radius of curva
rvature (R) of
the spherical mirror. Re
Relation between f and R :

Let ‘C’ be the cen

entre of curvature of the mirror.
Consider a light ray par arallel to the principal axis and incident at ‘M’ on the
mirror. After reflection,, iit will passes through principal focus ‘F’. The
Th line ‘CM’
is the normal to the mirrirror at ‘M’.
From the figure (a (a),
nce; = ∠mCß
Angle of incidence
ion; = ∠ßCº
Angle of reflection
flection. we have, < =
By the law of refle
Thus, , ∠CßÌ = â & ∠CºÌ = 2 â
From ∆CßÌ and d ∆CºÌ
w¾ w¾
tan â = ; tan 2â =
w¢ w³
ll, we have tan â
As the angles are small, â and tan 2â 2â. So
ÌC ÌC
â= ………..(1
..(1) ; 2â = ………..(2)
Ìß Ìº
Put equation (1) in equa
uation (2)
ÌC w¾
w³
2
Ìß
= (or)) 2 PF = PC (or) 2{ = R
{=
Ô
………..(3
3)

11. How we locate the imagage formation in spherical mirrors?

Image formation in sphe
pherical mirrors:
a) A ray parallel to the principal axis after
reflection will pas
pass through or appear to
pass through thehe principal focus.
b) A ray passing thr
through or appear to pass
through the principal
p focus, after
reflection will travel
t parallel to the
principal axis,
c) A ray passing tthrough the centre of
curvature retra traces its path after
reflection as it is a case of normal
incidence.
d) A ray falling onn the pole will get reflected as per law of
o reflection
keeping principalal axis as the normal.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 127
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ANT IN PHYSICS

12. What are the Cartesian an sign conventions for spherical mirrors?
Cartesian sign conventio
ntion:
1. The incident light is taken
t
from left to right.
2. All the distances arere
measured from the e pole.
p
3. The distance measur sured to the
right of pole along al the
principal axis are
taken as positive
4. The distance measur sured to the left of pole along the principall ax
axis are
taken as negative
5. Heights measured in the upward perpendicular direction to the principal
axis are taken as pos
positive
6. Heights measured in the downward perpendicular direction to the
principal axis are taken
tak as negative.

13. Define refractive index.

x.
Refractive indexx ((n) of a transparent medium is defined as the ratio of
\
speed of light in vacuum dium. N =
um (or air) to the speed of light on that mediu
ª

14. Define optical path.

Optical path of a mmedium is defined as the distance (.′) light
ligh travels in

index of the medium, then optical path is; .′′ = n d

vacuum in the same tim ime it travels a distance (d) in the medium.
If ‘n’ is the refractive ind

15. What is called refraction

tion?
Refraction is pasassing through of light from one optical
al medium to
another optical mediumm through a boundary.

16. State the laws of refract

action.
The incident ray,y, rrefracted ray and normal are all coplanar.
r.
The ratio of angl gle of incident ‘i’ in the first medium to the
th angle of
reflection ‘r’ in the seco
cond medium is equal to the ratio of refractctive index of
the second medium ‘N N2’ to that of the refractive index of the first
fir medium
‘N1’.
P· ¶
= . (or) " q <=
qrs ! qrs
P} ¶
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 128
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ANT IN PHYSICS

17. What is the angle of de

deviation due to refraction? Angle of deviaviation due to
refraction :
1. The angle between ththe incident and deviated ray is called angle
gle of
deviation. 2. When n light travels from rarer to denser medium
m it deviates
towards normal. Henence the angle of deviation ; > = < −
3. When light travels fro
from denser to rarer medium it deviates awaway normal.
deviation ; > = − <
Hence the angle off de

18. Write the characteristics

tics of refraction.
Characteristics of refrac
raction:
(1) When light passesses from rarer to denser medium it deviatiates towards
normal in the den enser medium.
(2) When light passe ses from denser to rarer medium it deviates
tes away from
normal in the rare
arer medium.
(3) In any refracting
ing surface, there will also be some reflec
flection takes
place. This phen enomenon in which light undergoing refl eflection and
refraction at the e same time at same surface is called simultaneous
sim
reflection or simu ultaneous refraction.

19. What is the principle of reversibility?

The principle off rreversibility states that, light will be follow
lowing exactly
the same path if its direction
d of travel is reversed. This is trutrue for both
reflection and refraction
ion.

20. Define relative refractive

tive index.
P· ¶ N
From Snell’s law
law, = Here the term R 2X is call
N1
alled relative
P} ¶
.

refractive index of secon

cond medium with respect to the first mediu
dium and it is
¶
denoted by N (â. §. ¿N =
¶

21. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.

Apparent depth:
We observe that at the bottom of a tank filled with water
er with water
appears raised as show own. Light OB from the object ’O’ passes thr
through water
get refracted in air. Thee refracted ray BC appears to come from m ‘I’ which is
just above ‘O’ (i.e) the ob
object is appears to be at ‘I’
Refractive index of wate ter = N ,
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 129
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Refractive index of airr = N

wa = â,
Angle of incidence in water
Angle of incidence in air =
Original depth of tank = DO = .,
Apparent depth of tankk = DI = .′
Here N À N . Hence,, â < ,
By Snell’s law in product
uct from,
N sin â = N sin
As the angles are
re small, we can write
sin â tan â and sin tan
Hence, N tan â = N tan ……………(1)
In ∆jln and ∆jòn,
¶, ¶, ¶, ¶,
tan â = = , tan = =
¶^ ¶ •
Put this in equatio
ation (1)
jn jn
N R X=N R ′X
. .
¶
N =N ′ ;∴ . = .
. ¶
For air ; N = 1 and
an let N = n, then apparent depth. =
¶
Thus the bottomm appears
a to be elevated by (. c .′¿
. 1
.c. =. =
N
= . Å1 c N È

22. Define critical angle.

The angle of incid
cidence in the denser medium for which th
the refracted
ray graces the boundaryary is called critical angle iC

23. Define total internal reflection.

refl
If the angle of inincidence in the denser medium is greate ater than the
critical angle, there is nno refraction possible in the rarer medium
m. The entire
light is reflected back k iin to the denser medium itself; this phen
enomenon is
called total internal refle
flection.

24. What are the conditions

ns to achieve total internal reflection?
Light must travel from d
denser to rarer medium
st be greater than critical angle (â > âC)
Angle of incidence must

25. Obtain an expression fo for critical angle. Critical angle:

When light ray passes
pa from denser medium to rarer mediu
ium, it bends
away from normal. So â <
As â increases, also o iincreases rapidly and at a certain stage
age it just
gracing the bounda dary ( = 900). The corresponding angle off incidence
i is
called critical angle (<µ)
From Snell’s law wo of product form
" qrs < = ! qrs s , When â = <µ , then = 900
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 130
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ANT IN PHYSICS

" qrs <µ = ! qrs

s 900 , " qrs <µ = !
¶
qrs <µ =
¶
If the rarer mediu
ium is air, then ! = " and 1 = n, then
qrs <µ = (or) <µ = qrs−"Å È
¶ ¶

26. Obtain the reason forr glglittering of diamond. Glittering of diamond nd:
The glittering off diamond
d is due to the total internal reflec
lection of light
happens inside the diamiamond. The refractive index of diamond is 2.417 and
the critical angle is 24.4
4.40. Diamond has large number of cut plan faces.
So light entering the di diamond get total internally reflected from om many cut
faces before getting out.
ut. This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.
nd.

27. What are mirage and lo looming?

Mirage:
In hot places, air
ir near the ground is hotter than air at a hei
height. Hot air
less dense. The refractiv
ctive index of air decreases with decrease in density.
Because of this, the air ir near hot ground acts as rarer medium than
tha the air at
height.
When light from ttall object like tree, passes through a mededium whose
refractive index decreas ases towards the ground, it successively deviates
dev away
from the normal and un undergoes total internal reflection when theth angle of
incidence near the grounound exceeds the critical angle. This gives an illusion as
if the light comes from ssomewhere below the ground.

For of the shaky

ky nature of the layers of air, the observerr feels
f as wet
surface beneath the obj bject. This phenomenon is called mirage.
Looming:
In cold places,, tthe refractive index increases towardss thet ground,
because the temperatu ture of air close to the ground is less than
han the air at
height. So, in cold regegions like glaciers and frozen lakes and nd seas, the
reverse effect of mirage
ge will happen. Hence an inverted image is fformed little
above the surface. Thisis phenomenon called looming.

28. Write a note on the pris

risms making using of total internal reflectio
ction.
Prisms making u using use of total internal
reflection
Prisms can be designed ed to reflect light by 900 or
by 1800 by makingg use of total internal
reflection. In both cas
ases, the critical angle of
material of the prism must
m be less than 450.This
is true for both crown gla
glass and flint glass
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 131
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ANT IN PHYSICS

29. What is Snell’s window w (or) Radius of illumination?

Snell’s window:
When a light sour
ource like electric bulb is kept inside a wate
ater tank, the
light from the source travels
tr Th light that
in all direction inside the water. The
incident on water surfac
face at an angle less than the critical angle e will
w undergo
refraction and emerge e out
o from the water.
The light inciden
ent at an angle greater than the critical cal angle will
undergo total internal al reflection. But the light, incident at critical
cr angle
graces the surface a and hence the entire surface of wate ater appears
illuminated when seen n from
f outside.
On the other han
hand, when light entering water from outsi tside is seen
from inside the water,, the
th view is restricted to a particular angle
e equal
e to the
critical angle âC. The rerestricted illuminated circular area is ca called Snell’s
window.

30. Write a note on Optical al fibres.

Optical fibre:
Transmitting sign
ignals from one end
to another end due to th the phenomenon of
total internal reflection
ion is called optical
fibres. It consists of inne
nner part called core
and outer part called clacladding or sleeving.
The refractive in index of the core
must be higher than that tha of the cladding. Signal in the form of light
lig is made
to incident inside the core-cladding
c boundary at an angle greate ater than the
critical angle. Hence it undergoes repeated total internal reflec lections along
the length of the fibre wiwithout undergoing any refraction.
Even while bendi ding the optic fibre, it is done in such a wayw that the
condition for total internrnal reflection is ensured at every reflection.
on.

31. Write a note on an endodoscope.

Endoscope:
An endoscope is a an instrument used by doctors which has as a bundle of
optical fibres that are
eu used to see inside a patient’s body. It workswo on the
phenomenon of total internal
int reflection. It is inserted in to the body
bo through
mouth or nose or a special hole made in the body. The he necessary
instruments for operatio
tion is attached at their ends.

32. Define primary and seco

econdary focal points.
Primary focal point (Á") :
It is defined as a a point,
where an object should uld be placed
to give parallel emergen
gent ray to the
principal axis. For convnvergent lens
such an object is re real and for

Here, PF1 = {1 → princip

divergent lens, the objec
ject is virtual.
cipal focal length.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 132
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Secondary focus pointt (Á( !) :

It is defined as a point,
where all the para arallel rays
travelling close to the principal
axis converge to form an image on
the principal axis. Forr cconvergent

PF2 = {2 → secondaryy fo
lens such an image iss re
real and for divergent lens, the image is virtual.
vi Here,
focal length.

33. What are the sign conve

nventions for lens on focal length?
The sign of foc focal length is not decided on the direction d of
measurement of the focal
foc length from the pole of the lens as they
the have two
focal lengths on eitherr sside of the lens. The focal length of thin le
lens is taken
as positive for a converg
erging lens and negative for a diverging lens ns.

34. Define power of a lens.

The power ‘P’ of a len al length ({¿.
lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal
= ÅN c 1 R c XÈ
Š
P=
Ô Ô
The unit of powe
wer is diopter (D), Power is positive for conv
nverging lens
and negative for divergin
rging lens.

35. Write a note on prism.

A prism is a triang
ngular block of glass or plastic which is boun
ounded by the
three plane faces nott parallel
pa to each other. It’s one face is grou
ounded which
is called base. The othether two faces are polished which are calledlled refracting
faces of the prism. The e angle
a between the two refracting faces is ccalled angle
of prism (A)

36. Define angle of minimuum deviation.

The angle betwee
ween incident ray and emergent ray is calle
alled angle of
deviation (d). When the
he angle of incidence increases, the anglee of
o deviation
decreases, reaches a mminimum value and then continues to increa
rease.
The minimum val
value of angle of deviation is called angle
e of
o minimum
deviation (D).

37. What is called dispersio

sion of light?
The splitting of white light in to its constituent colour urs is called
dispersion of light. This
is band
b of colours of light is called its spectru
trum.
The spectrum consists seven
s colours in the order VIBGYOR

38. Define dispersive powerer.

Dispersive powerer (x) is the ability of the material of the pris
rism to cause
prism. It is defined ass tthe ratio of the angular dispersion forr the
th extreme
colours to the deviation
on for any mean colour.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 133
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39. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?

The scattering of light by atoms and molecules which have size (,)
very less than that of the wavelength (#) of light is called Rayleigh’s
scattering. (i.e) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is , << #

40. State Rayleigh’s scattering law.

The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely proportional to
fourth power of wavelength (#) . ò ∝
ÐÆ

41. Why does sky appears blue colour?

According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter wavelengths (violet)
scattered much more than longer wavelengths (Red). As our eyes are more
sensitive to blue colour than violet, the sky appears blue during day time.

42. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish during sunset and sunrise?
During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun travels a greater distance
through atmosphere. Hence the blue light which has shorter wavelength is
scattered away and less scattered red light of longer wavelength reaches
observer. This is the reason for reddish appearance of sky and Sun during
sunrise and sunset.

43. Why does cloud appears as white colour?

When size of particles or water drops are greater than the wavelength
of light (• ≫ #), the intensity of scattering is equal for all the wavelength.
Since clouds contains large amount of dust and water droplets, all the
colours get equally scattered irrespective of wavelength.
This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud. But the rain
clouds appear dark because of the condensation of water droplets on dust
particles that make the cloud become opaque.

44. How are rainbows formed?

Formation of rainbows:
Rainbows are formed due to dispersion of sunlight through droplets of
water during rainy days. Rainbow is observed during rainfall or after rainfall
or looking water fountain provided the Sun is at the back of the observer.
When sun light falls on the water drop suspended air, it splits in to its
constituent seven colours. Here water drops acts as a glass prism. Primary
rainbow is formed when one total internal reflection takes place inside the
drop.
The angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is 400 to 420
Secondary rainbow is formed when two total internal reflections takes place
inside the drop. The angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is 520
to 540
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 134
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45. What are the salient features of corpuscular theory of light?

Corpuscular theory:
Sir Isaac Newton proposed corpuscular theory of light.
According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, mass less and perfectly elastic
particles called corpuscles.
As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light does not suffer
appreciable loss of mass even if it emits light for a long time. They travel with
high speed and they are unaffected by the force of gravity. So their path is a
straight line.
The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these corpuscles. When
they impinge on the retina of the eye, the vision is produced. The different
size of the corpuscles is the reason for different colours of light.
The reflection of light is due to repulsion of the corpuscles by the
medium and refraction of light is due to the attraction of the corpuscles by
the medium.
This theory could not explain why speed of light is lesser in denser
medium than rarer medium and also interference, diffraction and
polarization.

46. Write a note on wave theory of light.

Wave theory of light:
Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light.
According to wave theory, light is a disturbance from a source that travels as
longitudinal mechanical wave through the ether medium that was presumed
to pervade in all space.
This theory could successfully explain reflection, refraction,
interference, and diffraction. But polarization could not explain by this
theory as it is the property of only transverse waves. Later the existence of
ether in all space was proved to be wrong.

47. Write a note on electromagnetic wave theory.

Electromagnetic wave theory of light:
Maxwell proposed electromagnetic theory of light. According to
electromagnetic wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave which is
transverse in nature carrying electromagnetic energy.
No medium is necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic
waves. All the phenomenon of light could be successfully explained by
electromagnetic theory.
But the interaction of light with matter like photoelectric effect,
Compton Effect could not be explained by this theory.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 135
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48. Write a short note on quantum theory of light.

Quantum theory of light:
By extending Max Plank quantum ideas, Albert Einstein proposed
quantum theory of light. According to quantum theory, light is not
continuous but it propagated in the form of discrete packets of energy

Each photon has energy ‘E’ of 3 = o  Here o →Plank’s constant

called photon.

( h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js)

49. What is Dual nature of light?

A light has both waves as well as particle nature and hence it is said
to have dual nature. (1) Light propagated as a wave
(2) Light interacts with matter as a particle

50. Write a note on wave nature of light.

Wave nature of light:
1. Light is transverse electromagnetic wave.
2. The wave nature of light was confirmed by the experiments on
interference and diffraction.
3. Like electromagnetic wave, light can travel through vacuum.
4. The transverse nature of light was proved by polarization.

51. Define wave front.

A wave front is the locus of points which are in the same state or
phase of vibration.
(1) A point source located at a finite distance gives spherical wave front.
(2) A line source gives cylindrical wave front.
(3) A point source located at infinite distance gives plane wave front.

52. State Huygens’s principle.

Huygens’s principle:
Each point of the wave front is the source of secondary wavelets which
spreading out in all directions with speed of the wave. The envelope to all
this wavelets gives the position and shape of the new wave front at a later
time.

53. Define interference.

The phenomenon of superposition of two light waves which produces
increase in intensity at some points and decrease in intensity at some other
points is called interference of light.

54. Give the relation between phase difference and path difference.
Phase is the angular position of a vibration.
In the path of the wave, one wavelength # corresponds to a phase of 2 °
Hence the path difference à corresponds to a phase difference ϕ is
Ã= ϕ
Ð
ƒ
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 136
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55. What are called coherent sources?

Two light sources are said to be coherent, if they produce waves
which have same phase or constant phase difference, same frequency or
wavelength, same waveform and preferably same amplitude.

56. Can two independent monochromatic sources acts as coherent sources?

Two independent monochromatic sources never be coherent, because
they may emit waves of same frequency and same amplitude, but not with
same phase. Due to thermal vibrations, the atoms while emitting light
undergoes this change in phase.

57. Give the methods to obtain coherent light waves.

Coherent waves are obtained by following three techniques.
(1) Intensity or amplitude division
(2) Wave front division
(3) Source and images

58. Write a note on intensity or amplitude division.

Intensity or amplitude division :
If light is incident on a partially silvered mirror, both reflection and
refraction takes place simultaneously. As the two light beams are obtained
from the same light source, the two divided light beams will be coherent
beams. They will be either in-phase or at constant phase difference.
(e.g.) Michelson’s interferometer

59. Write a note on wave front division.

Wave front division:
1. It is the common method used for producing two coherent sources.
2. We know all the points on the wave front are at the same phase.
3. If two points are chosen on the wave front by using a double slit, the two
points will act as coherent sources. (e.g.) Young’s double slit method

60. Write a note on Source and images method.

Source and images:
In this method, a source and its image will act as a set of coherent
source, because the source and its image will have wave’s in-phase or
constant phase difference.
(e.g.) Fresnel’ bi-prism - two virtual sources as coherent sources
Lloyd’s mirror - the source and its virtual image as coherent sources

61. What are called constructive and destructive interference?

Constructive interference:
During superposition of two coherent waves, the points where the
crest of one wave meets the crest of other (or) the trough of one wave
meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase. Hence the
displacement is maximum and these points appear as bright.
This type of interference is said to be constructive interference.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 137
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Destructive interference:
During superposition of two coherent waves, the points where the
crest of one wave meets the trough of other (or) vice versa, the waves are
out-of-phase. Hence the displacement is minimum and these points appear
as dark. This type of interference is said to be destructive interference.

62. What is bandwidth of interference pattern?

The band width (β) is defined as the distance between any two
consecutive bright or dark fringes.

63. What are the conditions for obtaining clear and broad interference bands?
(1) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
(2) The wavelength of light used must be larger.
(3) Two coherent sources must be as close as possible

64. Brilliant colours are exhibited by the surface of oil films and soap bubbles.
Why?
The colours exhibited by the surface of oil films and soap bubbles are
due to interference of white light undergoing multiple reflections from the top
and bottom surfaces of thin films.
The colourd depends upon,
(1) Thickness of the film
(2) Refractive index of the film
(3) Angle of incidence of the light

65. What is diffraction?

Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the
geometrically shadowed region. We observe diffraction only when the size of
the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength.

66. Distinguish diffraction. Between Fresneland Fraunhofer

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
Spherical or cylindrical wavefront Plane wavefront undergoes
undergoes diffraction diffraction
Light wave is from a source at finite distance Light wave is from a source at infinity
For laboratory conditions, convex lenses In laboratory conditions, convex
need not be used lenses are to be used
difficult to observe and analyze Easy to observe and analyze

67. What is diffraction grating?

Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque
rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. Thus grating has multiple slits
with equal widths of size comparable to the wavelength of light. The modern
commercial grating contains about 6000 lines per centimeter.
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68. Define grating elementnt and corresponding points.

The combined w width of a ruling (b) and a slit (a) is called
cal grating
element (e = a + b) . Poi
oints on successive slits separated by a dist
istance equal
to the grating elementt are
a called corresponding points.

69. Distinguish between interference

int and diffraction.

Interference Diffraction
Superposition of two waves es Bending of waves around edgeges
Superposition of waves from om two Superposition wavefronts emititted from
Coherent sources. various points of the same wav
avefront.
Equally spaced fringes. Unequally spaced fringes
Intensity of all the bright fringes
frin is
Intensity falls rapidly for higher
her orders
almost same
Large number of fringes are re obtained Less number of fringes are obtained
obt

70. What is Fresnel’s distan

tance? Obtain an expression for it.
Fresnel’s distance:
Fresnel’s distance
nce is the distance
upto which ray optics is obeyed and
beyond which ray optics
ics is not obeyed
but, wave optics becomemes significant.
Let Fresnel distan
tance = Z. From
the diffraction equation
n for first
Ð Ð
minimum, sin θ = (o θ =
(or)
¾ ¾
¾ ¾
Fresnel’s distance, sin 2θ = (or) 2θ =
Å Å
From the definition of Fr
Ð ¾ ¾
=
Å
Equating the above two
o equation, 2 ;Z=
¾ Ð

71. Give the reason for colo

olourful appearance of the Compact Disc.
On the read or writable
wr side which is polished, there are many
m narrow
circular tracks with wid
widths comparable to the wavelength off visible
v light.
Hence, the diffraction ta
takes place after reflection for incident white
wh light to
give colourful appearanc
ance. The tracks act as reflecting grating.

72. What are resolution andnd resolving power?

Two point sources
ces must be imaged in such a way that their
eir images are
sufficiently far apart that
th their diffraction patterns do not overerlap. This is
called resolution.
The inverse of re
resolution is called resolving power. The
e ability
a of an
optical instrument to o separate or distinguish small or closelsely adjacent
objects through the imimage formation is said to be resolving power
po of the
instrument.
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73. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?

According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for tow point objects to be just
resolved, the minimum distance between their diffraction images must be in
such a way that the central maximum of one coincides with the first
minimum of the other and vice versa.

74. Define polarization.

The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of light to a particular
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation motion is called
polarization.

75. Distinguish between polarized and un-plane polarized light.

Polarized light Un-polarized light

Consists of waves having their electric Consists of waves having their electric
field vibrations in a single plane field vibrations equally distributed in all
normal to the direction of ray. directions normal to the direction of ray.
Asymmetrical about the ray direction Symmetrical about the ray direction
It is obtained from un-polarized light
Produced by conventional light sources.
with the help of polarizer’s

76. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.

Plane of vibration:
The plane containing the vibrations of the electric field vector is known
as plane of vibration.
Plane of polarization:
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration and containing the
ray of light is known as the plane of polarization.

77. How an un-polarized light can be polarized?

The un-polarized light can be polarized by following techniques.
(1) Polarization by selective absorption
(2) Polarization by reflection
(3) Polarization by double refraction
(4) Polarization by scattering

78. Discuss polarization by selective absorption.

Polarization by selective absorption (Polaroid’s) :
Selective absorption is the property of a material which transmits
waves whose electric field vibrate in a plane parallel to a certain direction of
orientation and absorbs all other waves.
The Polaroid’s or polarizer using this property of selective absorption
to produce intense plane polarized light.
Selective absorption is also called as dichroism. Edwin Land
developed polarizer’s in the form of thin sheets. Tourmaline is a natural
polarizing material. But Polaroid’s are also made artificially.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 140
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A number of neededle shaped crystals of quinine iodosulphat ate with their

axes parallel to one aanother packed in between two transpar parent plastic
sheets serve as a googood Polaroid. Recently new types of Pol olaroid’s are
prepared in which thin fi
film of polyvinyl alcohol (Colour less crystals
tals) is used.

79. What is polarizer and analyzer?

an
Polarizer:
The Polaroid wh which plane polarizes the un-polarized light
lig passing
through it is called a pol
olarizer.
Analyzer:
The Polaroid whi hich is used to examine whether a beam
am of light is
polarized or not is called
led analyzer.

80. Discuss how a plane po polarized and partially polarized light willll beb analyzed
using analyzer?
Plane polarized light:
If the intensity of light varies from maximum to zero for every ev rotation
of 900 of the analyzer,, th
the light is said to be plane polarized.
Partially polarized light
ht :
If the intensity oof light varies from maximum to minimum um for every
rotation of 90 of the analyzer,
0 an the light is said to be partially polar
larized.

81. State and prove Malus’ s’ law.

Malus’s law :
When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity I0 is inci
ncident on an
analyzer, the light trans
nsmitted of intensity I from the analyzer varies
var directly
cosine of the angle t between the transmis
is known as Malus’ law. a = a ÈÇq Ç
as the square of the cos ission axis of
!
polarizer and analyzer.. This
T
Proof :
Let the angle between plane
p of polarizer and analyzer = o
ctor transmitted by the polarizer = òK
Intensity of electric vecto
tric vector = •
Amplitude of this electric
The amplitude of the incident light was resolved

, ÆÇqÇ - parall
in to two components,
(1) allel component to the axis of
transmission off th
the analyzer
(2) , qrsÇ - perpendndicular component to the axis of
transmission off th
the analyzer
Here only the parallel cocomponent (,ÆÇqÇ) will be transmitted byy the
th analyzer.
Hence ht intensity of the transmitted light is,
ò ∝ (• cos o )2 ; = (• cos θ )2
= 2 •2 cos2 Ç ; ò = òK Ò2Ó θ
(1) When Ç = 00 , í = òK (2) When Ç = 900 , í =
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 141
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82. List the uses of Polaroid

oid’s.
Uses of Polaroid’s:
Used in goggles and camameras to avoid glare of light
Used in holography (thre
hree dimensional motion pictures)
Used to improve contras
rast in old oil paintings
Used in optical stress an
analysis.
Used as window glassesses to control the intensity of incoming lightht
Polarized needle beam acts as needle to read/write
rea in
compact discs (CDs)
Polaroid produce polariz
rized lights to be used in liquid crystal displa
splay (LCD)

83. Defined angle of polariz

rization.
The angle of incid
cidence at which the reflected beam is plan
lane polarized
gle or Brewster’s angle (<ë)
is called polarizing angle
or glass is ; <ë = 57.50
The polarizing angle for

84. Explain polarization byy rreflection.

Polarization by reflectio
tion:
It is the simplest method
hod to produce plane polarized light.
It is discovered by Malus
lus.
Here, XY - reflecting sur
urface
AB - incident un-polariz
arized light beam BC -
reflecting light beam
BD - refracted light beam
am
On examining the refle flected beam ‘BC’ with
an analyzer, it is founund that the ray is is
partially plane polarized
ized. When the light is
allowed to be incident nt on particular angle,
the reflected beam is found to be plane
polarized. That angle o of incidence is called
polarizing angle (<ë)

85. State and prove Brewst ster’s law

Brewster’s law:
The angle of inci
ncidence at which a beam
of un-polarized light fa falling on a transparent
surface is reflected as a beam of plane
polarized light is callealled polarizing angle or
Brewster’s angle (âÌ). S Sir David Brewster found
that, at polarizing angle,
an the reflected and
transmitted rays are e perpendicular to each
larizing angle = âÌ
other. Let, incident polar
Angle of re
refraction =
From the figure,
fi
âÌ + 90 + Ì = 1800 ;
0 rÌ = É 0 − <ë − − − −(1)
P ·Ê P ·Ê
From Snell’s law =N; =N
P }Ê PbËK ½·Ê d
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= N ; ÌÍs <ë =
P ·Ê
F ·Ê
This relation iss known
k as Brewster’s law. This law state
ates that, the
tangent of the polarizin
izing angle for a transparent medium is equal
e to its
refractive index.

86. Write a note on pile off pplates.

Pile of plates:
It works on tthe principle of
polarization by reflection
tion.
It consists of a numbe ber of glass plates
placed one over the othether in a tube.
These plates are inclined at an
angle 33.70 to the axisis of
o the tube.
A beam of un-p polarized light is
allowed to fall on the pile
pi of plates along
the axis of the tube.. So the angle of
b 56.30 which is
incidence of light willll be
the polarizing angle forr glass.
g
The vibrations p perpendicular to
the plane of incidence ce are reflected at
each surface and those se parallel to it are transmitted.
The larger the numberr o of surfaces, the greater the intensity off the
th reflected
plane polarized light.
The pile of plates
es is used as a polarizer and also as an anal
nalyzer.

87. Define double refraction

tion.
When a ray of un un-polarized light is incident on a calcite
e crystal, two
refracted rays are produ
duced. Hence two images of a single object ct are
a formed.
This phenomenon is call alled double refraction.
The obtained images ar are called as,
(1) Ordinary image
(2) Extra ordinary image
ima
Double refraction
on is also called bi refringence.

88. Distinguish between ordinary

ord ray and extra ordinary ray.
Ordinary Ray Extraordinary Ray
They obey the laws of refraction
ref They do not obey the law aws of
refraction
Inside the crystal, the
hey travel Inside the crystal, they travelel with
with same velocityy in all different velocities along diff ifferent
directions directions
A point source inside the crystal A point source inside the crystal
cr
produces spherical wavefront
w produces elliptical wavefront
ont for
for ordinary ray extra ordinary ray
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89. Define Optic axis.

Inside the double
ble refracting crystal, there is a particularr direction in
which both the ordinary ry and extraordinary rays travel with same velocity.
ve This
direction is called optic
ic axis. Along optic axis, the refractive index
ex is same for
both rays.

90. Define uni-axial crystal

al and
a biaxial crystal.
Crystals like calci
lcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice having only
onl one optic
xial crystals. Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite
axis are called uniaxia se and
aragonite having two opoptic axes are called biaxial crystals.

91. Discuss about Nicol pris

rism.
Uses :
It produces plane
ne polarized light and functions as a polarize
izer.
It can also used
da as an analyzer.

Nicol prism :
Nicol prism is made
m by calcite crystal
which is double refracticting crystal. ABCD is the
principal section of a calcite crystal with its
length is three times o of its breadth. The face
angles are 720 and 10 1080. It is cut in to two
halves along the diago gonal AB and joined together by a layer er of canada
balsam, a transparentt cement.
c
Let an un-polarizrized light from monochromatic source is incident on
the face AC of the Nicoicol prism. Here double refraction takes plac
lace, and the
ray This relation is know
own as Brewster’s law. This law states that,
t, the tangent
of the polarizing angle le for a transparent medium is equal to itits refractive
index.

92. What are the uses and d drawbacks

d of Nicol prism?
Drawbacks:
It cost is very high
igh due to scarcity of large and flawless calcilcite crystal.
Due to extraordin inary ray passing obliquely through it, the emergent
em ray
is always displaced a little
li to one side. The effective field of viewvi is quite
limited. Light emergingg o out of it is not uniformly plane polarized.

93. Explain polarization byy sscattering.

Polarization by scatterin
ring:
The light from a clearr b blue portion
of the sky shows a rise and fallall of intensity
when viewed through a Polaro aroid which is
rotated. This is because of sun unlight, which
has changed its direction on encountering
en
the molecules of the earth’s atmosphere.
a
The electric fields of light intera
eract with the
electrons present in the air mol olecules.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 144
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Under the influe

uence of the electric field of the incidentent wave the
electrons in the molec
lecules acquire components of motion in both these
directions. We have sho
hown an observer looking at 90 to the direcirection of the
sun. Clearly, charges ac
accelerating parallel do not radiate energyy towards
t this
observer since theirr acceleration has no transverse compo ponent. The
radiation scattered byy tthe molecule is therefore polarized perpe
rpendicular to
the plane of the paper. This explains the reason for polarization of sunlight by
scattering.

94. Discuss about simpl ple microscope and obtain the equ quations for
magnification for nearr ppoint focusing..
Simple microscope - Near
Ne point focusing:
A simple microsco
scope is a single magnifying lens of small focal
foc length.
In near point focusing,, o
object distance ‘u’ is less than ‘f’
The image is formed at n near point or least distance ‘D’ of distinct
ct vision.
v
ª
The magnification ‘m’’ is given by, ¦ =
¬
ª
Using lens equation, ¦ = 1 c ; substitute, ¤ = cj
Š
"="+
Î
y

95. Discuss about simpl ple microscope and obtain the equ quations for
magnification for near ppoint focusing and normal focusing.
Simple microscope - Normal
No focusing:
Here the image is formed at infinity.
So we will not get direc
ect practical relation
for magnification. HenceH we can
practically use the angul
gular magnification.
The angular magnificatcation is defined as
the ratio of angle (oâ) subtended by the
image with aided eye e to the angle (ol)
subtended by the object
ect with unaided eye.
”
That is, ¦ = …………
…….. (1)
”Î
-
e, ù•NoK oK =
¶
For unaided eye,
-
For aided eye, ù•No
ù•N · o· =
Š
Q
” ÅÏ È ¶
Thus equation (1) becomes, ¦ = = Q ;¦=
”Î Å È Š
Ð
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 145
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96. Distinguish between near point focusing and normal focusing.

Near Point Focusing Normal Focusing

The image is formed at near point The image is formed at infinity
In this position, the eye feel little strain In this position, the eye is
most relaxed to view the image
¶ ¶
Magnification is high ¦ = 1 + Magnification is low ¦ =
Š Š

97. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a microscope?

The ability of microscope depends not only in magnifying the object
but also in resolving two points on the object separated by a small distance
. Ð
Å.-·¶ = È
Eᦄ
That is, smaller the value of ′.¦âN′ better will be the resolving power of
the microscope.
To further reduce the value of, the optical path of the light is increased
by immersing the objective of the microscope in to a bath containing oil of
. Ð
refractive index ‘n’. (i.e) Å.-·¶ = È
¶ E·¶Ñ
Such an objective is called oil immersed objective. The term ‘ qrs Ò′
is called numerical aperture (NA)

98. What are the merits and demerits of reflecting telescope?

Merits:
Only one surface is to be polished and maintained. Support can be
given from the entire back of the mirror rather than only at the rim for lens.
Mirror weigh much less compared to lens.
Demerits:
The objective mirror would focus the light inside the telescope tube.
One must have an eye piece inside obstruction some light.

99. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial telescope?

A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long distance on the
surface of earth. Hence image should be erect. So an additional erecting
lens is used to make the final image enlarged and erect.

100. What is the use of spectrometer?

The collimator is an arrangement to produce a parallel beam of light.

101. What are the uses of spectrometer?

Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to,
(1) Study the spectra of different sources of light
(2) Measure the refractive indices of materials
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 146
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102. What is myopia? What at is

i its remedy?
A person sufferiering from myopia or nearsightednesss cannot c see
distant objects clearly. It occurs when the eye lens has too short
rt focal
f length
due to thickening of the lens or larger diameter of the eyeballll than usual.
Using concave lens thisis defect can be rectified.

103. What is hypermetopia?a? What is its remedy?

A person sufferin
ring from hypermetopia or farsightedness ss cannot see
objects close to the eyeye. It occurs when the eye lens has too oo long focal
length due to thinningg o
of eye lens or shortening of the eyeballl than
th normal.
Using convex lens thiss defect
d can be rectified.

104. What is presbyopia?

The least distanc
ance for clear vision for aged people is appreciably
a
more than 25 cm and the th person has to keep the object inconveneniently away
from the eye. Thus rea earing or viewing smaller things held in the
th hands is
difficult for them. Thiss kkind of farsightedness arising due to agin
ging is called
presbyopia.

105. What is astigmatism?

Astigmatism is th the defect arising due to different curvat
vatures along
different planes in the eye lens. Astigmatic person cannott see s all the
directions equally well.ll. Lenses with different curvatures in diffe
fferent planes
called cylindrical lens is used to rectify astigmatism defect.

106. What are called Air’s discs?

dis
When a circularr aperture
a like a lens or the iris of eye form
rms an image
of a point object, the
e iimage formed will not be a point, butt a diffraction
pattern of concentric ci
circles that becomes fainter while moving ng away from
the centre. These are kn
known as Air’s discs.

107. Explain Young’s doublele slit method.

Young’ s double slit exp
xperiment :
Thomas Young usedu an opaque
screen with two smallll oopenings called
double slit S1 and S2 ke
kept equidistance
from a source ‘S’. The width
w of each slit
is about 0.03 mm and they are
separated by a distanc nce of about 0.3
mm.
As S1 and S2 are equidis
distant from ‘S’, the light waves from ‘S’ reac
ach
S1 and S2 in phase.
So S1 and S2 actac as coherent sources which are the requ equirement of
obtaining interference e pattern. The wave fronts from S1 and a S2 get
superposed on the other
her side of the double slit.
When screen iss placed
p at a distance of about 1 m from m double slit,
equally spaced alternate
ate bright and dark fringes are appears on n the screen.
These are called interfe
erference fringes. At the point ‘O’ on the e sscreen, the
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waves from S1 and S2 travels equal distances and arrive in-pha hase. Due to
constructive interferenc
nce, bright fringe is formed at point ‘O’ . This
Th is called
central bright fringe.
When one of the he slit is covered, then the fringes disappea
ear and there
is uniform illuminationno observed on the screen. This clearly show
hows that the
fringes are due to interfe
rference e.

FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

108. Derive the mirror equ quation and the equation for lateral magnification.
ma
Mirror equation:
The equation w which gives
the relation betwee een object
distance (C), image di distance (¤)
and focal length ({) iss oof spherical
mirror is called mirrorror equation.
Let an object AB is placlaced on the
principle axis of a concncave mirror
beyond the centre of cur
curvature ‘C’
The real and inverted imimage m′n′ is formed between C and F
By the laws of refl
reflection,
Angle of incidence
nce (â) = angle of reflection ( )
∠nÌm = ∠n Ìm
From figure, ∆nÌm
nÌm and ∆n Ìm are similar triangles. So
š• ,• wš•
=
wš
…………
…….. (1)
j̺ and ∆n ºm are similar triangles. So
š,
From figure, ∆j̺
š• ,• š ³
=
w¶ w³
[PD
PD = AB]
š• ,• š ³
=
w³
………
…….. (2)
š,
wš• m′ º
= ;
wš
From equation (1) and
d (2
(2),
̺
wš• Ìm′ c
c̺
=
wš
……….(3)
̺
By applying sign
n conventions,
c Ìm = cC; Ìm = c¤ ; ̺ = c{
c
½ö ½ö½(½y¿
= (or
(or)
½Ó ½y
ª ª ½Š
=
ª ª
(or) ¬ = Š c 1
¬ Š
Dividing both sides by ¤ ; = c
Š
;
¬ ª
+ =
Š
………… (4)
ª ¬
This is called mirror equ
quation. It is also valid for convex mirror.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 148
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Lateral Magnification:
It is defined as th
the ratio of the height of the image (h1) to the
th height of
š• ,• wš• ½- ½ª
= =
wš -
the object (h). From equ
quation (1) ;
š, ½¬
ℎ
1
¤
cation, ¦ = = c ………… (5)
ℎ
Hence magnificat
C
ℎ {c¤ {
1
uation (4) ¦ = = =
ℎ { {c C
Using equa ……… (6)

109. Describe the Fizeau’s m method to determine speed of light.

Fizeau’s method:
The light from the source S
was first allowed to o fall on a
partially silvered glass
ass plate G
kept at an angle off 45 4 0 to the
vertical. The light thenn allowed to
pass through a rotatin ting toothed-
wheel with N - teeth andnd N - cuts.
The speed of rota
otation of the
wheel could be varied d through
t an
external mechanism. The light
passing through one cu cut in the wheel get reflected by a mirrorr M kept at a
long distance ‘d’ (aboutut 8 km) from the toothed wheel. If the toothed
too wheel
was not rotating, the reflected
ref light from the mirror would again pa
pass through
the same cut and reach ch the observer through G.
Working:
The angular spee
eed of the rotation of the toothed wheel was as increased

at angular speed be x
until light passing throrough one cut would completely be block ocked by the
adjacent tooth. Let that
The total distance
nce traveled by the light from the toothed wheel
w to the
mirror and back to the ewwheel is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
i air, ¤ =
Then the speed of lightt in
á
is x =
”
But the angular speed is,
á
Here o is angle between
b the tooth and the slot which is rot
rotated by the
toothed wheel within that
tha time “t”. Then,
û«á¾% ¾¶•%® «Š á-® \·}\%® ·¶ }¾ ·¾¶ ƒ ƒ
o= ; o= =
3¬-t®} «Š á®®á-À3¬-t®} «Š \¬áE 3 3
p
Hence, angular speed, x =
ÅTÈ ƒ ƒ
= (or) ù =
á 3á 3n
! > Sz
Therefore the speed off llight in air, ¤ = = p ;¤=
á ÅT¨È G
ir was determined as , ö = 2.99792 x 108 ms-1
The speed of light in air
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110. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) Snell’s window.
ow.
Radius of Snell’s window
dow:
Light is seem from a poi
point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’
Applying Snell’s law in p
product form at point ‘B,
N ÓâNâ\ = N ÓâN90
90K ; N ÓâNâ\ = N
¶
(or) ÓâNâ\ = …
……………..(1)
¶
ßn Ô
In ∆mnß, ÓâNâÒ = = ……………..(2)
mn Ô À
Ô ¶
Compare equation (1)) an
and (2) = (or)
Ô À ¶
Ô ¶ Ô À ¶
= Å È (or) =Å È
Ô À ¶ Ô ¶

.
2
N 2 ¶ ¶
1+ = ÅN 1 È ; = Å È c 1; c1
K 2
2 Ô ¶ ¶

;K =. R
¶ ½¶ Ô ¶ ¶
= (or) = X
Ô ¶ ¶ ½¶ ¶ ½¶

K = .Ô
N22
N21c N22

ium outsides air, then N = 1 and let N = N, then

If the rarer mediu
K = .] ^
¶ ½

111. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and numerical apertur ture of optical
fibre.
Acceptance angle:
To ensure the criti ritical angle
incidence in the core- cladding ing boundary
inside the optical fibre, the light
ght should be
incident at a certain angle at the end of the
optical fibre while entering in to it. This
angle is called acceptance anglegle.
Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’,
4·¶ ·P ¶
=
4·¶ }P
………….(1)
¶U

To have total internal al reflection

inside optical fibre, the angle of
o incidence
at the core-cladding inte
nterface at B should be at-least
Critical angle (âß)
4·¶ ·U ¶
=
4·¶ ËK
Applying Snell’ss law
la at point ‘B’ (or)
¶
‚âN â\ =
¶
………….(2)
¶
From ∆mnß, â\ = 90K c ¾
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¶
Then equation (2) becomes, ÓâN(90K c ¾¿ =
¶

= √1 c Ò2Ó2 ¾ = ¥1 c Å È
N2
∴ sin
¶
(or) cos ¾ = •
N1 ¶

¥N2 2
=Ô
N21c N22 1 c N2
sin ¾ ==
N21 N1
4·¶ ·P ¶
Put this in equatio
ation (1), =
¥Ï Ö Ï ¶U
Õ Ï
×

4·¶ ·P ¥N 2 2
=Ô
1 c N2 N21c N22
= ; sin â¾ = N23
¥¶ ½ ¶ ¶U N3

â¾ = ‚âN½ ØÔ Ù
N21c N22
N23

dium is air, then NO = 1. The acceptance ang

If the outer mediu ngle
becomes, â¾ = ‚âN½ Å N c N È
Light can have an any angle of incidence from 0 to â¾ with the
e normal
n at
the end of the optical fib
fibre forming a conical shape called accepta
ptance cone.
The term (n3 sin â¾ ) is called
ca numerical aperture NA of the optical fibre.
NA = n3 sin â¾ = N c N

112. Derive the equation for

or lateral displacement of light passing thro
rough a glass
slab.
Refraction through a glass
gla slab:
Thickness of thee gglass slab = t
Refractive indexx of
o glass = n
The perpendicu icular distance “CE” between
refracted ray and incidcident ray at C gives the lateral
displacement (L).
¹
; nß =
¹
In∆nß/, sin(â c ¿ =
,¢ P (·½}¿
á ù
In ∆nß/, cos r = ; nß =
,¢ cos
¹ ù P(·½ }¿
Hence, = ; L = tR X
P (·½}¿ cos F }
Therefore latera
ral displacement depends on,
Thickness of the
e gglass slab, Angle of incidence .
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 151
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ANT IN PHYSICS

113. Derive equation for refra

efraction at single spherical surface.
Refraction at single sph
pherical surface:

Refractive indexx ofo rarer medium= n1

Refractive indexx ofo spherical medium = n2
Centre of curvatu ture of spherical surface = C
Point object in rar
rarer medium = O
Point images form rmed in denser medium = I
Apply Snell’s law of prod
roduct form at the point N
N sin â = N sin
Since the angless a are small, we have sin â â •N. sin
∴ N â = N ………
∠œßÌ = Û, ∠œòÌ = Ú, then
……….. (1)
Let, ∠œlÌ = ü, ∠
; tan Û = (or) Û =
w3 w3 w3 w3
tan ü = (or) ü =
w^ w^ w¢ w¢
tan Ú = (or) Ú =
w3 w3
w w
From figure, â = ü + Û and Û = + Ú (or) = Û c Ú
Put the values of â •N. âN §MC•ùâ2N (1¿
N (ü + Û ¿ = N (Û c Ú ¿ ;
N ü + N Û = N Û c N Ú (or)
N ü + N Ú = N Û c N Û (or)
N ü + N Ú = (N c N ¿Û
Put ü, Û and Ú, W
w3 w3 w3
We have N R X + N R X = (N c N ¿ R X (or)
w^ w w¢
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
+ =
w^ w w¢
Using Cartesian
n ssign conversion, we get
Ìl = cC ; Ìò = +¤ ; Ìß = +K
¶ ¶ ¶ ½½¶
∴ + = ; (or)
½¬ ª Ô
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
¶
c = …….. (2)
ª ¬ Ô
ium is air and hence N = 1 and let the refe
Here rarer medium ference index
of second medium be N = N.
¶ ¶½
Therefore c = …….. (3)
ª ¬ Ô
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 152
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ANT IN PHYSICS

114. Obtain an equation for

or llateral magnification due to single spheric
erical surface.
Lateral magnification in single spherical surface:

Height of object: ll = ℎ ;
Height of image: òò′ = ℎ ;
dium = N ;
Refractive index of first mediu

o second medium = N
Refractive indexx of
Centre of curvature off spherical
sp surface = C
The ration betwee een image height to the object height is ca
called lateral
magnification (m), i.e) ¦ =
^^
……………….. (1)
¢
∆ßll and ∆ßòò′ are sim =
^^
imilar triangles. So. (or)
¢^
w ½w¢
½
=
^^ w¢À
Àw^
½- ª½Ô
we get ¦ = =
-
Using Cartesian sign conversion,
con (or)
or)
ÔÀ(½¬¿
- ª ½Ô Ô½ª
¦= = cR X=
-
……………(2)
Ô½¬ Ô½¬
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
½
We know that, equation
on for single spherical surface c =
ª ¬ Ô
(or) K =
¶ ¬½¶ ª ¶ ½¶ ¶ ª¬ ½ ¶ ª¬
=
ª¬ Ô ¶ ¬½ ¶ ª
Thus, K c C = ; Kc¤ =
¶ ¬(ª½¬¿ ¶ ª (ª½¬¿
¶ ¬½ ¶ ª ¶ ¬½ ¶ ª
Ï Ý(qÖÝ¿
RÏ X
ℎ2 ÝÖ Ï q
Put this equation (2¿, we ge
get ¦ = = q (qÖÝ¿
ℎ1 Ï
RÏ X
ÝÖ Ï q
ℎ2 ¶ ª
¦= =
ℎ1
……
……………(3)
¶ Ý

115. Obtain Lens maker formormula and mention its significance.

Lens maker’s formula:
efractive index n2 is placed
A thin lens of refr
tive index n1. Let R1 and R2
in a medium of refractiv

① and ② respectively
be radii of curvature of two spherical surfaces

Let P be pole off th

the lens and O be the
Point object.
Here ò′ be the ima
face ① and ò be the final
image to be formed due the
refraction at the surfac
image obtained due the he refraction at the surface
②
We know that, equation on for single spherical surface
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
c =
ª ¬ Ô
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 153
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ANT IN PHYSICS

urface ①, the light goes from N to N , Henc

For refracting surf nce
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
c = ………….. (1)
ª• ¬ Ô
urface ②, the light goes from N to N , Henc
For refracting surf nce
¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶
c = ………….. (2)
ª ª• Ô
Adding equation
n (1) and (2), we get,
¶ ¶ ¶ ¶ ¶ ½¶ ¶ ½¶
c + c = +
ª• ¬ ª ª• Ô Ô
¶ ¶
c = (N c N ¿ R c X
ª ¬ Ô Ô
(¶ ½¶ ¿
c = R c X
ª ¬ ¶ Ô Ô
¶
c =Å c 1È R c X ………..(3)
ª ¬ ¶ Ô Ô

the lens. Thus, C = ∞, ¤ = {

If the objec
ject is at infinity, the image is formed at th
the forcus of

N2 1 1
Then equation becomes,
be c
Š {
=Å
N1
c 1È RK c K X
1 2
N 1 1
Š
= Å 2
N1
c 1È RK cK X …………..(4)
1 2

ium is air and hence n" = 1 and let the refra

Here first medium fractive index
1 1
of second medium be N = N. Therefore = (N c 1¿ R c K XX……
Š K1
………..(5)
2
The above equatio
ation is called lens maker’s formula.
quation (3) and (4) c =
Š
By comparing equ
ª ¬
This equation iss kknown as lens equation.

116. Derive the equation for

or thin lens and obtain its magnification.
Magnification of thin lens:
len
Let an object ll′
ll is placed on
the principal axis with wi its height
perpendicular to the prin
rincipal axis. The
ray l′Ì passing throug ugh the pole of
the lens goes un-deviate
iated. But the ray
parallel to principal al axis, after
refraction it passes thro
rough secondary
focus ‘F’. At the point
nt of intersection of these two rays, an inv
inverted, real
image òò′ is formed.
Height of object; ll′ = ℎ ; Height of image; òò′ = ℎ
The lateral magnificatio
tion (m) is defined as the ration of the height
he of the
image to that of the obje
bject.
¦=
^^
…………
………….. (1)
w
∆Ìll and ∆Ìòò′ are similar triangles. So. =
^^ w^
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 154
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½- ª
n ssign conversion, we get ¦ = =
-
Using Cartesian (or)
(o
½¬
- ª
¦= = ……
-
…………(2
¬
The magnification
tion is negative for real image and positive
ive for virtual
image. Thus for convexex lens, the magnification is negative, and
d for
f concave
lens, the magnificationn iis positive.
Combining the lens
len equation and magnification equation,, we
w get
- Š - Š½ª
¦= = (or) ¦ = =
- ŠÀ¬ - Š

117. Derive the equation foror effective focal length for lenses in contac
act.

two lenses ① and ② of

Focal length of lensess in contact:

focal lengths {1 and {2 placed co-axially in

Let us considerr tw

th principal focus of ①
contact with each oth other. Let the object is
placed at ‘O’ beyond the
on the principal axis.
age at ò′ . This image ò′
lens ② and hence the
It forms an imag
acts as an object forr le
final image is formed at ‘I’
tion for lens ① c =
Š
Writing the lens equation …………..(1)
ª• ¬
② c ′=
1 1 1
{2
Writing the lens equation
tion for lens …………..(2)
¤ ¤
c + c = +
Š Š
Adding equation (1) and
nd (2), we get,
ª• ¬ ª ª•
c = +
Š Š
………….. (3)
ª ¬
If this combination acts
ts as a single lens of focal length “F”, then,
c = …………
…….. (4)
ª ¬ ³
= +
Š Š
Compare equation
tion (3) and (4) ………….. (5)
³
+ + + + ….
Š Š ŠU ŠÆ
For any numberr o
of lenses, =
³
Let P1, P2, P3, P4 …. be the power of each lens then
th the net
power of the lens combi
bination, P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + ….
Let m1, m2, m3, m4 …. be the magnification of each
ach lens then
the net magnification of the lens combination, m = m1 x m2 x m3 x m4 x ….
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 155
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ANT IN PHYSICS

118. Derive the equation for

or effective focal length for lenses in out of contact.
c
Focal length for lensess in
i out of contact:

OA - incident ray,, Aò - Refracted ray , Let, ∠mlÌ = ü and ∠m mòÌ = Û .

º 2¦ ∆ Omò, the e angle of deviation, Ã = ü + Û ……….. (1)
In ∆OAP and ∆Ìm mò , the angles ü and Û are small.
; tan Û = (or) Û =
wš wš wš wš
Hence , tan ü = (or) ü =
w^ w^ w w
Ã= . Here Ìm = ℎ, Ìl = cC, Ìò = ¤. Then
wš wš
+
w^ w

+ = ℎR c X =
- - -
Ã=
Š
……….. (1)
½¬ ª ª ¬

eviation is, Ã = Ã + Ã [ By equation (1)]

Let f1 and f2 bee the
t focal length and “d” be separation between
be two
lenses, then the net dev
- - -
= +
Š Š Š
……
………. (2)
From figure, ℎ c ℎ = Ì á c Ì ß = ßá
ℎ c ℎ = ná ù•N Ã1 ná Ã1 . Ã1
ℎ1 ℎ
ℎ cℎ =. (or) ℎ = ℎ + . {1 …………. (3)
{1 1
- - - -
= + +
Š Š Š ŠŠ
Put equation (3)) iin (2) (or)
= + +
Š Š Š ŠŠ
…………. (4)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 156
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ANT IN PHYSICS

119. Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by a prism ism and thus
obtain the equation for
or refractive index of material of the prism.
Angle of deviation (d) :
Let ‘ABC’ be e the section of
triangular prism.
Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is
called base of the prism
sm.
The other two facess ‘‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are
polished which are calle lled refracting faces.
The angle between two o refraction faces is
called angle of the prism
ism ‘A’
Here, ‘PQ’ be inc
incident ray, ‘QR’ be
refracted ray and ‘RS’ S’ be emergent ray.
The angle between incidcident ray and emergent ray is called anglele o
of deviation
(d). Let QN and RN be theth normal drawn at the points Q and R

C›K = . = â c and ∠CK› = . = â c

The incident and d emergent ray meet at a point M
From figure, ∠C›K
Then total angleeo of deviation, . = . + .
. = (â c ¿ + (ââ c ) ; . = (â + â ¿ + ( + ¿ …………… …..(1)
QNR, ∠› = ∠K = 90K
In the quadrilateral AQN
Hence A + ∠›œK
›œK = 180K (or) A = 180K c ∠›œK …………… …… (2)
In ∆›œK, + + ∠›œK = 180K ; + = 180K c ∠›œK ›œK-----------(3)
From equation (2 (2) and (3) A = + …………… (4)
Put equation (4)) iin equation (1), . = (â + â ¿ c m …………… ……...(5)
Thus the angle of deviat
iation depends on,
(1) The angle
le of o incidence (â1)
(2) The angle
le of o the prism (A)
(3) The materi
erial of the prism (n)
(4) elength of the light ( # )
The wavele
Angle of minimum deviaeviation (D):
A graph is plot lotted between the angle of
incidence along x-axiss and
a angle of deviation along y-
axis. From the graph, as angle of incidence increases, the angle le of
o deviation
decreases, reaches a m minimum value and then continues to increa rease.
The minimum val value of angled of deviation is called angle
le of
o minimum
deviation (D).
At minimum deviation,, (1 (1) â + â (2) +
(3) Refracted ray ‘QR’ is parallel to the base ‘BC’ of the prism.
Refractive index of thee material
m of the prism (n):
deviation, â = â = â ; = =
At angle of minimum dev
â and values substitu titute in equation (4) and (5)
š
A = + = 2 (or (or) = ………….. (6)
and D = (â + â¿ c m = 2â c m (or) 2â = m + j
ž Ï
šÀ¶ P· 4·¶R X
â=
4·¶ } 4·¶R X
…. (7); Then
nbby Snell’s law, n = ;n= ž …
…………(8)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 157
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ANT IN PHYSICS

120. What is dispersion? ObtObtain the equation for dispersive power of a medium.
Dispersion:
Splitting of white
ite light into its
constituent colourss is called
dispersion.
The coloured ba band obtained
due to dispersion is calle
alled spectrum.
Dispersive power:
Dispersive power
wer (z) is the
ability of the materiall of the prism to
cause dispersion.
It is defined ass tthe ration of the angular dispersion forr the
th extreme
colours to the deviation n for any mean colour.
Let A be the angle
gle of prism and D be the angle of minimum um deviation,
ž Ï
4·¶RR X
4·¶RR X
ex of the material of the prism is n =
then the refractive index ž

If the angle of prism

pri is small of the order of 100,
the prism
ism is said to
be a small angle prism. When rays of light pass through such prism
isms,

angle prism and à be th

The angle of devia
viation also becomes small. If A be the angle
gle of a small
the the angle of minimum deviation then the
th refractive
ž â
4·¶R X
index n =
4·¶R X
ž ………
……… (1)

Since A and à are small, we may write, ‚âN R

šÀ ã šÀ ã
X R X
ž â
4·¶R
‚âN R X
š š X šÀ ã
R X ; Put this in equation (1) n = =
4·¶RR X
ž š
Nm = m + Ã (or) Ã = Nm c m
∴ Ã = (N c 1¿m ………… (2)

ÃÙ = (NÙ c 1¿m …………. (3)

Thus, angle of dev
deviation for Violet and Red light,

ÃÔ = (NÔ c 1¿m …………. (4)

The angular dispersionn iis given by, ÃÙ c ÃÔ = (NÙ c 1¿m c (NÔ c 1¿m
ÃÙ c ÃÔ = NÙ m c m c NÔ m + m
ÃÙ c ÃÔ = (NÙ c NÔ ¿ m …………. (5)
Let à be the angle
ive index, then à = (N c 1¿m …………. (6)
gle of deviation for mean ray (Yellow) and n be
b the
corresponding refractive
By definition, disp
ispersive power
x= ;x=
š¶•¬%¾ ¶·Eî}E·«¶
š¶•¬%¾} ãÜ ½ã (¶Ü ½ ¶ ¿ š
¾®¾¶ ¶®ª·¾á·«¶ ã
; (¶½ ¿š
z=
( ì½ Ñ¿
…
……………(7)
( ½"¿
Dispersive power
er is a dimensionless quantity. It has no unit. It is
always positive.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 158
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ANT IN PHYSICS

121. Prove laws of reflection

on using Huygens principle.

:¼ − Reflectingg surface,
Laws of reflection - Proo
roof:

mn −Incident plane waveave front.

The incident rays from L and M
are perpendicular tto this
incident wave front. Init
nitially the
point ‘A’ reaches reflecting
re
surface.
Then the suc successive
points between AB reachrea the
surface.
Finally, by the time B reachesn′,
rea the point A would have reached m′
m
This is applicable
ble to all the points on the wave front AB.AB Thus the
reflected wave front m′n n′ emanates as a plane wave front.
The line from *′ •N. C′′ perpendiculars to m′n represent reflecteded rays.
.As the reflection
on happens in the same medium, the spee eed of light is
same before and afterr re reflection. Hence, mm′ = nn′
Law (1):
The incident rays, the rereflected rays and the normal are in the ssame plane.
Law (2):
nce, ∠â = ∠œm* = 90K c ∠œmn = ∠nmn
ion, ∠ = ∠œ n C = 90K c œ n m = ∠m′′n′m
Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection
In ∆mnn •N. ∆n n′m′m, ∠n = ∠m = 90K ; mm = nn′ and
use mn′ is common
Hypotenuse
iangles are congruent. (i.e) ∠nmn = ∠m′n′m
Thus the two trian m
∴ ∠< = ∠
Hence laws of reflection
ref are proved.

122. Prove laws of refractionion using Huygens’ Principle.

Laws of refraction - Prooroof:
Let XY be the refr
efracting surface.
The inciden
ent wave front AB is in rarer medium (1)
The incident rays from rom L and M are
perpendicular to this incident
inc wave front.
Initially the point ‘A’’ rereaches refracting
surface.
Then the su successive points
between AB reaches the surface.
time B reaches n′,
Finally, by the tim
the point A would have ve reached m′ in the
other medium.
This is applicable
ble to all the points
on the wave front AB.. TThus the refracted
wave front m′n′ emanate
The line from *′ and C′ perpendiculars to m′n′ represent refracted
ates as a plane wave front.
ted rays.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 159
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Let ¤ be the spe

peed of light in medium (1) and ¤ be the speed
sp of light
in medium (2). Here ¤ >¤ . The time taken for the ray to o travel from
B to n is same as the
e time
ti aches m′ . So
taken for the ray to travel from A reac
mm′= ¤ ù and nn
nn′ = ¤ ù
,, ª
∴ = ……
………… (1)
šš ª
Law (1):
The incident rays
ays, refracted rays and the normal are in the same
plane.
Law (2):
Angle of incidence,
∠â = ∠œm* = 900 − ∠œmn = ∠nmn′

∠ = ∠œ n C = 90K c ∠œ n m = ∠m′n′m
Angle of refraction,

88• ª
4·¶ · Åž8•È ,, ª ÅÏ È ¶
From ∆mnn′ and ∆n m m
m; = = = = ª =
4·¶ } žž•
Åž8•È šš ª ÅÏ È ¶
In product form, N sin â = N ‚âN

123. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to interference of light.
Resultant intensity due
ue to interference:
Let S1 and S2 are the two light waves
meeting at a poin
oint ‘P’
At any instant nt ‘t’, the displacement

ä1 = •1 sin xù
equations,

ä2 = •2 sin (xù + ‘)
− − − − (1)

Where, ‘ → phase differ

− − − − (2)
fference between them

ä = ä1 + ä2
Then the resultan
ant displacement,

ä = •1 sin xù + •2 sin (xù + ‘)

By solving this, we get, ä = m ÓâN(xù + o¿ − − − − (3)
¾ ÝÎÏ å
Where, A = • + • + 2• • Ò2Óϕ and o = ù•N½ R X
¾ À¾ \«Eå

(1) When, ‘ = 0, ±2°,, ±±4, … …. .the resultant intensity becomess maximum.

m
Amax = (• + • ¿
(2) When, ‘ = ±°, ±3°,, ±5° … …. the resultant intensity becomeses minimum.
Amin = (• c • ¿
The intensity of light is directly proportional to the sququare of the
amplitude. ò ∝ m ; ò ∝ • + • + 2• • Ò2Óϕ
ò ∝ ò + ò + 2 ò ò Ò2Óϕ − − − − (4)
1) When, ‘ = 0, ±2°,, ±4,
± … …. .the resultant intensity becomess maximum.
m
structive interference. ò-¾ø ∝ (• + • ¿
This is called constr
ò-¾ø ∝ ò + ò + 2 ò ò − − − − (5)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 160
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(2) When, ‘ = ±°, ±3°,, ±5° … …. the resultant intensity becomes

es minimum.
(
tructive interference. ò-·¶ ∝ • c •
This is called destru ¿
ò-·¶ ∝ ò + ò c 2 ò ò − − − − (6)
Special case:
If • = • = •, th then resultant amplitude,
A = • + • + 2• Ò2Ó‘ ; A = 2• + 2• Ò2Ó‘

Ò2Ó‘¿ ; A = ¥2• R2 Ò2Ó Å ÈX

å
A = 2• (1 + Ò2Ó‘
‘
A = 2• Ò2Ó Å È − − − − (7)
2
If ò = ò = òK , the
then the resultant intensity, ò ∝ m ;
å å
ò ∝ 4• Ò2Ó Å È ; ò = 4 òK Ò2Ó Å È …………….. (8)
When, ‘ = 0, ±2°
°, ±4, … ….ò-¾ø = 4 ò0 and
‘ = ±°, ±3
±3°, ±5° … ….ò-·¶ = 0
Thus the phase se difference between the two waves decides
d the
intensity of light at the
eppoint, where the two waves meet.

124. Obtain the equation for Path difference and band width in Youn
oung’s double
slit experiment.
Path difference (æ) :
tween S1 •N.
Let distance betw
= ., Distance of the screen
from double slit = D, Wa
S2
Wavelength of
coherent light wave = #
Hence path difference
between the light wav aves from S1
•N. S2 to the point po ‘P’ is
à = ‚ Ì c ‚ Ì = Ó Ì c CÌ
= ‚ C
From the figure,
∠lßÌ = ∠‚ ‚ C = o
In ∆‚ ‚ C , ‚âN o = ; ∴ à = ‚âN o. .
E è ã
=
4 4
Here o is small. ‚âN o ù•N o o
à = o. . …
ll. Hence,
H
……………. (1)
^w ž
Also. in ∆lßÌ, o tan o = ^¢
=¶
ation (1) Ã = . --------------- (2)
ž
¶
Put this in equatio
Point ‘P’ may be appear either bright or dark dependingg on
o the path
difference.
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Condition for bright fring

ringe (maxima):

à = N#
For constructivee in
interference, the path difference will be,
[N = 0, 1, 2, … “
ž
. = N#
¶
Thus the distancece of the nth bright fringe from “O” is
ä¶ = N# --------------- (3)
¶

Condition for dark fringe

nge (minima):
For destructive in
interference, the path difference will be,
à = (2N c 1¿ [N = 1, 2, … “
Ð

ž Ð
¶
. = (2N c 1¿
Thus the distance of the nth dark fringe from “O” is ä¶ = (2N c 1¿
¶ Ð
1 ------ (4)
Band width (é) :
The band width th is defined as the distance between een any two

nges from ‘O’ is Û = ä¶À c ä¶

consecutive bright orr dark
d fringes. The distance between (n+1
+1)th and nth
consecutive bright fringe
Û = (N + 1¿# c N# ; Û = # ----------- (5)
¶ ¶ ¶

fringes from ‘O’ is Û = ä¶À c ä¶

Similarly the distance
dis between (n+1)th and nth Consec
secutive dark

Û=
¶ Ð ¶ Ð
•2(
• (N + 1¿ c 1“ c (2N c 1¿
Ò = > ê ------------ (6)
Î

Equation (5) andnd (6) shows that the bright and dark fringes
frin are of
same width equally spac
paced on either side of central bright fringe.

125. Obtain the equations fo for constructive and destructive interference

nce for
transmitted and reflectected waves in thin films.
Interference in thin film
ilms:
Consider a thin in film of transparent
material of refractive ind
index “ã” and thickness
“t”. A parallel beam of light
li is incident on the
film at an angle ‘â’
At upper surface
ace, the light wave is
divided in to two parts.
ts. One part is reflected
and other part is refracte
cted.
The refracted pa
part which enters in to
the film, again gets d divided at the lower
surface in two parts. On
One is transmitted and the other is reflected
ted back in to
the film. Here interferen
ence is produced by both the reflected and d ttransmitted
light.
Interference due to tran
ransmitted light:
If we approximate
ate the incidence to be nearly normal (â = 0),0 then the
points ‘B’ and ‘D’ are very
ve close to each other. The extra distance e travelled by
the wave transmitted at ‘D’ is (BC + CD). Hence the path differenc ence between
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 162
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à = ã (nß + ßj)) = ã (. + .)
the waves transmitted
d from
fr ‘B’ and ‘D’ is

æ=!>>
interference in transmitted ray is, Ã = N #
− − − (1)

(2 ) ! > = ê − − − (2)
(1) The condition forr constructive
c

(2) The condition fo for destructive interference in transmitt itted ray is,
æ = (2N c 1¿ (2 ! > > = (2N c 1¿ ……………..(3)
Ð Ð
2 ) .(3)
Interference due to refle
eflected light:
When light trave
velling in a rarer medium and getting refl
eflected by a
denser medium, underg rgoes a phase change of °.
Ð
Hence an additio
itional path difference of is introduced.
Again for normal incide
idence (â = 0), the points ‘A’ and ‘C’ are ve
very close to
each other. The extra dis
distance travelled by the wave coming outt from
fr ‘C’
is (mn + nß) . Hence th
and ‘C’ is à = ã (mn + nß)
the path difference between the waves refl
eflected at ‘A’
n = ã (. + .) = 2 ã .
Ð
Since additional
al p
path difference is introduced due to refl
eflection at A,
ce, æ = ! > > + ……………..(4)
Ð
the total path difference
1) The condition ra is à = N #
n ffor constructive interference in reflected ray
(or) ! > > + = N # (or¿ ! > > = (2N c 1¿ …………
Ð Ð
……..(5)
2) The condition
n ffor destructive interference in reflected ray is,
æ = (2N + 1¿ (or) ! > > + = (2N + 1¿ (or)
Ð Ð #

! > > = N # ………………(6)

2

Equation (5) andnd (6) shows that the bright and dark fringes
frin are of
same width equally spac
paced on either side of central bright fringe

126. Discuss diffraction at single

sin slit and obtain the condition for nth minimum.
m
Diffraction at single slit:
lit:
Let a parallel bea
eam of light
fall normally on a singlngle slit AB.
The centre of the slit lit is C . A
straight line throu
rough ‘C’
perpendicular to the plane
pla of slit

‘O’ .Let ä be the distan

meets the centre of the e screen at
tance of of
point ‘P’ from ‘O’. The T lines
joining ‘P’ to the differerent points on the slit can be treated as pa parallel lines,
making and angle o with ith the normal ‘CO’.
All the parallel wa
waves from different points on the slits get et interfere at
‘P’ to give resultant inten
tensity.
Condition for minima:
To explain minim imum intensity, divide the slit in to even n number of
parts.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 163
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(1) Condition for P to be first minimum:

¾
Let us divide thee sslit AB in to two half’s each of width
The various points
ints on the slit which are separated by the sa
same
¾
width Å È called Corresponding
C points.
The path differen
ence of light waves from different correspon
onding points
meeting at point P. Ã = ÓâNo.
¾

¾ Ð
or P to be first minimum, ÓâNo = (or) • ÓâNo = #
The condition for
(2) Condition for P to be second minimum
Let us divide the
he slit AB into four equal parts. Now, the width
wid of each
¾
part is . Here varies co
corresponding points on the slit which are separated
se by
¾
the same widthÅ È.
The path differen
ence of light waves from different correspon
onding points
¾
meeting at “P” = ÓâNo
ÓâNo.
¾ Ð
or P to be first minimum, ÓâNo = (or) • ÓâNo = 2#
The condition for
(3) Condition for P to be nth minimum:
¾
Let us divide the
e sslit AB in to 2n equal parts of width
or P to be nth minimum (2 ) , qrs t = ê
¶
The condition for
Condition for maxaxima:
To explain maximximum intensity, divide the slit in to odd d number of
parts. For first maximumum, the slit is divided in to three equal parts
pa each of
¾ Ð Ð
width Å È. Hence ÓâNo = (or) • ÓâNo = 3
¾
O O
For second maxim
ximum, the slit is divided in to five equal parts
pa each of
width Å È. Hence ÓâNo = (or) • ÓâNo = 5
¾ ¾ Ð Ð
ë ë
In general, for nth first maximum, the slit is divided in to (2
(2n+1) equal
¾ ¾ Ð Ð
parts each of width Å È. Hence ÓâNo = (or) • ÓâNo = (2N + 1¿
¶À
À ¶À

127. Discuss the diffractionion at a grating and obtain the conditio ition for mth
maximum.
Diffraction in grating:
Let ‘AB’ represent the t plane
transmission grating.
It has number of slits of equall width
wi (•) and
equal number of opaque ruling lings of equal
width (…). Let a plane waveform wa of
monochromatic light of wavelen length ‘#’ be
incident normally on the grating ng. As the slit
size is comparable to that off wavelength,
w
the incident light diffracts at the e grating.
Using convex lensns, the diffracted waves are focused on the he screen.
Consider a point ‘P’ on the screen, at an angle ‘o ‘with the normal nor drawn
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 164
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from the centre of the grating

g to the screen. The path difference
e (Ã)
( between

à = (• + …) sin o
the diffracted waves from rom one pair of corresponding points is,

ight, when à = ¦ #
Hence, (, + ƒ) qqrs t = " ê
The point ‘P’ will be brigh [¦ = 0,1,2,3 … ]
− − − − (1)
Where ¦ → order er of diffraction

When, (• + …) sin
(1) Condition for zeroero order maximum:
in o = 0, then, o = 0 ; ¦ = 0 It is zero order
der diffraction
or central maximu mum

When, (• + …) sin
(2) Condition for first
irst order maximum:
in o1 = #, then, o = o1 ; ¦ = 1
It is first order diff
diffraction

When,(• + …) sin
(3) Condition for seco econd order maximum:
in o2 = 2#, then,o = o2 ; ¦ = 2.
It is second order er diffraction

(• + …) sin o = ¦ #
(4) Condition for high igher order maxima:

If ‘N’ be the numb mber of rulings drawn per unit width (1 m),, then
th ,
œ • + œ … = 1 (2 ) œ (• + …) = 1 ; • + … =
3
∴
3
sin o = ¦# (2 ) qrs t = S " ê − − − − − (!)

128. Discuss the experimen ent to determine the wavelength of mon onochromatic
light using diffraction grating.
gr
Experiment to determin ine wavelength of light:
The wavelen ength of a
spectral line can an be very
accurately determineined with help
of a diffraction gra rating and a
spectrometer. Let et all the
preliminary adjustm stments are
made on the spectro trometer. The
slit of the spectr ctrometer is
illuminated by a monoch chromatic light, whose wavelength to be determined.
det
The telescope is brought in line with collimator to view ew the direct
image of the slit. The e ggiven transmission grating is then moun unted on the
prism table with its plan
lane perpendicular to the incident beam off light li coming
from collimator.
The telescope is tturn to one side until the first order diffracraction image
of the slit coincides with
ith the vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
The reading of the position of the telescope is noted. Simila ilarly the first
order diffraction imagege on the other side is made to coincide with w vertical
cross wire and correspon
ponding reading is noted.
The difference bebetween two positions gives 2 o
Half of its value ggives o, the diffraction angle for first order
er maximum.
m
4·¶ ”
of light is calculated from, # =
3-
The wavelength o
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129. Discuss the experimen ent to determine the wavelength of differe ferent colours
using diffraction grating
ing.
Determination of wavele
velength of different colours :
White light is a composite te light which
contains all wavlengths from violeolet to red in
visible region. When white light is used, the
diffraction pattern consists of a white
wh central
maximum and on both sidess continuous
coloured diffraction patterns are formed.
for
The central maximum is whit hite as all the
colours meet here constructivel vely with no
phase difference. It produces a spectrum
s of
diffraction pattern from violet to red
re on either
side of central maximum.
By measuring the angle (t) at which these colours appear ar for various
order (m) of diffractiotion, the wavelength of different colours urs could be
4·¶ ”
ormula, # =
3-
calculated using the form
Where, S → number of rulings
r drawn per unit width of grating

130. Explain about compo pound microscope and obtain the equation eq for
magnification.
Compound microscope: pe:
The lens near th the object
is called the objective,e, forms a
real, inverted, magnifie
ified image
of the object. This serve
rves as the
object for the second lelens which
is the eyepiece. Eye piec
iece serves
as a simple microsco scope that
produces finally an enlalarged and
virtual image.
The first inverte
rted image
formed by the objectiveive is to be
adjusted close to, butt within
w the focal plane of the eyepiece, so that
th the final
image is formed nearly ly a
at infinity or at the near point.
The final image is inverted with respect to the original objec
ject.

Magnification (m) :
From the ray diag
iagram, the linear magnification due to the objective
ob is,
-• ¹
¦K = =
- Š
……………… (1)
Here ‘L’ is the dis
distance between the first focal point of thee eye
e piece to
the second focal pointt of
o the objective. This is called the tube leng
ngth.
¶
ion of the eyepiece, ¦® = 1 +
Šº
The magnification ………………
… (2)
The total magnific
ification ‘m’ in near point focusing,
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* j
¦ = ¦K ¦® = ] ^ ]1 + ^
{0 {§
If the final ima
mage is formed at infinity (normal focu
ocusing), the
¶
iece is, ¦® =
Šº
magnification if eye piec ……………… (3)
The total magnific
ification ‘m’ in normal focusing is,
* j
¦ = ¦K ¦® = ] ^ ] ^
{0 {§

131. Discuss about astronomomical telescope.

Astronomical telescopepe:
An astronom
nomical
telescope is used to geget the
magnification of di distant
astronomical objects ts like
stars, planets. The im image
formed by this will ill be
inverted. It has an obje
bjective
of long focal length and a a
much larger aperture re than
eye piece. Light from a
distant object enters rs the
objective and a real ima age is formed in the tube at its second foca
cal point.
The eye piece ma agnifies this image producing a final inverte
rted image.

ion ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle Û subtended

Magnification (m) :
The magnification ed at the eye
by the final image to the angle ü which the object subtends at thehe lens or the
Ñ
eye. ¦ =
þ
Q
RÐ X
º Š
From figure, ¦ = Q ¦=
Šº
;
RÐ X
he telescope is approximately, * = {K + {®
The length of the
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 167
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132. Explain the expe xperimental determination of mat

aterial of the
prism using spectromet eter. Determination of refractive index:
The preliminary ry adjustments of the telescope, collimato ator and the
prism table of the spec pectrometer are made. The refractive index ex (ã) of the
prism is determined by knowing the angle of the prism (A) and d the
t angle of
minimum deviation (D)
(1) Angle of the prism (A (A):
The prism is plaplaced on the prism table
with its refracting edge e ffacing the collimator. The
slit is illuminated by so sodium light. The parallel
rays coming from the collimator
c fall on the two
faces AB and AC.
The telescope is rrotated to the position T1
until the image of the th slit formed by the
reflection at the face ce AB coincides with the
vertical cross wire o of the telescope. The
corresponding vernierr re readings are noted.
The telescope is tthen rotated to the position T2 where the e image
im of the
slit formed by the refleclection at the face AC coincides with the vertical
ve cross
wire of the telescope.
The correspondinding vernier readings are again noted. The he difference
between these two read adings gives the angle rotated by the telescscope, which
is twice the angle off the th prism. Half of this value gives the angle
a of the
prism (A)
(2) Angle of minimum deviation
d (D) :
The prism is placlaced on the prism
table, so that the light from the
collimator falls on a refrefracting face and
the refracted image iss observed
o through
the telescope.
The prism table e is now rotated, so
that the angle of deviat iation decreases. A
stage comes when the e iimage stops for a
moment and if we rotat tate the prism table further in the same direction,
di the
image is seen to recede de and the angle of deviation increases.
The vertical crossss wire of telescope is made to coincide with
ith the image
of the slit, where it turns
rns back. This gives the minimum deviation n position.
p
The vernier readin
dings corresponding to this position is noted
ed.
Now the prism is remov oved and the telescope is turned to receiveive the direct
ray and the vernier read adings are again noted.
The difference be between the two readings gives the angle eo of minimum
deviation (D)
Refractive index (>) off thet prism:
The refractive ind
ndex of the material of the prism is calculate
ated using the
ž Ï
4·¶ Å È
formula, ã =
4·¶ Å È
ž
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 168
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UNIT - VII (DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER)

TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Why do metals have a large number of free electrons?
In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to
the nucleus. Even at room temperature, due to thermal agitation the loosely
bounded electrons are detached from their orbit and free to move inside the
metal in a random manner. This is the reason for large number of free
electrons in the metal.

2. Define surface barrier.

The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the
metallic surface is called surface barrier. It is created by the positive nuclei
of the metal.

3. Define electron emission.

The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called
electron emission. The material with small work function is more effective in
electron emission.

4. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.

surface is called work function of that metal. It is denoted by ϕK . Its unit is

The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal

electron volt (eV).

5. Define electron volt (eV)

One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by a electron
when accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J

6. What is photo electric effect?

The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light
or any other electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength or frequency is
called photo electric effect. The ejected electrons are called as photo
electrons and the corresponding current is called photo electric current.

7. What are called photo sensitive materials?

The materials which eject photoelectrons upon irradiation of
electromagnetic wave of suitable wavelength are called photosensitive
materials. (e.g.) Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc and Alkali metals
like lithium, sodium, cesium

8. How does photo electric current vary with the intensity of the incident light?
Variation of photo current with intensity:
Keeping the frequency (ì ) and acceleration potential (V) as constant,
the intensity of incident light is varied and the corresponding photo electric
current is measured. A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis and the
photo current along Y-axis.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 169
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From the graph, the photo current (i.e) the number of electrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

9. Define stopping potential.

The negative or retarding potential given to collecting electrode which
is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and make
the photo current zero is called stopping potential or cut - off potential.

10. Define threshold frequency.

For a giver surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only if
the frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency
called threshold frequency.

11. State the laws of photo electric effect.

Laws of photo electric effect :
For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons
emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The
saturation current is also directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light. Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of
intensity of the incident light.
Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.
For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the
frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency
called the threshold frequency. There is no time lag between incidence of
light and ejection of photoelectrons.

12. Explain why? photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of wave
nature of light.
Failures of classical wave theory:
According to wave theory, light of greater intensity should impart
greater kinetic energy to the liberated electrons. But the experiments show
that maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on the
intensity of the incident light.
According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense beam of light is
incident on the surface, electrons will be liberated from the surface of the
target, however low the frequency of the radiation is.
But photoelectric emission is not possible below a certain minimum
frequency called threshold frequency. Since the energy of light is spread
across the wave front, each electron needs considerable amount of time (a
few hours) to get energy sufficient to overcome the work function and to get
liberated from the surface. But experiments show that photoelectric
emission is almost instantaneous process.
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13. Explain the concept of quantization of energy.

Quantization of energy:
Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900 in order to explain
the block body radiations. According to Planck, matter is composed of a large
number of oscillating particles (atoms) which vibrate with different
frequencies. Each atomic oscillator which vibrates with its characteristic
frequency emits or absorbs electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
(i) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its energy can have only

/¶ = N ℎ í [N = 1,2,3, … . ]
certain discrete values,

where h → Planck’s constant.

the energy of each quantum is / = ℎ í

(ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small packets or quanta and

This implies that the energy of the oscillator is quantized and not
continuous this is called quantization of energy.

14. Explain Einstein’s explanation for the particle nature (quanta) of light
Particle nature of light - Einstein’s explanation:
According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wave
fronts but is concentrated in small packets or energy quanta. Therefore, light

The energy of each light quantum; / = ℎ í

of frequency v from any source can be considered as a stream of quanta

-ª
The linear momentum of quanta is ; + =
\
The individual light quantum of definite energy and momentum can be
associated with a particle. The light quantum can behave as a particle and
this is called photon.

15. Define intensity of light according to the quantum concept.

According to quantum concept, the intensity of light of given
wavelength is defined as the number of energy quanta or photons incident
per unit area per unit time with photon having same energy.
The unit is Wm-2

16. What is the nature of light?

The light possesses dual nature that of both wave and particle.
Light behaves as a wave during its propagation and behaves as a particle
during its interaction with matter.

17. What is photo electric cell? Give its type.

The device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called
photo electric cell or simply photo cell.
It works on the principle of photo electric cell
Photo cells are classified in to three types.
(1) Photo emissive cell (2) Photo voltaic cell (3) Photo conductive cell
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18. What is De Broglie hypothesis?

Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation
like light can act as particles at times, then matter particles like electrons
should also act as waves at times. According to de Broglie hypothesis, all
matter particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in motion are associated
with waves. These waves are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.

19. What is called matter waves or de Broglie waves?

The waves associated with matter particles like electrons in motion is
called matter waves or de Broglie waves.

20. Derive the expression of de Broglie wavelength.

De Broglie wavelength:
The momentum of photon of frequency ′í′ is,
D -ª -
+ = \
= \
= Ð [c = #¤“
According to de Broglie, this equation is applicable to matter particle
also. Let ‘m’ be the mass and ‘ö’ be the velocity of the particle, then the
- -
wavelength. # = =Ã
-ª
This wavelength of the matter waves is known as de Broglie
wavelength.

21. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a
charged particle of charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, when it is accelerated through
a potential V.
- -
De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ , # = =
-ª - $Ù

22. Why we do not see the wave properties of a baseball?

-
The de Broglie wavelength of matter is ; # =
-ª
Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass
Since the mass of base ball is too large as compared with the electron, the
de Broglie wavelength of base ball is negligibly small. So we do not see the
wave property of the baseball.

23. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater
de Broglie wavelength. Justify.
-
De Broglie wavelength of proton ; #Ã =
-Ê î
-
De Broglie wavelength of electron; #® =
-º î
Here the mass of the proton is greater than the mass of the electron
(¦Ã À ¦® ¿
Hence the de Broglie wavelength of electron is greater than that of proton
(#® À #Ã ¿
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 172
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24. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ associated with a particle

of mass m in terms of its kinetic energy K.
- -
De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ , # = =
-ª - $Ù
-
Since, q V = K (kinetic energy), we have # =
√ -î

25. Name an experiment which shows wave nature of the electron. Which
phenomenon was observed in this experiment using an electron beam?
The wave nature of electron (i.e) de Broglie hypothesis of matter
waves was experimentally confirmed by Davisson and Germer experiment.
Diffraction is the important property of waves. So in this experiment,
diffraction of electron beam was observed when they fall on crystalline
solids.
26. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How are the
de-Broglie wavelengths associated with them related?
-
De- Broglie wavelength of electron beam, #® =
-º î
-
De- Broglie wavelength of alpha particle, #þ =
-ï î

= ¥ -ï
к -
∴
Ðï º

27. What are called X - rays? Why are they so called?

X - rays are invisible, electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength
ranging from 0.1 Å to 100 Å
When a fast moving electrons strike a metal target of high atomic
weight, X - rays are produced.
At the time of discovery, the origin of this highly penetrating ray were
not known. So they were called as X - rays.

28. List the properties of X - rays.

Properties of X - rays:
They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
They are not deflected both by electric and magnetic field
X - ray photons are highly energetic
They pass through materials which are opaque to visible light.

29. What factor does the quality and intensity of X - rays were depends?
The quality of X - rays is measured in terms of its penetrating power
which depends on the velocity of the striking electron and the atomic number
of target material. The intensity of X - rays is depends on the number of
electrons striking the target.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 173
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30. Write a note on the prod

roduction of X - rays.
Production of X - rays:
X - Rays are produ
duced in a Coolidge tube which is a discharg
arge tube.
Here a tungsten filame ent ‘F’ is heated by
L.T, so that electronss a are emitted from it
by thermionic emission ion. These electrons
are accelerated to veryry high speeds by H.T
. The target material ial like tungsten is
embedded in the face ace of solid copper
anode.
When high spee eed electrons strike
the target, they are dececelerated suddenly and lose their kineticc energy.
e As a
result, X -ray photons are produced.
The face of targe
rget is inclined at particular angle, so thatt the
t X - rays
can leave the tube through
thr its side. Since most of the kinetictic energy of
electrons get converteded in to heat, the target made of high meltin
ting point and
a cooling system are usu
usually employed.

31. What is X -ray spectra?

a? Give its types.
The intensity of th
the X-rays when plotted against its wavelen
length gives a
curve called X - ray spec
ectrum.
X - ray spectrum consists
c of two parts, namely
(1) Continuous X -ray
ray spectrum
(2) Characteristic X - ray spectrum

32. Write a note on continuonuous X - ray spectrum.

Continuous X - ray spectectrum:
When a fast moving
mo electron penetrates and approache
ches a target
nucleus, it get accelerat
rates or decelerates
It may results in a changnge of path of the electron.
The radiation produced ced from such decelerating electron is called
ca Brims
strolling or braking radia
diation.
The energy of the emitted photon (radiation) is equal to the loss of
kinetic energy of the el electron. So the photons are emitted with
th all possible
energies or frequencies.es.
The continuouss X -ray spectrum is due to such radiations
ons. When an
electron gives up alll it its energy, then the photon is emitted with
w highest
frequency (¤K ) or lowestst wavelength (#K )
tic energy of an electron = eV where, V → accelerating
The initial kinetic a
voltage. Thus §¤ = ℎ¤K = ℎ (or)
\
Ð
Å
-\ KK
#K = ®Ù = Ù
This relation is kn
known as Duane - Hunt formula.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 174
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33. Write a note on charactacteristic X - ray spectra.

Characteristic X - ray sp
spectra:
When the target
et is hit by fast electrons, the obtained X - ray spectra
shows some narrow peaks p at some
well-defined wavelength th.
The line spectrum
um showing these
peaks is called charac racteristic X - ray
spectrum. This X -ray spspectrum is due to
the electronic transitisitions within the
atoms. For example, wh when an energetic
electron penetrates in to the target
atom and removes the he electrons in K -
shell and create a vacan ancy in it.
So the electrons from outer
o orbits jump
to fill up the vacancy in K - shell.
During the down
wnward transition,
the energy difference ce between the
levels is given out in the form of X - ray
photon of definite wavel
velength.
Such wavelength ths, characteristic
of the target, const nstitute the line
spectrum. It is evidentt tthat K - series of
lines in the X - ray spectr
ctrum arise due to
the electronic transition
ions from L, M. N,
O, …..shells to K - shell.
Similarly L - series
se originates due to electronic trans
ansition from
M, N, O, ……… shells to o L - shell.

34. Explain the applicationsns of X -rays.

(1) Medical diagnosis
osis:
X - Rays can passss through flesh more easily than throughh bones.
b Thus
X -ray radiograph contai
taining a deep shadow of the bones and a light
li shadow
of flesh. So X -rays radio
diographs are used to detect fractures, fore
oreign bodies,
diseased organs etc.,
(2) Medical therapy:y:
X - ray can killl d
diseased tissues. So they are employed to cure skin
diseases, malignant tumtumours etc.,
(3) Industry:
They are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motorr tyres,
ty tennis
balls and wood, At th the custom post, they are used for detection
de of
contraband goods.
(4) Scientific Researc
arch:
X - ray diffractio
tion is important tool to study the struct
ucture of the
crystalline materials (i.e)
(i. the arrangement of atoms and molecules
mo in
crystals.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 175
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FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

35. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain briefly various methods of
electron emission.
Electron emission:
The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called
electron emission. The minimum energy needed to liberate the electrons
from the metal surface is called work function of that metal. Depending upon
the energy source, the electron emission is classified as four types which are
explained below.
(1) Thermionic emission:
When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the free electrons on
the surface get sufficient energy in the form of heat, so that they are emitted
from the metallic surface. This type of emission is known as thermionic
emission. The intensity of the thermionic emission depends on the metal
used and its temperature. (e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes
(2) Field emission:
When a very strong electric field is applied across the metal, this
strong field pulls the free electrons and helps to overcome the surface
barrier of the metal. This type of emission of electron is called field emission.
(e.g.) Field emission display
(3) Photo electric emission:
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency is incident
on the surface of the metal, the energy is transferred from the radiation to
free electrons. Hence the free electrons gets sufficient energy to cross the
surface barrier and this type is called photo electric emission.
(e.g.) photo electric cells, photo diodes
(4) Secondary emission:
When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the surface of the
metal, the kinetic energy is transferred to the free electrons on the metal
surface called secondary emission. (e.g.) Photo multiplier tube.

36. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz, Hallwachs and Lenard.

Hertz experiment:
Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and detecting the existence of
electromagnetic waves. He used high voltage induction coil to cause a spark
discharge between two metallic spheres. When spark is formed, the charges
will oscillate back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic waves are
produced.
To detect this electromagnetic waves, a copper wire bent in the shape
of a circle is used as detector.
Hallwachs’s experiment:
In Hertz experiment, in order to improve the visibility of the spark, it is
exposed to ultra violet rays which make the spark as more vigorous.
Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange behaviour of the spark
is due to the photo electric emission under the action of ultra violet light.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 176
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ANT IN PHYSICS

In Hallwachs experiment,
exp a
clean circular plate o of zinc is
mounted in insulating g stand
s and is
attached to a gold leaff e
electroscope
by a wire. When unch charged zinc
plate is irradiated by ultraviolet
light, it becomes positive
tively charged
and the leaves are open
pen as shown
in figure (a)
If negatively cha
harged zinc plate is exposed to ultraviole olet light, the
leaves will close as thee ccharges leaked away quickly as shown in n figure
f (b)
If positively charged pla
plate is exposed to uv-light, it becomes moremo positive
and the leaves are open o further as shown in figure (c) from these
observations, it was cconcluded that negatively charged elec lectrons were
emitted from the zinc plaplate under the action of UV - light.
Lenard experiment:
A and C are two om metallic plates placed
in an evacuated quartz tz bulb.
b
Galvanometer G and battery
ba B are connected
in the circuit. When UV - light is incident on
plate C, and electric cur
current flows in a circuit
which is indicated byy tthe deflection in the
galvanometer. But if the plate A is irradiated
by UV - light, no currenrent is observed in the
circuit. From these observations,
ob it is
concluded that when n uv- light falls on the
negative plate C, electrctrons are ejected from it, which are attrac racted by the
positive plate A. Hence ce the circuit is completed and the current nt flows in it.
Thus the UV - light fallin
lling on the negative plate causes the electro tron emission
from the surface of the epplate.

37. Explain the experimenta

ntal set up for study of photo electric effect
Experiment for study of photo electric effect:
S is the ssource of
electromagnetictic wave of
frequency ‘í’ andan intensity
‘I’. C is the cath
athode made
up of photo to sensitive
material and iss used
u to emit
electrons. A is the anode
which collects thet emitted
electrons A and an C are
placed in an n evacuated
glass envelope with a qquartz window that permits UV -light and d visible
v light.
PQ is a potential divide
ider arrangement which is connected throu ough a key K
and battery B.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 177
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The voltmeter ‘V’ and micro ammeter ‘ãA’ also included in this circuit.
If there is no light incide
ident on the cathode C, no photoelectronss a are emitted
and the micro ammeter ter reads zero. When UV - light or visible ligh
ight is allowed
to fall on C, the photo oto electrons are emitted and are attracte cted towards
anode. As a result, the ep photo electric current is set up in the circ
ircuit which is
measured using micro o ammeter.
a
The photo electric curre ent depends following quantities,
(1) The intensi
nsity of incident light
(2) The potent ntialdifference between the electrodes
(3) The nature re of the material
(4) Frequency cy of incident light

38. Explain the effect of potential

pot difference on photo electric current
ent.
Effect of potential differ
ference on photoelectric current:
Let the frequencycy and intensity of the incident light are kept
ept constant.
Now, the potential of A is increased and the
corresponding photoc tocurrent is noted.
Similarly, a negative (re(retarding) potential is
applied to A and again in the photocurrent is
noted. Plot a graph ph by taking anode
potential along x -axis and
photo current along y - a axis
From the graph,
(1) When the potential al o of A increases, the
photo current also increases
in and
ion value called
reaches a saturation
saturation current.
(2) When a negative potential
pot is applied to A, the photo current do
does not
immediately drop to zero, because the photo electrons are emittedem wity
some definite and d different
d kinetic energies.
(3) If the negative or ret
retarding potential of A gradually increased,d, the photo
current starts decre reasing and becomes zero at one particular ar negative
potential ¤K
(4) The value of negativtive or retarding potential give to anode A which
wh is just
sufficient to stop the most energetic photo electrons emitted d and
a make
the photo current zero
ze is called stopping potential or cut - offff p
potential
(¤K )
(5) Here the initial kine
inetic energy of the fastest electron (0 is equ
qual to the
stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.) §¤K = ¦¤
work done by the st ¦ -¾ø

(or) ¤-¾ø = ¥
®ª
= 5.93 x 105 ¤K
-
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 178
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ANT IN PHYSICS

39. Explain how frequencyy o of incident light varies with stopping poten
tential.
Effect of frequency on n photoelectric
p current:
Let the intensity
sity of incident
light is kept constant. The variation
of photo current with ith the Anode
potential is studied for different
incident frequencies. A graph is
plotted by taking ano node potential
along x - axis and p photo current
along y - axis.
From the graph,
(1) Stopping potenti ntial vary over
different frequenc
encies of incident light.
(i.e) Greater thee fr
frequency, larger the stopping potential
(2) Thus as the frequ quency is increased, the photoelectrons are re emitted
with greater kine
netic energies so that the retarding potentiatial needed to
stop the photoeleelectrons is also greater.
Variation of stopping potential
po with frequency:
From the graph,
(1) The stopping potential
po varies linearly
with frequency.
(2) Below a particu ticular frequency called
threshold freque uency (¤K ), no electrons
are emitted.
(3) Hence at thres
reshold frequency
stopping potenti ntial is zero for that
reason.

40. List out the laws of phot

hotoelectric effect.
Laws of photoelectric ef effect:
For a given frequ
quency of incident light, the number of pho hotoelectrons
emitted is directly prop
roportional to the intensity of the incidentent light. The
saturation current is also
al directly proportional to the intensity ity of incident
light.
Maximum kinetic tic energy of the photo electrons is inde dependent of
intensity of the incident
nt light. Maximum kinetic energy of the phot
hoto electrons
from a given metal is dir
directly proportional to the frequency of inci
ncident light.
For a given surfac
face, the emission of photo electrons takess place
p only if
the frequency of inciden
dent light is greater than a certain minimum um frequency
called the threshold frequency.
fre There is no time lag between incidence
in of
light and ejection off photoelectrons. (i.e.) photo electric effect ef is an
instantaneous process
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 179
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ANT IN PHYSICS

41. Explain the particle natu

ature of light. List the characteristics of phot
hotons.
Particle nature of light:
According to Eins
instein, the energy in light is not spread out over wave

ach light quantum is ; / = ℎ í

fronts, but is concentrat
rated in small packets or energy quanta.
The energy of eac
The individual ligh
light quantum of definite energy and momen entum can be
associated with a particl
ticle and this is called photon.
Characteristics of photo
otons:
given by / = ℎ í =
-\
Each photon will have energy
en
Ð
The energy of a pphoton is determined by the frequency off the
th radiation
and not by its intensity.
ity. The photons travel with the velocity of light
l and its
- -\
momentum is given by, + = =
Ð Ð
Photons are eleclectrically neutral, and hence they are not
no deflected
knee electric and magn
gnetic fields. When photon interacts with
th matter, the
total energy, total linear
ar momentum and angular momentum are e cconserved.

42. Obtain Einstein’s photoe

toelectric equation with necessary explanati ation.
Einstein’s explanation
n ofo photoelectric equation:
When a photon n of energy ‘ℎí’ is incident on a metal surface,
su it is
completely absorbed by a single electron and the electron is ejecte cted.
In this process,, th
the energy of incident photon is utilized in two ways.
(1) Part of the
th photon energy is used for the eject ection of the
electrons from the meta tal surface and it is called work function (‘K )
(2) Remaining
ng energy as the kinetic energy (K) off tthe ejected

conservation of energy, ℎ¤ = ‘K + ‹ (or)

electron.
From the law off co
ℎ¤ = ‘K + ¦¤ ……………….. (1)
Where m → mass ass of the electron and υ → velocity

‹ = 0 Thus equation (1) becomes

At threshold frequ
equency, the kinetic energy of ejected electr
ctrons will be
zero. (i.e.) when ¤ = ¤K then
ℎ¤K = ‘K …………
t
……….(2)
Put equation (2) in (1) ℎ¤ = ℎ¤K + ¦¤ ……………….. (3)
The equation (3) is known as
Einstein’s photoelectric
ic equation.
If the electron doe
does not lose energy by

ergy Kmax. Then ℎ¤ =

internal collisions, then
en it is emitted with
maximum kinetic energ
ℎ¤K + R ¦¤2 X
1
2 -¾ø
(or) ¦¤-¾ø = ℎ¤ ℎ c ℎ¤K (or) ‹-¾ø =
ℎ¤ c ‘K ……………….. (4))
A graph betwee een maximum kinetic
energy Kmax of the e photoelectron and
frequency ν of the incide
ident light is a straight line.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 180
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43. Explain experimentally observed facts of photoelectric effect with the help
Einstein’s explanation.
Explanation for photo electric effect:
As each photon liberates one electron, then the increase of intensity
of the light increases the number of electrons emitted there by increasing

From ñ",W = oö c ¦ , it is evident that Kmax is proportional to the

the photo current.

frequency of the light and is independent of intensity of the light.

From,oö = oö + "ö! ,there must be minimum energy (equal to the work
"
!
function of the metal) for incident photons to liberate electrons from the
metal surface.
Below which, emission of electrons is not possible. Correspondingly,
there exists minimum frequency called threshold frequency below which
there is no photoelectric emission.
According to quantum concept, the transfer of photon energy to the
electrons is instantaneous so that there is no time lag between incidence of
photons and ejection of electrons.

44. Explain photo electric cells and its types.

Photo electric cell:
Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts light energy
into electrical energy. It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
When light is incident on the photosensitive materials, their electric
properties will get affected, based on which photo cells are classified into
three types.
They are
(1) Photo emissive cell
(2) Photo voltaic cell
(3) Photo conductive cell
(1) Photo emissive cell:
Its working depends on the electron emission from a metal
cathode due to irradiation of light or other radiations.
(2) Photo voltaic cell:
Here sensitive element made of semiconductor is used which
generates voltage proportional to the intensity of light or other
radiations.
(3) Photo conductive cell:
In this, the resistance of the semiconductor changes in
accordance with the radiant energy incident on it.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 181
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45. Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.

Photo emissive cell:
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in which two metallic
electrodes a cathode and an anode are fixed. The
cathode C is semi- cylindrical in shape and is
coated with a photo sensitive material. The anode
A is a thin rod or wire kept along the axis of the
semi- cylindrical cathode.
A potential difference is applied between
the anode and the cathode through a
galvanometer G.
Working:
When cathode is illuminated, electrons are
emitted from it.
These electrons are attracted by anode and
hence a current is produced which is measured by
the galvanometer. For a given cathode, the
magnitude of the current depends on (1) the
intensity to incident radiation and (2) the potential
difference between anode and cathode.

46. Give the application of photo cells.

Applications of photo cells:
Photo cells have many applications especially as switches and
sensors. Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark use photocells, as
well as street lights that switch on and off according to whether it is night or
day.
Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
They are used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are used to measure the
intensity of the given light and to calculate the exact time of exposure.

47. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of electrons.

De Broglie wavelength of electrons:
An electron of mass m is accelerated through a potential difference of
V volt. The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given by ¦¤ = §¤

;¤=¥
®Ù ®Ù
Hence the speed of the electron is , ¤ = ………(1)
- -
- -
The de Broglie wavelength of electron is # = =
ºÜ
-¥ #
-ª

-
#=
√ -®Ù
……….……(2)
Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 JS. e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Å
. ò 5 KÖ . ò
∴ #= =
√Ù √Ù
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 182
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ANT IN PHYSICS

48. Describe briefly Daviss isson – Germer experiment which demons onstrated the
wave nature of electron ons.
Davisson - Gerner experperiment:
De Broglie hypo pothesis of matter
waves was experimenta ntally confirmed by
Clinton Davisson and d Lester
L Germer in
1927. They demonstra trated that electron
beams are diffracted w when they fall on
crystalline solids. Since
ce crystal can act as
a three-dimensional d diffraction grating
for matter waves, the he electron waves
incident on crystals are diffracted off in
certain specific direction
ions.
The filament F is heated by a low
tension (L.T.) battery so s that electrons
are emitted from the e hot filament by
thermionic emission. They are then
accelerated due to the potential
difference between the he filament and the
anode aluminium cylin ylinder by a high
tension (H.T.) battery.
Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium diaphragms
d
and is allowed to strikeke a single crystal of Nickel. The electronss scattered
s by
Ni atoms in different directions
di are received by the electron dete
etector which
measures the intensity ity of
o scattered electron beam.
The detector is ro at the angle o
rotatable in the plane of the paper so that
between the incident be beam and the scattered beam can be chan hanged at our
will. The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured as a function
of the angle θ.
The graph showsws the variation of intensity of
the scattered electrons ns with the angle θ for the
accelerating voltage e of 54V. For a given
accelerating voltage V,, tthe scattered wave shows a
peak or maximum at an angle of 500 to the
incident electron beam am. This peak in intensity is
attributed to the con constructive interference of
electrons diffracted fromrom various atomic layers of
the target material.
From the known own value of inter planar spacing off Nickel, N the
wavelength of the elec lectron wave has been experimentally calculated
ca as
1.65Å. The wavelength th can also be calculated from de Broglie lie relation for
V = 54 V as ê = Å= Å = 1.67 Å
"!.!ó "!.!ó
√ì √ôˆ
This value agrees
es well with the experimentally observed wavelength
wa of
1.65Å. Thus this experi
eriment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypoth
othesis of the
wave nature of movingg particles.
p
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 183
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ANT IN PHYSICS

49. Briefly explain the princ

inciple and working of electron microscope.
Electron microscope:
Principle:
The wave natur ture of the
electron is usedd in the
construction of microsc scope called
electron microscope. ThThe resolving
power of a microscope e iis inversely
proportional to the wav avelength of
the radiation used. Th Thus higher
resolving power can be obtained
by employing the waves es of shorter
wavelengths.
De Broglie wave avelength of
electron is very much less
le than (a
few thousands less) that th of the
visible light. As a result,
r the
microscopes employing ng de Broglie
waves of electrons have very
much higher resolvingg p power than
optical microscope. Electron
microscopes giving ma magnification
more than 2, 00,000 times are
common in research lab laboratories.
Working:
The construction n and working of an electron microscope e iis similar to
that of an optical micros
roscope except that in electron microscope pe focusing of
electron beam is done eb by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
The electron beaeam passing across a suitably arranged eit either electric
or magnetic fields undedergoes divergence or convergence thereby by focusing of
the beam is done
The electrons em emitted from the source are accelerate ated by high
potentials. The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens ns.
When the beam m passes through the sample whose magn gnified image
is needed, the beam ccarries the image of the sample. With h the
t help of
magnetic objective lensns and magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen. These electron microscopes are re being used
in almost all branchess oof science.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 184
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UNIT - VIII (ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS)

TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are called cathode rays?

When the pressure is about 0.01 mm of Hg, positive column
disappears and a dark space is formed between anode and cathode which is
called Crooke’s dark space. At this time the walls of the tube appear with
green colour and some invisible rays emanate from cathode called cathode
rays, which are later found be a beam of electrons.

2. Give the properties of cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays:
Cathode rays possess energy and momentum
They travel in a straight line with high speed of the order of 107m s-1.
It can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
The direction of deflection indicates that they are negatively charged
particles.
When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on matter, they produce heat.
They affect the photographic plates
They produce fluorescence
When the cathode rays fall on a material of high atomic weight, x-rays are
produced. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
The speed of cathode rays is up to Å Èth of the speed of light.
K

3. Define specific charge.

Charge per unit mass is called specific charge (or) mass-normalized
charge. Its unit is C Kg-1.

4. Write a note on Thomson’s atom model.

Thomson’s atom model:
According to J. J. Thomson’s atom model, the atoms are considered as
homogeneous spheres which contain uniform distribution of positively
charged particles. The negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like
seeds in water melon fruit.
The atoms are electrically neutral; this implies that the total positive
charge in an atom is equal to the total negative charge. This model could not
explain stability of atom and further, it fails to explain the origin of spectral
lines observed in the spectrum of hydrogen atom and other atoms.

5. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering experiment.

Results of alpha scattering experiment:
Most of the alpha particles are un-deflected through the gold foil and
went straight. Some of the alpha particles are deflected through a small
angle. A few alpha particles (one in thousands) are deflected through the
angle more than 900. Very few alpha particles returned back (back
scattered) –that is, deflected back by 1800.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 185
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6. What are the conclusions made by Rutherford from the results of alpha
scattering experiments?
Conclusion made in alpha scattering experiment: (Rutherford atom model)
Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot of empty space and
contains a tiny matter known as nucleus whose size is of the order of
10-14 m. The nucleus is positively charged and most of the mass of the atom
is concentrated in nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
Since static charge distribution cannot be in a stable equilibrium, he
suggested that the electrons are not at rest and they revolve around the
nucleus in circular orbits like planets revolving around the sun.

7. What is distance of closest approach? Obtain expression for it.

Definition:
The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the
alpha particle just before it gets reflected back through 1800 is defined as
the distance of closest approach (or) contact distance .
Expression:
At this closest distance, all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle will
( ®¿(I®¿
be converted into electrostatic potential energy ¦¤K =
ƒõ }
1 2 ÷§2 I®
=
4°ö0 Å1¦¤20 È
=
ƒõ
K ; K …………….(1)
Dø
2
Where EK → Kinetic energy of alpha particle.

8. Define impact parameter.

The impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance
between the centre of the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of
alpha particle when it is at a large distance.

9. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model?

(1) Stability of atom cannot be explained:
According to classical electrodynamics, any accelerated charge emits
electromagnetic radiations which a result loses in its energy.
Hence, it can no longer sustain the circular motion and the radius of the orbit
becomes smaller and smaller (undergoes spiral motion) and finally the
electron should fall into the nucleus and hence the atoms should
disintegrate. But this does not happen. Hence, Rutherford model could not
account for the stability of atoms.
(2) Line spectrum of atom could not explain:
According to this model, emission of radiation must be continuous and
must give continuous emission spectrum. But experimentally we observe
only line (discrete) emission spectrum for atoms.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 186
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10. State the postulates of Bohr’s atom model.

Postulate (1):
The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits under
the influence of Coulomb electrostatic force of attraction. This Coulomb force
gives necessary centripetal force for the electron to undergo circular motion.
Postulate (2):
Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain
discrete orbits called stationary orbits where it does not radiate
electromagnetic energy. The angular momentum (¥) of the electron in these
; ¥ = N = Nℏ
- -
stationary orbits are quantized (i.e.) integral multiple of
ƒ ƒ
Where n → principal quantum number. This condition is known as angular
momentum quantization condition.
Postulate (3) :
Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. This is called the
quantization of energy. An electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit
by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy is equal to the difference in
energy (∆E) between the two orbital levels.
∆/ = /Š c /· = ℎ¤ = ℎ Ð
\

Where c → speed of light

λ → wavelength of the radiation used and
 → frequency of the radiation

11. Define excitation energy.

The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to
any higher energy state is known as excitation energy.
Its unit is electron volt (eV)

12. Define excitation potential.

Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy per unit charge.
Its unit is volt (V)

13. Define ionization energy.

The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in

energy of hydrogen atom is 3í <´,•< = "‡. ú ì

the ground state is known as binding energy or ionization energy. Ionization

14. Define ionization potential.

The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is, ì< <´,=< = "‡. ú ì

Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy per unit charge.

15. What are the drawbacks in Bohr atom model?

Drawbacks of Bohr atom model:
Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-
atoms but not for complex atoms. When the spectral lines are closely
examined, individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is accompanied by a
number of faint lines. These closed packed lines are called fine structure.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 187
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This is not explained by Bohr atom model. Bohr atom model fails to
explain the intensity variations in the spectral lines. The distribution of
electrons in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom model.

16. Define atomic number and mass number.

The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z)
The number of neutrons in the nucleus is called neutron number (N).
The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is called the mass
number(A) [A = Z+N]

The general notation of nucleus is ; šIX

17. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. What each term denotes?

Where X is the chemical symbol of the element,

represented by ëòN
A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number. (e.g.) Nitrogen nucleus is

18. What is the charge of nucleus?

The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons. So the net charge of the nucleus is positive and it has the
value = + Ze

19. What is isotope? Give an example.

The atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, but
different mass number A are called isotopes. The isotopes of any element

(e.g) Hydrogen isotopes: H, H, OH,

have same electronic structure and same chemical properties.

20. What is an isobar? Give an example.

The atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but

and chemical properties. (e.g) K£ S, Kò Cl, Kû Ar, KË K and KK Ca

different atomic number Z are called isobars. They have different physical

21. What is isotones? Give an example.

The atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons are
called isotones. (e.g.) ë B and O£ C.

22. Define atomic mass unit.

isotope of carbon. ( £ C¿ " Ó = 1.66 x 10-19 kg.

One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the 1/12th of the mass of the

23. Give the empirical formula for nuclear radius.

The nuclear radius is given by, R = KK mU . Where KK = 1.2F [1F = 10-15m]

24. Define nuclear density.

Nuclear density is defined as the ratio of mass of the nucleus to its
-
volume. ( = Æ U = 2.3 x 1017 kgm-3
ƒÔ
U
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 188
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25. What is mass defect?

The experimental mass of a nucleus is less than the total mass of its
individual constituents. The mass difference between total mass of the

∆" = (ý "* + S " ) – A

nucleons and the real mass of the nucleus is called mass defect (∆m)

26. Define binding energy.

When Z protons and N neutrons are combine to form a nucleus, the
mass disappear equivalent to mass defect (∆m) is converted in to energy

energy (BE). 73 = ∆"ˆ! = [(ý "* + S " ) − A ] ˆ!

which is used to bind the nucleons in the nucleus. This is known as binding

27. Calculate the energy equivalent to one atomic mass unit (1 u).
Give the answer in eV unit.
According to Einstein’s mass - energy relation
/ = ¦Ò2 = (1) x (3 x 108)2
/ = 1.66 x 10−27 x 9 x 1016
/ = 14.94 x 10−11 s
But we have, 1 §ï = 1.602 x 10−19 s
∴ 3 = ɇ" A ì

28. Define average binding energy per nucleon?

separate single nucleon from the particular nucleus. (̅n̅/̅). It measures the
The average binding energy per nucleon is the energy required to

stability of the nucleus.

29. What is nuclear force?

It was concluded that there must be a strong attractive force between
protons to overcome the repulsive Coulomb’s force. This strong attractive
force which holds the nucleus together is called nuclear force.

30. Give the properties of nuclear forces?

Properties of Nuclear forces :
The strong nuclear force is of very short range, acting only up to a
distance of a few Fermi. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts with an equal strength
between proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron – neutron.
Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons. So it does not alter
the chemical properties of the atom.

31. Define radioactivity.

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating
radiations such as α, β and γ rays by an element is called radioactivity and
the substances which emit these radiations are called radioactive elements.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 189
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32. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and
gamma decay.

When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an α-particle ( He), its

(1) Alpha decay:

Atomic number (Z) decreases by 2, the mass number (A)

decreases by 4. The α- decay process symbolically written as
gX → g½ Y + He . (e.g.) Ë U → ËKTh + He
' '½ Oû O

In β− - decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one but

(2) Beta decay:

gX → gÀ Y + ½ e + ¤̅ . (e.g.) C → òN + ½Ke + ¤̅
mass number remains the same.
' ' K

In β+ - decay, the atomic number of the nucleus decreases by one but

mass number remains the same.
gX → g½ Y + e + ¤ . (e.g.) Na → KNe + Ke + ¤
' ' K

(3) Gamma decay:

In α and β decay, the daughter nucleus is in the excited state most of
the time. So this excited state nucleus immediately returns to the ground
state or lower energy state by emitting highly energetic photons called γ rays.
During gamma decay there is no change in atomic number and mass
number. 'g X ∗ → 'gX +gamma rays (Ú¿
(e.g.) ëB → £C ∗ + ½Ke + ¤̅ ; £C∗ → £C + γ

33. Define disintegration energy.

In decay process, the total mass of the daughter nucleus and product
nucleus is always less than that of the parent nucleus. The difference in
mass (∆m) is released as energy called disintegration energy Q. If Q > 0, the
decay is spontaneous (natural radioactivity) If Q < 0, the decay process
cannot occur spontaneously and energy must be supplied to induce the
decay.

34. In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus emits ˆB nucleus?

ËKTh by emitting four

Why it does not emit four separate nucleons?
For example, if OûË U nucleus decays into
O

separate nucleons (two protons and two neutrons), then the disintegration
energy Q for this process turns out to be negative. It implies that the total
Ë U ) nucleus.
mass of products is greater than that of parent ( Oû
This kind of process cannot occur in nature because it would violate
conservation of energy.

35. Write a note on positron?

The positron is an anti-particle of an electron whose mass is same as
that of electron and charge is opposite to that of electron (i.e.) +e.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 190
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36. State the properties of neutrino.

Properties of neutrino:
It has zero charge; It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
It interacts very weakly with the matter. Therefore, it is very difficult to detect.

37. State the law of radioactive decay.

At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of
decay is proportional to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.

38. Define activity. Give its unit.

Activity or decay rate which is the number of nuclei decayed per
3
second and it is denoted as R. R = . Its unit is Becquerel (Bq) and
á
curie (Ci)

39. Define one Becquerel.

" 7 = " > ˆ, /= ˆ >

One Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per second.

40. Define one curie.

radium " µ< = ‡. ó " " > ˆ, / = ˆ >

One curie was defined as number of decays per second in 1 g of

41. What is half life of nucleus? Give the expression.

The half life is the time required for the number of atoms initially
K.£ËO
present to reduce to one half of the initial amount. = Ð

42. What is mean life of nucleus? Give the expression.

The mean life time (p) of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration
of life times of all nuclei to the total number nuclei present initially. _ =
Ð

43. Write a note on the discovery of neutron.

Discovery of neutron:
In 1930, Bothe and Becker found that when beryllium was
bombarded with α particle, highly penetrating radiation was emitted. This
radiation was capable of penetrating the thick layer of lead and was
unaffected by the electric and magnetic fields. Initially, it was thought
wrongly as γ - radiation.
But in 1932, James Chadwick discovered that those radiations are
particles of mass little greater than the mass of the proton and had no
charge. He called them as neutrons ( " ). The above reaction was written as
Ë
Be + He → £C + KN
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 191
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44. List the properties of neutrons.

Properties of neutrons:
Mass of the neutron is little greater than the mass of the proton and
had no charge. Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But free neutron has
half life of 13 minutes. Then it decays with emission of proton, electron and
anti neutrino.
Neutrons are classified according to their kinetic energy as
(1) Slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
(2) Fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV).
The neutrons with average energy of about 0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium
are called thermal neutron.

45. What is meant by nuclear fission?

The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two
smaller nuclei with the release of a large amount of energy is called nuclear
fission.

46. Calculate the energy released per fission.

Energy released in one fission:
Consider the following fission reaction.
Ë U + KN → ë£Ba + O£Kr + 3 KN + ›
Oë Ë

Total mass before fission;

Mass of OëË U = 235.045733 C
Mass of KN 1.008665 C
236.054398 Ó
=
=

Total mass after fission;

Mass of ë£Ba 140.9177 C
Mass of O£Kr
=
Ë
= 91.8854 C
Mass of3 KN 3.025995 C
235.829095 Ó
=
=

Mass defect; ∆- = 236.054398 C

235.829095 C
0.225303 Ó
(c) =
∆- =

Then energy released during this fission reaction,

Q = ∆¦ x 931 MeV
Q = 0.225303 x 931 MeV
Q = ! MeV
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 192
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47. What is called chain reaction. Give its types.

During every fission reaction, three neutrons are released along with
products. These three neutrons cause further fission produces nine neutrons
and this process goes on. Thus the number of neutrons goes on increasing
almost in geometric progression and this is called a chain reaction.
There are two kinds of chain reactions:
(1) Uncontrolled chain reaction
(2) Controlled chain reaction.

48. What is called nuclear reactor?

Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear fission takes place in
a self-sustained controlled manner. The energy produced is used either for
research purpose or for power generation. The first nuclear reactor was built
in the year 1942 at Chicago, USA.

49. What is nuclear fusion?

When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to form a heavier
nucleus, then it is called nuclear fusion.

50. What is mean by thermo nuclear reactions?

When two light nuclei come closer to combine, it is strongly repelled by
the coulomb repulsive force. To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei
must have enough kinetic energy to move closer to each other such that the
nuclear force becomes effective.
This can be achieved if the temperature is very much greater than the
value 107 K. When the surrounding temperature reaches around 107K,
lighter nuclei start fusing to form heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is
called thermonuclear fusion reaction.

51. What is the source of stellar energy?

The energy generation in every star is only through thermonuclear
fusion because its temperature is of the order of 107 K. Most of the stars
including our Sun fuse hydrogen into helium and some stars even fuse
helium into heavier elements.

52. Write a note on proton - proton cycle.

The sun’s interior temperature is around 1.5 x 107 k .
At this temperature, fusion reaction takes place and the sun is converting
6 x 1011 kg hydrogen, into helium every second. According to Hans Bethe,
the sun is powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction.

Step – 1 : ""B + ""B → !"B + " + ö ;

This cycle consists of three steps:

Step – 2 : ""B + !"B → ‡!B + ö

Step – 3 : ‡!B + ‡!B → ˆ!B + ""B + ""B
In general, the above three steps can be written as.
4 ""B → ˆ!B + ! ""B + ! " + !ö + !ó A ì
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 193
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53. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?

Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks which are now
considered as elementary particles. According to quark model,
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks Å+ §È
O
and one down quark Åc §È
O

(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark Å+ §È

O
and two down quarks Åc §È 1
O

54. What is radio carbon dating?

Radioactive dating or carbon dating is the technique to estimate the
age of ancient object by using radio carbon isotope ("ˆµ)

55. Write a note on smoke detector.

Smoke detector:
An important application of alpha decay is smoke detector which
prevents us from any hazardous fire. It uses around 0.2 mg of man-made
ÉôØ")
weak radioactive isotope called americium ( !ˆ"
This radioactive source is placed between two oppositely charged
metal plates and α radiation from !ˆ"ÉôØ" continuously ionize the nitrogen,
Oxygen molecules in the air space between the plates.
As a result, there will be a continuous flow of small steady current in
the circuit. If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed by the smoke
particles rather than air molecules. As a result, the ionization and along with
it the current is reduced. This drop in current is detected by the circuit and
alarm starts. The radiation dosage emitted by americium is very much less
than safe level, so it can be considered harmless.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 194
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ANT IN PHYSICS

FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

56. Explain the J.J. Thomsoson experiment to determine the specific

ific charge of
electron.
Specific charge of electr
ctron - J J Thomson Experiment
®
Charge per unitt m mass of an electron is called specific charg rge Å È
-
Principle:
Cathode a ray (electron
(el beam) deflects by both electric and
an magnetic
fields is the principle involved
inv in this method.
Set up:
It is highly evacu
cuated discharge tube. Cathode rays (elec lectron beam)
produced at cathode e ‘C’ are
attracted towards anod ode disc A
which allow only a narro rrow beam
of cathode rays.
These cathode e rrays are
now allowed to pass through
thr the
parallel plates and st strike the
screen coated with ZnS nS, a light
spot is observed at O
The metal pla lates are
maintained at high volta ltage.
Further, this gasas discharge tube is kept in between pole ole pieces of
magnet such that both oth electric and magnetic fields are perpe pendicular to
each other.
Velocity of cathode rays ys (ö):
Let ‘e’ be the charge
ch of cathode
ray particle. The upward ard force acting on
cathode rays due to el electric field ‘E’ is;
ºD = § /
The downward force acting ac on cathode
rays due to magnetic fie field is ;
º, = § n ¤
In un-deflected equil uilibrium position,
ºD = º, ; § / = § n ¤
D
¤ = ……………..(
,
..(1)
Method (1) - To find spe pecific charge:
Let ‘V’ be the pote
otential difference between anode and catho thode.
Since the cathode
ode rays (electron beam) are accelerated fro from cathode
to anode, the potential ial energy ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the he cathode is
converted into kinetic en energy of the electron beam at the anode.. Hence,
H
® ª D
eV = ¦¤ ; ∴ = =
- Ù Ù,
The value of spec
ecific charge is ,
"
= 1.7 x 1011 Ckg-1m
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Method (2) - Deflection

on due to electric field:
When the magn agnetic field is
turned off (n = 0), the deflection is
only due to electric fiel
field. Let ‘m’ be
the mass of the electron
tron, the upward
acceleration due to elec
lectric field ‘E’ is
³© ®D
•D = =
- -
Upward initial velocity; C = 0
Let ‘¥’ be the llength of the
%
time taken to travel in electric field is, ù =
deflecting plate, then tim
ª
Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field ä = Cù + •ù
;ä = ; ä = 2 ¦ ¤2 ; ä = 2 ¦
1 §/ ¥ 2 1 §/ ¥ 2 2 2
1 §/ ¥ n
= 0 + •D ù Å È
2¦ ¤ /2

ä =
® % ,
………………. (2)
- D
ction on the screen, ä ∝ ä (2 ¿ä = ßä′
Then the deflectio
C →Proportionali
ality constant.
žD
(2), ä =
2
1 § ¥ n2 ®
Using equation (2 ß
2 ¦ /2
;-= 2 2 ……………….
…. (3)
¢¥ n
own values, we get = 1.7 x 1011Ckg-1m
"
By substituting the know
Method (3) - Deflection
on due to magnetic field:
When the electric
tric field is turned off (/ = 0), the deflection
on is only due
to magnetic field. The e magnetic force provides the centripetal tal force, the
-ª
ª
oes semi-circular path. Hence, § ¤ n =
electron beam undergoe
Ô
©
-ª -Å8È -D
§n= Ô
;§n= Ô
; ,Ô
® D
=
n2 K
-
………………
……. (4)
The specific charge
ge is independent of (1) Gas used
(2) Nature of the
eeelectrodes

57. Discuss the Millikan’s

’s oil drop experiment to determine the chargech of an
electron.
Millikan’s oil drop meth
thod:
It consists of two horizon ontal circular
metal plates A and B each with ith diameter
around 20 cm and are separated ed by a small
distance 1.5 cm.
These two parallel plates arear enclosed
in a chamber with glass walls.
A high potential difference e around 10
kV applied across the metal plates tes, such that
electric field acts vertically downwa
ward.
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A small hole is made

ma at the centre of the upper plate A and nd atomizer is
kept exactly above the e hole
h to spray the liquid. When a fine dropl
oplet of highly
viscous liquid (like glycerin)
gly is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely
downward through the he hole of the top plate only under the influence
in of
gravity.
Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric charg rge (negative
charge) because of friction
fric with air or passage of x-rays in between
be the
parallel plates. Further
er the chamber is illuminated by light which ich is passed
horizontally and oil dro
drops can be seen clearly using microsco scope placed
perpendicular to the liglight beam. These drops can move eitherr upwards or
downward.
Radius of oil drop:
When the electr ctric field is switched off, the oil drop p accelerates
a
downwards. Due to the ep presence of air drag forces, the oil dropss easily
e attain
its terminal velocity and
nd moves with constant velocity. Let it be ‘¤’’
drop = ; Density of the Oil = (
Radius of the oilil d
Density of the air = &
The downward gragravitational force acting on the oil drop is.
º• = ¦ = (ï = ( R ° O X
O
The up-thrust forc
orce experienced by the oil drop due to displa
placed air is
ºt = ¦′ = &ï = & RO ° O X
rop attains a terminal velocity ì,
Once the oil drop
the net downward forcece acting on the oil drop is equal
to the viscous force acti
cting opposite to the direction of
motion of the oil drop.

drop is ; º¤ = 6 ° • ¤
From Stokes lawaw, the viscous force on the oil

agram, º = º… + º¤
From the free body diagr
(R ° O
X = &R ° O
X +6 ° • ¤
O O
(R ° O
X c &R ° O
X =6° •¤
O O
° ( c &¿ = 6 ° • ¤
O(
O
}U û ƒ ª Ë ª Ë ª
= (è½ ˜¿ •¿
; = (轘¿•
; = R (轘¿•
X …………. (1)
} ƒ(è
(2) Determination of electric
ele charge:
When the elect ectric field is switched on,
charged oil drops expexperience an upward electric
force (qE). Strength off tthe electric field is adjusted
to make that particular
ar ddrop to be stationary. Under
these circumstances, th there will be no viscous force
acting on the oil drop.
From the free bodody diagram, º = º… + º¤
(R ° O
X = &R ° O
X +q E (or)
O O
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 197
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q E = (R ° O
X c &R ° O
X ;q
O O
O(
E= ° ( c &¿
O
q = ° O (( c & ¿
OD
Put equation (1) , we get
Ë ª Ë ª
q= °R X R X (( c &¿
OD (轘¿¿• (轘¿•

°••¤“ R
û ª û Uª U
q=
(è
(轘¿•
X (( c &¿ ;q= °R (轘¿•
X ………….
…… (2)
D D
Millikan repeated
ted this experiment several times and computed
com the
charges on oil drops. He found that the charge of any oil drop can be written
as integral multiple of a basic value, (−1.6 x 10−19 C), which is nothing
n but
the charge of an electro
tron. Hence, e = −1.6 x 10 C),
−19

58. Derive the expression n ffor radius and energy of the nth orbitt ofo hydrogen
atom using Bohr atom m model.
Radius of nth orbit:
Consider an ato
atom which contains
the nucleus at rest whwhich is made up of
protons and neutrons ns. Let an electron

Atomic number = ÷,
revolving around the sta
state nucleus

Total charge of ntth nucleus = + §;

lectron = − § ,
Charge of an elec
ctron = ¦
Mass of the electr
From Coulomb’s ’s llaw, the force of attraction between the
e nucleus
n and
(ÀI®¿ (½®¿ I®
the electron is º¢«¬%«-t
«¬%«-t = ƒõ ̂ ; º¢«¬%«-t = c ̂
}Ï ƒõ }Ï
This force provide
ides necessary centripetal force given by.
-ªÏ
º¢®¶á}·Ã®á¾% = c ̂ ;
}Ï
At equilibrium, º¢«¬%«-t = º¢®¶á}·Ã®á¾%
I® -ªÏ I® -ªÏ
c ̂=c ̂ ; = …………… (1)
1)
ƒõ }Ï }Ï ƒõ }Ï }Ï
( ƒõ ¿ - ªÏ }Ï ( ƒõ ¿ - ªÏ }Ï ( ƒõ ¿ •- ªÏ }Ï “
= = =
I® I® - I® -
¶ ; ¶ ; ¶

= Nℏ
-
stulate, ¥¶ = ¦¤¶
From Bohr’s Postu ¶ =N
ƒ
ÏQ
õ ¿ •%Ï “
( ƒõ ( ƒõ ¿ R
p
X
Hence, ¶ = =
I® - I® -
; ¶
( ƒõ ¿ ¶ - - õ ¶
= =R X
I® -5 ƒ I
¶ ; ¶ …………… (2)
ƒ-®
¶
= üK
¶ I
…………
……… (3)
- õ
Where, üK → = 0.529Å →Bohr Radius
ƒ-®
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 198
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For hydrogen, (Z = 1), So radius of Nùℎ orbit, ¶ = üK N …………… (4)

For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level) = üK = 0.529Å
For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level)
= 4üK = 4 x 0.529Å = 2.116 Å
For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)
O = 9üK = 9 x 0.529Å = 4.761 Å
Thus, radius of the orbit, ∝ !
Velocity of electron in n orbit:
th

According to Bohr’s quantization condition,

- ¶ -
¦ ¤¶ ¶ =N ƒ
; ¦ ¤¶ üK I
=N ƒ
- I
¤¶ = …………..(5)
ƒ-þ ¶
Hence, ö ∝ (i.e.) the velocity of the electron decreases as the
¶
principal quantum number increases.

Total Energy of electron in nth orbit:

Electrostatic force is a conservative force. So potential energy of the
(ÀI®¿ (½®¿ I®
electron in nth orbit, î¶ = =c
ƒõ }Ï ƒõ }Ï
Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
I®
‹/¶ = ¦¤¶ = Ä R } XÉ [ By equation (1)]
ƒõ Ï
Thus, î¶ = c2‹/¶
Therefore, total energy of the electron in nth orbit,
/¶ = î¶ + ‹/¶ = c2‹/¶ + ‹/¶ = c‹/¶
I®
/¶ = c
ûƒ õ
.
}Ï
- õ ¶
From equation (2), ¶ = R X . Hence
ƒ-® I
I® - ®Æ I
/¶ = c ; /¶ = c
ûƒõ ] Q ûõ - ¶
Ï
…………..(6)
^
p#º
- ®Æ
For hydrogen, (Z=1), then /¶ = c
ûõ - ¶
…………..(7)

to the nucleus. Put the values of öK , ℎ, ¦, § and using “eV” unit we have,
The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that the electron is bound

O.£
/¶ = c §ï
When, n = 1, / = c13.6 §ï ; When, n = 2, / = c3.4 §ï
¶

When, n = 3, /O = c1.51 §ï
Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases. (i.e.) the orbit which is
closest to the nucleus has lowest energy. So it is often called ground state
The ground state energy of hydrogen (−13.6 eV) is used as a unit of energy
called Rydberg. 1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 199
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59. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.

Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
When an electron jumps from nth orbit to nth orbit, a spectral line was
obtained whose wave number (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
¤̅ = Ð = K R¶ c - X. Here, R →Rydberg Constant
(R = 1.097 x 107 ms-1)
From m>n, various spectral series are obtained.
(1) Lyman Series:
n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
Hence the wave number, ¤̅ = = K R c X
Ð -
They lie in ultra violet region.
(2) Balmer Series:
n = 2 and m = 3, 4, 5, …..
Hence the wave number, ¤̅ = = K R c X
Ð -
They lie in visible region.
(3) Paschen Series:
n = 3 and m = 4, 5, 6,…..
Hence the wave number, ¤̅ = = K R c X
Ð O -
They lie in infra red region.
(4) Brackett Series:
n = 4 and m = 5, 6, 7,…..
Hence the wave number, ¤̅ = = K R c X
Ð -
They lie in middle infra red region.
(5) Pfund Series:
n = 5 and m = 6, 7, 8,…..
Hence the wave number, ¤̅ = = K R c X
Ð -
They lie in far infra red region.

60. Explain the variation of average binding energy with the mass number by
graph and discuss its features.
Binding energy curve:
The average binding energy per nucleon (n/ ¿ is the energy required
to separate single nucleon from the particular nucleus.
,D &bI -Ê À3 -Ï d½¾ž '¢
n/ = =
š š
n/ is plotted against A of all known nuclei and the graph obtained is
called binding energy curve. From the graph,
(1) The value of n/ rises as the mass number A increases until it
reaches a maximum value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly
decreases.
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for
nuclei having mass number between A = 40 and 120. These elements are
comparatively more stable and not radioactive.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 200
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(3) For high igher mass

numbers, the curve redu duces slowly
and for uraniu
nium is about
7.6 MeV. They are uns unstable and
radioactive.
(4) If two lig light nuclei
with A<28 combine ne to form
heavier nucleus, the binding
energy per nucleon is more for
final nucleus than initial
ial nuclei.
Thus, if the lighte
ter elements
combine to produce a nucleus of
medium value A, a large rge amount of energy will be released. Thisis is the basis
of nuclear fusion and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.
(5) If a nucleu
leus of heavy element is split (fission) into
o two
t or more
nuclei of medium value lue A, the energy released would again be large. The
atom bomb is based on this principle.

61. Obtain the law of radioa

ioactivity (radioactive decay)
Law of radioactivity:
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called
cal rate of
>S
decay Å È is proportio rtional to the number
>•
of nuclei (N) at the samsame instant. This is
called law of radioactive
tive decay.
Expression:
Let N0 be the nunumber of nuclei at
initial time (t = 0)
Let ‘N’ be the num
umber of un-decayed
nuclei at any time ‘t’
If ‘dN’ be the e number of nuclei
decayed in time ‘dt’ then
hen,
3
rate of decay =
á
∝ œ (or) = c#œ− − − − − (1)
3 3
From law of radioioactivity,
á á
Here, # → decay ay cconstant
Decay constantt (# ) is different for different radioactive
e sample
s and
the negative sign in the
e equation implies that the N is decreasing
g with
w time.
3
By rewriting the e
equation (1), we get
á
= c#.ù
3 3
= c# zK .ù ; •òN œ “3 = c#ù
3
á
both sides, z3 c
3
Integrating on bot
•òN œ c òN œK “ = c#ù ; InR
3
= c#ùX
3
3
= § ½Ðá
3
Taking exponentia
ntial on both sides,
N = No§ ½Ðá
Ðá
− − − − − (2)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 201
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Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay. Here the number of
atoms is decreasing exponentially over the time.
This implies that the time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to decay
will be infinite.

Half life time bT1/2 d

62. Obtain an expression for half life time and mean life time.

Half-life T / is the time required for the number of atoms initially

present to reduce to one half of the initial amount.
From the law of radioactive decay, N = N0 §− #ù
= œK §
3 3 ½Ðû
If t = / then, N = Hence, ; = § ½Ðû / (or¿
§ ½Ðû / =2
Taking log on both sides,
¶ K.£ËO
# = òN 2 ; = =
Ð Ð
If the number of atoms present at t = 0 is N0 , then
3
(1) Number of atoms remains un-decayed after 1st half life =
3
(2) Number of atoms remains un-decayed after2nd half life =
3
û
(3) Number of atoms remains un-decayed after 3rd half life =

In general, after n half-lives, the number of nuclei remaining un-

3
decayed is given by N = Ï
Mean life time (p) :
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of
life times of all nuclei to the total number nuclei present initially.
Let # be the decay constant of the radioactive substance, then _ =
Ð
Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely proportional to each other.

Half life and mean life - Relation:

¶ K.£ËO
Half life time is given by, = =
Ð Ð

Mean life period is given by, _ =

Ð
From the above two equations, = _ òN 2 = 0.6931_
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 202
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ANT IN PHYSICS

63. Explain radio carbon dating.

da
Radio carbon dating:
The important app
application of beta decay is radioactive datin
ting or carbon
dating. Using this techninique, the age of an ancient object can be
e calculated.
c
All living organism
isms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from air to synthesize
organic molecules. In tthis absorbed CO2, the major part art is £ Ò
ction £ Ò whose half-life is 5730 years.
and very small fracti
Carbon-14 in the e atmosphere is always decaying but at the
he same time,
cosmic rays from outer er space are continuously bombarding the atoms
a in the
atmosphere which produ oduces £ Ò
So the continuou ous production and decay of £ Ò in the e atmosphere
a
keep the ratio of £ Ò to £ Ò always constant.
Since our human an body, tree or any living organisms continuously
co
absorb CO2 from the e a atmosphere, the ratio of £ Ò to £ Ò in the living
organism is also nearlyly cconstant.
But when the org organism dies, it stops absorbing CO2. Sinc
ince starts to
decay, the ratio of £ Ò to £ Ò in a dead organism or specimen en decreases
over the years. Suppos ose the ratio of £ Ò to £ Ò in the ancientnt tree pieces
excavated is known, and nd then the age of the tree pieces can be calculated.
ca

64. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a block diagram.

Nuclear reactor:
Nuclear reactorr is a system in which the nuclear fission takes
tak place in
a self-sustained controlrolled manner. The energy produced is use sed either for
research purpose or for power generation. The first nuclear reacto ctor was built
in the year 1942 at Chi Chicago.
Main parts of Nuclear reactor:
re
(1) Fuel:
used fuels are OëË U and Ë ÌC
OË
The commonly us
ring uranium contains only 0.7% of Oë
Naturally occurrin Ë î and
nd 99.3% are
only Ë U . So the Ë î must be enriched such that it 92 contain
Oû Oû
ins at least 2
to 4% of Oë Ë U .
(2) Neutron source:
A neutron source ce is required to initiate the chain reaction
n for the first
time. A mixture of be beryllium
with plutonium or polon lonium is
used as the neutron sou ource
(3) Moderators:
The probabilit
ility of
initiating fission by fast
st nneutron
in another nucleus is ve very low.
Therefore, slow neutro trons are
preferred for sustained d nuclear
reactions. The moderat rator is a
material used to conve nvert fast
neutrons into slow neutr utrons.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 203
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ANT IN PHYSICS

Usually the mode

derators having mass comparable to thatt of o neutrons.
Hence, these light nucle
clei undergo collision with fast neutrons and
nd the speed
of the neutron is reduce
ced. Most of the reactors use water, heavy
vy water (D2O)
and graphite as modera rators.
(4) Control rods:
The control rods
ds are used to adjust the reaction rate. During
D each
fission, on an averagege 2.5 neutrons are emitted. In order to have the
controlled chain reactio
tions, only one neutron is allowed to cause
se fission and
the remaining neutronsns are absorbed by the control rods. Usuallally cadmium
or boron acts as control
rol rod material.
(5) Coolants:
The cooling syste
stem removes the heat generated in the reactor
re core.
Ordinary water, heavyy water
w and liquid sodium are used as coolant
co since
they have very high spec
pecific heat capacity and have large boilingg ppoint under
high pressure. This cool
oolant passes through the fuel block and carries
ca away
the heat to the steamm generator through heat exchanger. The e steam runs
the turbines which produ
oduces electricity in power reactors.
(6) Shielding:
For a protection
on against harmful radiations, the nuclear ear reactor is
surrounded by a concret
rete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.

65. Briefly explain the elemmentary particles of nature.

Elementary particles:
An atom has a nu nucleus surrounded by electrons and nucle clei are made
up of protons and neu eutrons. Initially, protons, neutrons and eleelectrons are
considered as fundamen ental building blocks of matter.
But in 1964, Mur urray Gellman and George Zweig theoretical cally proposed
that protons and neutrotrons are not fundamental particles, but thehey are made
up of quarks. These quarks
q are now considered elementaryy p particles of
nature. Electrons are fundamental
fu or elementary particles becau
ause they are
not made up of anythi thing. In the year 1968, the quarks were re discovered
experimentally by Stanfo
nford.
There are six quar
uarks namely,
(1) Up quark (2) Down quark (3) Charm
rm quark
(4) Strange quark (5) Top quark and (6) Bottom
om quark
There exist their anti par
particles also. All these quarks have fractiona
onal charges.
For example,
Charge of up quark rk is = + § ;
O
Charge of down quark is = c §
O
According to quar
ark model,
(1) Proton iss m
made up of two
up quarks and one downwn quark
(2) Neutron is made up of
one up quark and two do
down quarks
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 204
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66. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.

Fundamental forces in nature:
Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak forces are called
fundamental forces of nature.
(1) Gravitational forces:
The attractive force between two masses is called gravitational force
and it is universal in nature. Our planets are bound to the sun through
gravitational force of the sun. We are in the Earth because of Earth’s
gravitational attraction on our body.
(2) Electromagnetic force:
Between two charges there exists electromagnetic force and it plays
major role in most of our day-today events. We are standing on the surface of
the earth because of the electromagnetic force between atoms of the
surface of the earth with atoms in our foot. It is stronger than gravitational
force.
(3) Strong Nuclear force:
Between two nucleons, there exists a strong nuclear force and this
force is responsible for stability of the nucleus. The atoms in our body are
stable because of strong nuclear force.
(4) Weak Nuclear force:
In addition to these three forces, there exists another fundamental
force of nature called the weak force. This weak force is even shorter in
range than nuclear force. This force plays an important role in beta decay
and energy production of stars. During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in
sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are produced through weak force.
The lives of species in the earth depend on the solar energy from the
sun and it is due to weak force which plays vital role during nuclear fusion
reactions going on in the core of the sun
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 205
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UNIT- IX (SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS)

TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is called electronics?
Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated with technology
towards the design of circuits using transistors and microchips. It depicts the
behaviour and movement of electrons in a semiconductor, vacuum, or gas.

2. What are passive components and active components?

Components that cannot generate power in a circuit are called passive
components. (e.g.) Resistors, inductors, capacitors
Components that can generate power in a circuit are called active
components. (e.g.) transistors

3. What is energy band?

When millions of atoms are brought close to each other, the valence
orbital’s and the unoccupied orbital’s are split according to the number of
atoms. Their energy levels will be closely spaced and will be difficult to
differentiate the orbital’s of one atom from the other and they look like a
band. This band of very large number of closely spaced energy levels in a
very small energy range is known as energy band.

4. What is valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap?

The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals is called valence
band. The energy band that formed due to the unoccupied orbitals is called
the conduction band. The energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.

5. What is called intrinsic semiconductor?

A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity is called an intrinsic
semiconductor. Its conduction is low. (e.g.) Silicon, Germanium.

6. Define Doping.
The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is
called doping. It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons
and holes) in the semiconductor and in turn, its electrical conductivity.
The impurity atoms are called doping.

7. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

The semiconductor obtained by doping either pentavalent impurity or
trivalent impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor. (e.g.) P - type and N-type
semiconductor.

8. Define hole.
When an electron is excited, covalent bond is broken. Now octet rule
will not be satisfied. Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to
complete bonding. This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 206
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9. What is called P-type se

semiconductor?
A P - type semico
iconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germ
ermanium (or
Silicon) crystal with a doping
d of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity)
im like
Boron, Aluminium, Galliu
llium and Indium. In P-type semiconductorsors, Holes are
majority charge carriers
ers Electrons are minority charge carriers

10. What is N-type semicon onductor?

A N - type semic iconductor is obtained by doping a puree Germanium
G
(or Silicon) crystal with
h a doping of pentavalent elements (donorr impurity)
im like
Phosphorus, Arsenic an and Antimony. In N-type semiconductors, Electrons
El are
majority charge carriersers Holes are minority charge carriers

11. Define junction potentia

tial or barrier potential.
When P - type a and N - type semiconductors combine e to
t form PN
junction, due to diffusio
sion of majority charge carriers a depletiotion region is
formed near the junctio
tion. It prevents the charge carriers to furth
rther diffusion
across the junction.
Because a potenential difference is set up by the immobilele ions in this
depletion region. Thiss ddifference in potential across the depleti
letion layer is
called the barrier pote
otential or junction potential. This barrierier potential
approximately equals 0.70 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium..

12. What is P-N junction dio

diode? Give its symbol.
A P-N junction dio
diode is formed when a P -type semiconducuctor is fused
with a N-type semicond
onductor. It is a device with single P-N junction.
ju The
Schematic representatio
tion and circuit symbol is given below.

13. What is called biasing?

g? Give its types.
Biasing is the pro
process of giving external energy to charge
ge carriers to
overcome the barrier po
potential and make them move in a particula
ular direction.
The external voltage a applied to the p-n junction is called bias
bi voltage.
Depending on the polarity of the external source to the PP-N junction
we have two types of bia
biasing
(1) Forward bia
bias (2) Reverse bias

14. Differentiate forward bia

bias and reverse bias.
Forward bias:
terminal of the external voltage source is connected
If the positive ter co to
the P-side and the negagative terminal to the N-side, it is called forw
orward biased
It reduces widthhoof the depletion region.
Reverse bias:
If the positive ter
terminal of the battery is connected to the he N-side and
the negative potentiall to the P- side, the junction is said to be reve
verse biased
It increases width
th of the depletion region.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 207
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15. Define reverse saturation current.

Under reverse bias, a small current flows across the junction due to
the minority charge carriers in both regions. Because the reverse bias for
majority charge carriers serves as the forward bias for minority charge
carriers. The current that flows under a reverse bias is called the reverse
saturation current or leakage current (IS). It depends on temperature.

16. What is meant by rectification?

The process of converting alternating current into direct current is
called rectification. The device used for rectification is called rectifier.
A P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.

17. What is mean by break down voltage?

The reverse saturation current due to the minority charge carriers is
small. If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is increased beyond a
point, the junction breaks down and the reverse current rises sharply.
The voltage at which this breakdown happens is called the
breakdown voltage. It depends on the width of the depletion region, which in
turn depends on the doping level.

18. Write a note on Zener breakdown.

Zener breakdown:
It will occur in heavily doped P-N junctions which have narrow
depletion layers (<10-6 m). When a reverse voltage across this junction is
increased to the breakdown limit, a very strong electric field of strength
3 X 107 V m–1 is set up across the narrow layer. This electric field is strong
enough to break or rupture the covalent bonds in the lattice and thereby
generating electron-hole pairs. This effect is called Zener effect.
Even a small further increase in reverse voltage produces a large
number of charge carriers. Hence the junction has very low resistance in the
breakdown region.
This process of emission of electrons due to the rupture of bands in
from the lattice due to strong electric field is known as internal field emission
or field ionization. The electric field required for this is of the order of
106 V m–1

19. Write a note on avalanche break down.

Avalanche breakdown:
It will occur in lightly doped junctions which have wide depletion
layers. Here the electric field is not strong enough to produce breakdown.
But the minority charge carriers accelerated by the electric field gains
sufficient kinetic energy, collide with the semiconductor atoms while passing
through the depletion region. This leads to the breaking of covalent bonds
and in turn generates electron-hole pairs.
The newly generated charge carriers are also accelerated by the
electric field resulting in more collisions and further production of charge
carriers.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 208
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This cumulativee process leads to an avalanche of char arge carriers

across the junction and
nd consequently reduces the reverse resista
stance. This is
known as avalanche breakdown.
bre Here the diode current increases
es sharply.

20. What is called Zener diode?

dio Give its circuit symbol.
Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped Silicon diod
iode which is
specially designed to be operated in the
breakdown region. The he circuit symbol of Zener
diode is given below.

21. Give the applications of Zener diode.

Voltage regulators
ors, Peak clippers, Calibrating voltages, Provide
Pr fixed
reference voltage in a network
n for biasing, Meter protection again
ainst damage
from accidental applicat
cation of excessive voltage.

22. What is an optoelectron

ronic device?
The devices whic
hich convert electrical energy into light and
an light into
ugh semiconductors are called optoelectron
electrical energy throug onic devices.
Optoelectronic dedevice is an electronic device which utiliz
ilizes light for
useful applications. (e.g
e.g.) LEDs, photo diodes and solar cells.

23. What is light emitting diode

di (LED)?
LED is a P-N junct
nction diode which emits
visible or invisible ligh
ight when it is forward
biased. Here electricalcal energy is converted
into light energy; thiss pprocess is also called
electroluminescence. The T circuit symbol of
LED is given below.

24. Give the applications of LEDs.

Indicator lampss oon the front panel of the scientific andnd laboratory
equipments, Seven-segm egment displays Traffic signals, exit signs,
s, emergency,
e
ndustrial process control, position encoders
vehicle lighting etc. Ind ers, bar graph
readers.

25. What is photo diode? Give

Gi its circuit symbol.
A P-N junction
n d diode which converts an
optical signal into elec
lectric current is known as
photodiode, Its operatio
tion exactly opposite to that
of an LED. Photo diode e words in reverse bias. The
circuit symbol of photo
o diode
d is given below.

26. Give the applications of photo diode.

Alarm system, Count
Co items on a conveyer belt, Photoconduc
ductors
Compact disc players,rs, smoke detectors, Medical application ions such as
detectors for computedd tomography etc..
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 209
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27. What are called solarr cecells?

A solar cell, also
lso known as photovoltaic cell, convertss light
li energy
directly into electricity or electric potential difference by photovo
ty o voltaic effect.
It is basically a P-N junc
nction which generates emf when solar radiation
rad falls
on the P-N junction.

28. Give the applications of solar cells.

Solar cells are widely
w used in calculators, watches, toys,
toy portable
power supplies, etc. Sola
olar cells are used in satellites and space applications
ap
Solar panels are used to generate electricity.

29. Write a note on bipolar

ar junction transistor (BJT).
The bipolar jun
junction transistor (BJT)
consists of a semic miconductor (Silicon or
Germanium) crystal in which
w an N-type material
is sandwiched between en two P-type materials
called PNP transistortor or a P -type material
sandwiched between n two N-type materials
called NPN transistor.
The three regio
gions formed are called
emitter (E), base (B)) and collector (C). The
schematic symbol and nd circuit symbol of PNP
and NPN transistors arere given below.

30. Discuss the different mo

modes of transistor biasing.
(1) Forward Active:
In this bias theeeemitter-base junction (JEB) is forward bias
iased and the
collector-base junctionn ((JCB) is reverse biased. The transistor is in the active
mode and in this mode, e, the transistor functions as an amplifier.
(2) Saturation:
Here, both the ememitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-babase junction
(JCB) are forward biased
sed. The transistor has a very large flow w of currents
across the junctions andnd in this mode; transistor is used as a close
osed switch.
(3) Cut-off:
In this bias, both
oth the emitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-base
col
junction (JCB) are reverse
rse biased. Transistor in this mode is an opepen switch.

31. Draw the circuit diagram

ram of common base configurations of NPN PN transistor.
Common base configura uration:
Input terminal – Emitter,
E
Output terminal –Collectector,
Common terminal - Base ase,
Input current = IE ; Outpu
tput current= IC
The input signa gnal (VBE) is
applied across emitt itter - base
junction. The output sign
ignal (VCB) is measured across collector - bas
ase junction.
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32. Draw the circuit diag iagram of common emitter configuration

tions of NPN
transistor.
Common emitter config figuration:
Input terminal – Base,
B Output
terminal - Collector,,
Common terminal - Emit mitter, Input
current = IB ; Output cucurrent = IC
The input signa gnal (VBE) is
applied across base se - emitter
junction. The output si signal (VCE) is
measured across collect ector - emitter junction.

33. Draw the circuit diag iagram of common emitter configuration

tions of NPN
transistor.
Common collector confi nfiguration:
Input terminal – Base, Output
O terminal -
Emitter,
Common terminal - Colleollector, Input current
= IB ; Output current=IE
The input ssignal (VBC) is
applied across base e - collector junction.
The output signal (VEC) is measured across
emitter - collector junctio
ction.

34. Define input resistance

ce of transistor.
The ratio of the ch
change in base-emitter voltage (∆VBE) to the change in
base current (∆IB) at a constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the
∆Ù8©
input resistance ( <). · =R X
∆ 8 Ù
ª©
The input resista
istance is high for a transistor in comm
mon emitter
configuration.

35. Define output resistance

nce of transistor.
The ratio of the
he change in collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the
change in collector curr
urrent (∆IC) at a constant base current (IB) is called the
∆Ùª©
output resistance ( ). K =R X
∆ ª
8
The output resist
istance is very low for a transistor in comm
mmon emitter
configuration.

36. Define forward current

nt gain.
g
The ratio of the ch
change in collector current (∆IC) to the chan
hange in base
current (∆IB) at consta
stant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is call
alled forward
current gain (β). β = R U
X
8 Ù
ª©
Its value is very hi
high and it generally ranges from 50 to 200
00.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 211
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37. een ½ and β

Give the relation betwee
U
Forward currentt gain
g in common base mode, ü = R X
ª©
© Ù

Forward currentt gain

g in common emitter mode, β = R U
X
8 Ù
ª©
ª©
From the above
e tw
two equations, we have
(or) β =
Ñ þ
ü= ÀÑ ½þ

38. What is called transisto

stor amplifier?
A transistor opera
erating in the active region has the capabilit
ility to amplify
weak signals. Amplificacation is the process of increasing the sign
ignal strength
(increase in the amplitud
itude).

39. What is called transisto

stor oscillator?
An electronic osci
scillator basically converts DC energy into AC
A energy of
high frequency rangingng from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence, it is a source
of alternating currentt o
or voltage. Unlike an amplifier, oscillatotor does not
require any external sign
ignal source.

40. Give the types of an osc

scillator.
There are two types off oscillators:
o
(1) Sinusoidal
al and , (2) Non-sinusoidal, Sinusoidal oscillators
generate oscillations in the form of sine waves at constant amp mplitude and
frequency, Non-sinusoi
soidal oscillators generate complex non on-sinusoidal
waveforms like square ew wave, triangular wave or saw-toothed wave
ave.

41. Draw the block diagram am of an oscillator Block diagram of oscillat llator:
Oscillator essentially con
consists three main parts,
(1) Tank circuit:
The tank circuituit generates electrical
oscillations and acts as the AC input source
to the transistor amplifie
lifier.
(2) Amplifier:
Amplifier amplifie
ifies the input ac signal.
(3) Feedback networ ork:
The feedback circ ircuit provides a portion of the output to the
he tank circuit
to sustain the oscillation
tions without energy loss. Hence, an oscillat lator does not
require an external inpuput signal. The output is said to be self-susta
stained.

42. Give the Barkhausen conditions

co for sustained oscillations.
The loop phase sh °.
shift must be 00 or integral multiples of 2°
ust be unity. |Øé | = "
The loop gain mus
age gain of the amplifier, β → Feedback ratio
Here, A → Voltage tio
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 212
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43. Give the applications of oscillator.

To generate a per
eriodic sinusoidal or non sinusoidal wave forms.
fo
To generate RF carriers,
ca To generate audio tones
To generate clock
ck signal in digital circuits, As sweep circuit
uits in TV sets
and CRO.

44. Distinguish between analog

ana and digital signal.
Analog Signal
Sig Digital Signal
It is continuously
ly vvarying It contains only two discrete
e
voltage or current
ent values of voltages (i.e.)
with respect to tim
time low (OFF) and high (ON)

These signals are These signals are

employed in rectifying
rec employed in signal
circuits and transi
nsistor processing. communication
Amplifier circuits etc.,

45. Distinguish between positive

pos and negative logic.
Positive
tive logic Negative logic
Binary 1 stands fo
for +5 V Binary 1 stands for 0V
Binary 0 stands fo
for 0 V Binary 0 stands for +5 V

46. Why digital signals are

re preferred
p than analog signals?
Because of theireir better performance, accuracy, speed, flexibility
fle and
immunity to notice

47. What are called logic gates?

ga
A logic gate is an electronic circuit which functions based
sed on digital
signals. They are consinsidered as the basic building blocks off most
m of the
digital systems. It has on
one output with one or more inputs.

48. Give the circuit symbo

bol, Boolean expression, logical operation
on and truth
table of AND gate AND gate - circuit symbol:

Boolean expression:
Let A and B are e the
t inputs and Y
be the output, then, Y = A . B
Logical operation:
The output of AN AND gate is high
(1) only when all the inputs
inp are high (1). The rest of the cases the
th output is
low (0)
Truth table:
Inputs
uts Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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49. Give the circuit symbobol, Boolean expression, logical operation

ion and truth
table of OR gate, OR gate
ga - circuit symbol:
Boolean expression:
Let A and B are th
the inputs and Y be
the output, then Y = A +B
+
Logical operation:
The output of OR gate is high (1)
when either of the input
puts or both are high
(1)
Truth table:
Inputs
uts Output
A B Y = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
50. Give the circuit symbo bol, Boolean expression, logical operation
ion and truth
table of NOT gate, NOTT g gate - circuit symbol:

and Y be the output, then Y = m̅

Boolean expression:
If A be the inputt a
Logical operation:
The output is thehe complement of the input. It
is represented with an n over bar. It is also called as
inverter.
The output Y is hihigh (1), when input is low (0)
and vice versa.
Truth table:
Inputs Output
A Y=Ø
0 1
1 0

51. Give the circuit symbo

bol, Boolean expression, logical operationion and truth
table of NAND gate.
Boolean equation: Lett A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
ut, then
Y = A. B
Logic operation:

The output Y eququals the complement of AND operation.. TheTh circuit is

an AND gate followed by b a NOT gate. Therefore, it is summarized
zed as NAND.
The output is at logic ze
zero only when all the inputs are high. The
he rest of the
cases, the output is high
igh (Logic 1 state).
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 214
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Truth table:
Output Output
Inputs
(AND) (NAND)
A B Z = A.B Y = Ø. 7
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

52. Give the circuit symbo bol, Boolean expression, logical operation ion and truth
table of NOR gate.
NOR gate - circuit symbo bol:
Boolean expressission:
Let A and B are the inpu puts and Y be the output, then Y = A + B
Logical operation:
The output Y equa
quals the complement of OR operation
The circuit is an
nOOR gate followed by a NOT gate and is sumummarized as
NOR. The output is high gh (1) when all the inputs are low (0). The output
ou is low
(0) for all other combina
inations of inputs.
Output Output
Inputs
uts
(OR) (NOR)
A B Z = A+B Y= Ø+7
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
53. Give the circuit symbo bol, Boolean expression, logical operation ion and truth
table of EX-OR gate .
EX-OR gate - circuit sym
ymbol:
Boolean expression:
the inputs and Y be the output, then Y = A.. B + A. B
¼ = m⨁B
Let A and B are th

Logical operation:
The output Y is hi
high (1) only when either of the two inputss is high (1).
In the case of an
n Ex-OR gate with more than two inputs, the output will
be high (1) when odd number
nu of inputs are high (1)
Truth table:
Inputs Output
A B Y=A⨁B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 215
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54. State De-Morgan’s theorems.

Theorem - 1 :
The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the
product of its complements. A + B = A . B
Theorem - 2 :
The complement of the product of two logical inputs is equal to the
sum of its complements. A. B = A + B

55. What is an integrated circuit?

An integrated circuit (IC) or a chip or a microchip is an electronic
circuit, which consists of thousands to millions of transistors, resistors,
capacitors, etc. integrated on a small flat piece of Silicon.

56. What are the applications of integrated circuits (ICs?)

Low cost, great performance, Very small in size, High reliability
They can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, and microprocessor and
computer memory.

57. Distinguish between digital IC and analog IC Digital IC :

Digital ICs uses digital signals (logical 0 and 1). They usually find their
applications in computers, networking equipment, and most consumer
electronics.
Analog IC:
Analog (or) linear ICs work with continuous values. Linear ICs are
typically used in audio and radio frequency amplification.

58. How electron-hole pairs are created in a semiconductor material?

A small increase in temperature is sufficient enough to break some of
the covalent bonds and release the electrons free from the lattice. Hence a
vacant site is created in the valance band and these vacancies are called
holes which are treated to possess positive charges. Thus electrons and
holes are the two charge carriers in semiconductors.

59. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain

An ideal diode behaves as conductor when it is forward biased and
behaves as an insulator when it is reverse biased. Thus diode conducts
current only from P -type to N -type through the junction when it is forward
biased. Hence Diode is a unidirectional device.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 216
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FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

60. Explain the classificatio tion of solids on the basis of energy band the theory.
Classification of solids:
Based on the en energy band theory, solids are classified d in to three
types, namely
(1) Insulators, (2) Metals (Conductors), (3) Semiconduct ctors
Insulators:
In insulator the e
valence band (VB) and d
the conduction band d
(CB) are separated by
a large energy gap.
The forbidden energy gy
gap b/• d is
approximately 6 eV in insulators. The gap is very large that elec lectrons from
valence. band cannott move m into conduction band even on the application
ap of
strong external electric ic field
f or the increase in temperature.
Therefore, the electrical
e conduction is not possible as a the free

Its resistivity is in the range of " "" − " "É ç "

electrons are almost nil and hence these materials are called insu sulators.

Metals (Conductors) :
In metals, the vale alence band and conduction band overlap
Hence, electrons can move mo freely into the conduction band which ch results in a
large number of free ele electrons in the conduction band.
Therefore, conduc duction becomes possible even at low tempe peratures.
The application of electr ctric field provides sufficient energy to the
e electrons
e to

value lies between " −!! − " − ç "

drift in a particular direc
rection to constitute a current. For metals, theth resistivity

Semiconductors:
In semiconductor tors, there exists a narrow forbidden energyy gap g
(/ < 3 §ï) between the th valence band and the conduction band nd. At a finite
temperature, thermall a agitations in the solid can break the cov ovalent bond
between the atoms. Th This releases some electrons from valenc ence band to
conduction band.
Since free electr ctrons are small in number, the conduct ctivity of the

ç ". When the tem

semiconductors is nott as a high as that of the conductors. The resis sistivity value
of semiconductors iss ffrom " −ô − " ú mperature is
increased further, more re number of electrons is promoted to the he conduction
band and increases the he conduction.
Thus, the electr ctrical conduction increases with the in increase in
temperature. (i.e.) res esistance decreases with increase in temperature.
te
Hence, semiconductors rs are said to have negative temperature co coefficient of
resistance. The mostt important elemental semiconductor materials ma are
Silicon (Si) and German anium (Ge).
rature, forbidden energy gap for Si ; 3³ = ". " " ì and
forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 3³ = . ó ì
At room temperat
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 217
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61. Explain in detail the intr

ntrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor:
tor:
A semiconductor or in its pure form without impurity is called
ed an intrinsic
semiconductor. (e.g) silic
silicon, germanium
Consider Silicon lattice. Each
Ea Silicon
atom is covalently bonded with the
neighbouring four atoms to form theth lattice. At
absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves
b as
insulator, because there is no freee charges.
But at room temperature, some s of the
covalent bonds are brakes and releases
re the
electrons free from the lattice. As A a result,
some states in the valence ban and become
empty and the same nu number of states in the
conduction band will be occupied.
The vacancies pr produced in the valence
band are called holes les which are treats as
positive charges. Hencence, electrons and holes
are the two charge carrirriers in semiconductors.
In intrinsic semiconducductors, the number of
electrons in the conduc uction band is equal to
the number of holes in n tthe valence band.
The conduction n iis due to the electrons in the conduction ion band and
holes in the valence b band The total current (I) is always the e sums of the
nd the hole current (íh) ; ò = ò® + ò-
electron current (í ) and
The increase in te temperature increases the number of cha harge carriers
(electrons and holes).

62. Elucidate the formation

ion of a N-type and P-type semiconductors.
N - type semiconductor or :
A n-type semicoiconductor is obtained by
doping a pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with
a doping from pent entavalent elements like
Phosphorus, Arsenic, an and Antimony. The doping
has five valence electro
trons while the Silicon atom
has four valence electrotrons.
During the procecess of doping, four of the
five valence electronss o of the impurity atom are
bound with the 4 valence va electrons of the
neighbouring replaced d Silicon atom. The fifth
valence electron of th the impurity atom will be
loosely attached with the th nucleus as it has not
formed the covalent bon ond.
The energy level
vel of the loosely attached
fifth electron is found ju
just below the conduction band edge and
d is called the
donor energy level.
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The energy requir

uired to set free a donor electron is only 0.0
.01 eV for Ge
and 0.05 eV for Si.
At room temper perature, these electrons can easily move mo to the
conduction band with theth absorption of thermal energy.
The pentavalent nt impurity atoms donate electrons to the e conduction
band and are called d donor impurities. Therefore, each imp mpurity atom
provides one extra ele electron to the conduction band in addit dition to the
thermally generated eleclectrons
Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the majority carriers rs - Electrons
minority carriers - Holes
es
P - type semiconductor or :
A n-type semicoiconductor is obtained by doping a pure re Silicon (or
Germanium) crystal with wi a doping from trivalent elementss like Boron,
Aluminium, Gallium and nd Indium.
The doping has three valence
nce electrons
while the Silicon atom has four fou valence
electrons. During the process off d doping, the
doping with three valence electronsns are bound
with the neighbouring three Siliconon atoms. As
Silicon atom has four valence elec lectrons, one
electron position of the doping in the crystal
lattice will remain vacant.
The missing electron positisition in the
covalent bond is denoted as a hole ole. To make
complete covalent, the doping is inn need
n of one
more electron.
These doping can accept eleclectrons from
the neighbouring atoms. Therefore,, this
th impurity
is called an acceptor impurity. Thee energy
e level
of the hole created by each impurity
ty atom
a is just
above the valence band and and is called the acceptor energy leve vel. For each
acceptor atom, there w will be a hole in the valence band in add ddition to the
thermally generated hol oles. Hence, in an P - type semiconductor,r, the
t majority
carriers - Holes minority
ity carriers - Electrons

63. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss its V–I charac
racteristics.
Formation of PN junctiotion diode:
A P-N junction is formed by
joining N -type a and P-type
semiconductor materia rials. Here the
N-region has a high hig electron
concentration and the he P-region a
high hole concentrati ation. So the
electrons diffuse from thet N-side to
the P-side. Similarly holes also
diffuse from P - side to
o the
t N- side. This causes diffusion current.
In a P-N junction,
n, when the electrons and holes move to the other side
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of the junction, they leave

lea behind exposed charges on doping atom sites,
which are fixed in the crycrystal lattice and are unable to move.
On the n-side, positive
p ion cores are exposed and on the t p- side,
negative ion cores are re exposed. An electric field E forms be between the
positive ion cores in the n-type material and negative ion coress in the p-type
material.
The electric field
ld ssweeps free carriers out of this region and nd hence it is
called depletion region on as it is depleted of free carriers. A barrierrier potential
(Vb) due to the electricc fifield E is formed at the junction.
As this diffusion
on of charge carriers from both sides con ontinues, the
negative ions form a layer
lay of negative space charge region along ng the p-side.
Similarly, a positive spa pace charge region is formed by positive e ions
i on the
n-side.
The positive spapace charge region attracts electrons from rom P-side to
n-side and the negative ive space charge region attracts holes from rom N-side to
P -side.
This moment of carriers happen in this region due to o thet formed
electric field and it cononstitutes a current called drift current. The Th diffusion
current and drift currenrent flow in the opposite direction and att o one instant
they both become equal ual. Thus, a P-N junction is formed.
V - I characteristics:
It is the study o of the variation in current
through the diode with ith respect to the applied
voltage across the diod iode when it is forward or
reverse biased.
Forward bias characteri eristics:
If the positive tterminal of the external
voltage source is conne nected to the P-side and the
negative terminal to thehe N-side, it is called forward
biased.
A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias
voltage (V) along the e x-axis
x and the current (I)
through the diode along ong the y-axis. This graph is
called the forward V-I ch characteristics.
From the graph,
(1) At room temperature,
tem a potential difference equal to the barrier
potentiall is required before a reasonable forward cu current starts
flowing across
acr the diode. This voltage is known as threshold
voltage or cut-in
c voltage or knee voltage (Vth).
on ; ì•o = 0.7 V
For Silicon
For German anium; ì•o = 0.3 V
(2) The graph h clearly infers that the current flow is nott lilinear and is
exponentiatial. Hence it does not obey Ohm’s law.
(3) The forwarard resistance ( y) of the diode is the ratioio of o the small
change in voltage
v (∆V) to the small change in current
nt (∆I),
∆Ù
Š = ∆
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(4) Thus thee d diode behaves as a conductor when it is forward

biased.
Reverse bias characterieristics:
If the positive ter
terminal of the battery is connected to the he n-side and
the negative potentiall to the p- side, the junction is said to be reve
verse biased.
A graph is drawn betwe tween the reverse bias voltage and the cur urrent across
the junction, which is called
ca the reverse V - I characteristics.
Under this bias,, a very small current in µA, flows across the th junction.
This is due to the flowow of the minority charge carriers called the th leakage

íô ,l,³ = ! > Ø
current or reverse satura
turation current.

íô ,l,³ = ô > Ø
For Silicon ;
For Germanium;
Besides, the currerrent is almost independent of the voltage.
The reverse biasas voltage can be increased only up to the e rated value
otherwise the diode will ill enter into the breakdown region.

64. Draw the circuit diagram

ram of a half wave rectifier and explain itss working.
w
Half wave rectifier:
In a half wave ve rectifier circuit,
either a positive half or the negative half
of the AC input is pass ssed through while
the other half is blocked
ed. Only one half of
the input wave reach aches the output.
Therefore, it is called ha
half wave rectifier.
This circuit cons
nsists of a
transformer, a P-N jujunction diode and a resistor (RL) here, P-N P junction
diode acts as a rectifying
ing diode.
During positive half cyc
cycle of During negative half cycle
cle of
input AC input AC
Terminal A becomes positiv itive Terminal B becomes positive
with respect to terminal al B with respect to terminal A.
The diode is forward bi biased The diode is reverse biase sed and
and hence it conducts hence it does not conduc
ucts
The current flows through h th
the load No current passes through RL and
resistor RL and AC voltag tage there is no voltage the drop across
ac RL.
developed across RL consti stitutes the (The reverse saturation curre rrent in
output voltage ¤K a diode is negligible)
The output wavef eform is shown below.
The output of thehe half wave rectifier is not
a steady dc voltage b but a pulsating wave. A
constant or a steady vo voltage is required which
can be obtained with h tthe help of filter circuits
and voltage regulator cir
circuits. Efficiency ( ) is
the ratio of the outputt d dc power to the ac input
power supplied to the e circuit.
c Its value for half
wave rectifier is 40.6 %
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65. Explain the constructionion and working of a full wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier:
The positive andnd negative half cycles
of the AC input signa nal pass through this
circuit and hence it is called the full wave
rectifier.
It consists of two
wo P-N junction diodes,
a center tapped trans nsformer, and a load
resistor (RL).
The centre (C) is usually taken as the
ground or zero voltage e reference point. Due to the centre tap tr
transformer,
the output voltage rec ectified by each diode is only one halff of
o the total
secondary voltage.

During positive half cycl

ycle of input During negative half cycle
cle of
AC input AC
Terminal M is positive, G is at zero Terminal M is negative, G iss a
at zero
potential and N is at nega
gative potential and N is at po positive
potential. potential.
Diode D1 is forward biase
sed. Diode D1 is reverse biased.
Diode D2 is reverse biase
sed. Diode D2 is forward biased.
D1 conducts and currentnt fflows D2 conducts and current flowsws
along the path MD1AGC along the path ND2BGC
The voltage appears acroross RL in The voltage appears across RL in
the direction G to C the same direction G to C

Hence in a full wave rectifier

re both
positive and negative half cycles
cy of the
input signal pass through the th circuit in
the same direction. The outpu put waveform
is shown below.
Though both positive andan negative
half cycles of ac input are rectified,
re the
output is still pulsating in nature.
n The
efficiency (η) of full wave recti
ctifier is twice
that of a half wave rectif
ctifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
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66. Write a note on Zenerr d diode. Explain the V - I characteristics of Zener

Ze diode.
Zener diode:
Zener diode is a reverse
r biased heavily doped Silicon diode
ode, designed
to be operated in the breakdown
br region. Zener breakdown occursurs due to the
breaking of covalent bon
bonds by the strong electric field set up in th the depletion
region by the reverse e vvoltage. It produces an extremely large ge number of
electrons and holes w which constitute
the reverse saturation n ccurrent.
V-I Characteristics of Ze
Zener diode:
The circuit to stustudy the forward
and reverse characteris ristic s of a Zener
diode is shown below. be The V-I
characteristics of a Z Zener diode is
shown below. The forwa ward characteristic
of a Zener diode is simi
imilar to that of an
ordinary P-N junction dio
diode.
It starts conducting
approximately around 0.7 0. V.
However, th
the reverse
characteristics are highighly significant in
Zener diode. The increarease in reverse voltage normally generates tes very small
reverse current. While e in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage e is increased
to the breakdown volta ltage (VZ), the increase in current is very ry sharp. The
voltage remains almost st constant throughout the breakdown region ion.
Here, IZ(max) repr
epresents the maximum reverse current. If the reverse
current is increased furt
urther, the diode will be damaged.
The important parameters on the reverse characte cteristics are
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain
breakdown IZ(max)→maximum m current
limited by maximum power dissi ssipation. The
Zener diode is operated in the reverse
re bias
having the voltage greater than tha VZ and
current less than IZ(max). During positive
p half
cycle of input AC
During negative half cycle
le of input AC
Terminal M is positive, G is at zero
zer potential
and N is at negative potential Terminal
Ter M is
negative,
The reverse charaaracteristic is not exactly vertical which meaeans that the
diode possesses some e ssmall resistance called Zener dynamic imp pedance.
Zener resistancece is the inverse of the slope in the breakdo kdown region.
It means an increase se in the Zener current produces only a very small
increase in the reversese voltage which can be neglected. Thus the voltage of
an ideal Zener diode dodoes not change once it goes into breakdow own. It means
that VZ remains almost st cconstant even when IZ increases considera erably.
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67. Explain the working off Zener

Z diode as a voltage regulator.
Zener diode as a voltageage regulator:
A Zener diode wo working in the breakdown region can serve e as
a a voltage
regulator. It maintainss a constant
output voltage even w when input
voltage (ïâ) or load ccurrent (IL)
varies. Here, in this is circuit the
input voltage ïâ is reguegulated at a
constant voltage Vz (Zen ener voltage)
at the output represen sented as V0
using a Zener diode.
The output vvoltage is
maintained constant as long as the input voltage does not fal fall below Vz.
When the potential deve eveloped across the diode is greater than VZ, the diode
moves into the Zenerr b breakdown region. It conducts and draw aws relatively
large current through h the series resistance. The total currentent I passing
through ÑX equals the su sum of diode current IZ and load current IL
(i.e.) í = òI + ím
It is to be noted that
th the total current is always less than the maximum
Zener diode current. UnderU all conditions ïK = ïÅ .Thus, output
put voltage is
regulated.

68. What is meant by lightght emitting diode? Explain its working pri principle with
diagram.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
(LE :
LED is a p-n junct
nction diode which emits visible or invisible
e lilight when it
is forward biased. Since
nce, electrical
energy is converted d into light
energy, this process is also called
electro luminescence. It consists of
a P-layer, N-layer andd a substrate.
A transparent window w is used to
allow light to travel in the
t desired
direction. In addition,, it has two
leads; anode and cathod
hode.
When the P-N junction is
forward biased, the conduction
band electrons on N N-side and
valence band holes on n P-side diffuse across the junction. Whenen they cross
the junction, they becom
come excess minority carriers (electrons in P-side and
holes in N-side). Thesese excess minority carriers recombine with ith oppositely
charged majority carrier
riers in the respective regions, i.e. the elect
ectrons in the
conduction band recomb mbine with holes in the valence band.
During recombinaination process, energy is released in the form
fo of light
(radioactive) or heat (non-
(n radioactive). For radioactive recom
ombination, a
photon of energy hv iss e emitted. For non-radioactive recombination
tion, energy is
liberated in the form of hheat.
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The colour of the light is determined by the energy band

nd gap of the
material. Therefore, LED
LEDs are available in a wide range of colou
lours such as
blue (SiC), green (AlGa
GaP) and red (GaAsP). Now a days, LED which
w emits
white light (GaInN) is also
als available.

69. Explain in detail aboutt the

t photo diode.
Photo diode:
A P-N junction d diode which
converts an opticall signal s into
electric current is kknown as
photodiode. Thus, the operation
o of
photodiode is exactlyy o opposite to
that of an LED. Photo d diode works
in reverse bias. Its circircuit symbol
below. The direction n of arrows
indicates that the lightt is incident on the photo diode. The device
ice consists of
a P-N junction semicon onductor made of photosensitive material al kept safely
inside a plastic case.
It has a small transparent
tra window that allows light to bee incident on
the P-N junction. Photod
todiodes can generate current when the P-N N junction is
exposed to light and he hence are called as light sensors. When n a photon of
sufficient energy (hì) st strikes the depletion region of the diode,, some
s of the
valence band electrons ns are elevated into conduction band, in turn
tur holes are
developed in the valence
nce band.
This creates elec
lectron-hole pairs. The amount of electron on hole pairs
generated depends on the intensity of light incident on the P-N P junction.
These electrons and ho holes are swept across the P-N junction by the electric
field created by reverse
se voltage before recombination takes place. ce.
Thus, holes moveove towards the N-side and electrons towa wards the P-
side. When the externa rnal circuit is made, the electrons flow through
t the
external circuit and con onstitute the photocurrent. When the incid cident light is
zero, there exists a reve
verse current which is negligible. This revers
rse current in
the absence of any inc incident light is called dark current and is due to the
thermally generated min inority carriers.

70. Explain the working prin rinciple of Solar cell. Mention its application
ions.
Solar cell :
A solar cell, alsolso known as photovoltaic cell, convertss llight energy
directly into electricity or electric potential difference by photovolta
ltaic effect.
It is basically a PP-N junction which generates emf when sola olar radiation
falls on the P-N junction.
on.
A solar cell is of two types:
typ P-type and N-type.
Both types use e a combination of P-type and N-type Silicon Sil which
together forms the P-N N ju
junction of the solar cell.
The difference is that P-type solar cells use P-type Silicon n as
a the base
with an ultra-thin layer er of N-type Silicon, while N-type solar cell
ce uses the
opposite combination. The other side of the P-Silicon is coated ed with metal
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 225
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which forms the back ck electrical

contact.
On top of the N-ty type Silicon,
metal grid is depositeded which acts
as the front electrical co
contact.
The top of the ssolar cell is
coated with anti- reflectction coating
and toughened glass. In a solar
cell, electron–hole pairs are
generated due to the ab absorption of
light near the junction.
Then the charge e ccarriers are separated due to the electric
ric field of the
depletion region. Electrctrons move towards N–type Silicon and d holes
h move
towards P-type Silicon layer.
la
The electrons rea
reaching the N-side are collected by the fro ront contact
and holes reaching P-sidside are collected by the back electrical cont
ontact. Thus a
potential difference is de
developed across solar cell.
When an externa rnal load is connected to the solar cell,, photocurrent
ph
flows through the load ad. Many solar cells are connected togethe ther either in
series or in parallel com
ombination to form solar panel or module. le. Many solar
panels are connected with w each other to form solar arrays. For or high power
applications, solar pane
nels and solar arrays are used.
Applications:
(1) Solar cells
ells are widely used in calculators, wat atches, toys,
portable power
po supplies, etc.
(2) Solar cells
lls are used in satellites and space applicatio
tions
(3) Solar pane
nels are used to generate electricity.

71. Explain transistor action in common base configur

guration.
Working of NPN transist
sistor in CB mode:
Basically, a BJTT can
c be considered as two P-N junc nction diodes
connected back to- back. In the
forward active bias off the
t transistor,
the emitter-base junctio
ction is forward
biased by VEB and the e collector-base
junction is reverse biase
ased by VCB. The
forward bias decreases es the depletion
region across the emitter-base
junction and the reverse r bias
increases the depletion
on region across
the collector-base junctction. Hence, the barrier potential acrosss the
t emitter-
base junction is decreasased and the collector-base junction is incre
creased.
In an NPN transi
nsistor, the majority charge carriers in the e emitter are
electrons. As it is heavavily doped, it has a large number of ele lectrons. The
forward bias across the emitter-base junction causes the elect ctrons in the
emitter region to flow tow
towards the base region and constitutes the
he
emitter current (IE).
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 226
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The electrons aftefter reaching the base region recombine with wit the holes
in the base region. Since
nce the base region is very narrow and lightl htly doped, all
the electrons will not have
ha sufficient holes to recombine and hen ence most of
the electrons reach the e ccollector region.
Eventually, the e electrons
e that reach the collector regi egion will be
attracted by the collec lector terminal as it has positive potential tial and flows
through the external circuit.
circ This constitutes the collector current
nt (IC).
The holes that arear lost due to recombination in the base se region are
replaced by the positive ve potential of the bias voltage VEB and con onstitute the
base current (IB ).
The magnitude e of the base current will be in microa oamperes as
against mill amperes for f emitter and collector currents. It iss to t be noted
that if the emitter curre almost zero. It
rrent is zero, then the collector current is alm
is therefore imperative e that
t a BJT is called a current controlled dev
device.
Applying Kirchhof off’s law, we can write the emitter current nt as the sum
of the collector currentt a and the base current.
IE = IB + IC
Since the base cucurrent is very small, we can write,
IE ≈ IC
There is anotherer component of collector current due to the th thermally
generated electrons call alled reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
This factor is tem
emperature sensitive. The ratio of the collec llector current
to the emitter current is called the forward current gain (β ) of a transistor.
tra
The α of a transis
sistor is a measure of the quality of a transissistor. Higher
the value of α better is the transistor. The value of α is less than han unity and
ranges from 0.95 to 0.99.
0.9

72. Sketch the static chararacteristics of a common emitter transisto

stor and bring
out the essence of input
put and output characteristics.
Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode:

VBE − Base - emitter volta

oltage
VCE−Collector-emitter vovoltage
IB − Base current
IC − Collector current
VBB & VCC − Biasing volta
oltages
R1 & R2 − Variable resis sistors
(1) Input characterist
ristics:
Input Character teristics
curves give the relatio tionship between the base current (IB) an and base to
emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector to emitter voltage (VCEE). The curve
looks like the forward chcharacteristics of an ordinary P-N junction
n diode.
d There
exists a threshold voltag
ltage or knee voltage (Vk) below which the base
b current
is very small. Beyond theth knee voltage, the base current increas ases with the
increase in base-emitterter voltage.
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It is also noted that the incre crease in the

collector-emitter voltage decr ecreases the
base current. This shifts the curve
outward. This is because the e increase in
collector- emitter voltage incr ncreases the
width of the depletion regio gion in turn,
reduces the effective base e width and
thereby the base current. The e ratio of the
change in base-emitter voltag age (∆VBE) to
the change in base current nt (∆IB) at a
constant collector-emitte
itter voltage (VCE) is called the input resistanc
ance (ri).
∆Ù8©
· =R X
∆8 Ù
ª©
The input resista
istance is high for a transistor in comm mon emitter
configuration.
(2) Output characteri
teristics:
The output char haracteristics give the
relationship between the t variation in the
collector current (∆IC) with respect to the
variation in collector-em
emitter voltage (∆VCE) at
constant input currentt (IB)
There are four importanant regions in the curve
(i) Saturation
on region (ii) Cut-
off region (iii) Acti
ctive region
(iv) Break down wn region
The ratio of the ch
change in the collector
emitter voltage (∆VCE) to t the corresponding
change in the collectortor current (∆IC) at constant base currentt (IB) is called
∆Ùª©
output resistance K. K =R X
∆¢ 8
The output resista
istance for transistor in common emitter configuration
co
is very low.
(3) Current transfer ccharacteristics:
This gives the e variation of collector
current (IC) with change
ges in base current (IB) at
constant collector-emitte
itter voltage (VCE)
It is seen that a smallll IIC flows even when IB is
zero. This current is call
alled the common emitter
leakage current (ICEO),, which
w is due to the flow
of minority charge carrie
rriers.
The ratio of th the change in collector
current (∆IC) to the chan
ange in base current (∆IB)
at constant collector-em
emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward curre
rrent gain (β).
β=R U
X . Its value is very high and it generally ranges from 50 to 200.
8 Ù
ª©
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73. Transistor functions ass a switch. Explain.

Transistor as a switch:
The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions functio tions like an
electronic switch thatt h helps to turn ON or OFF a given circuit it by a small
control signal.
Presence of dc source ea at the input (saturation region):
When a high h input
voltage (Vin = +5 V) iss a applied,
the base current (IB) increases
inc
and in turn increase ases the
collector current. The
transistor will move into in the
saturation region (turne
rned ON).
The increase in co collector
current (IC) increase ses the
voltage drop across RC,RC thereby lowering the output voltage, close clo to zero.
The transistor acts likee a closed switch and is equivalent to ON condition.
con
Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region):
A low input voltag
ltage (Vin = 0 V), decreases the base current ent (IB) and in
turn decreases the colle llector current (IC). The transistor will move
e into
i the cut-
off region (turned OFF).
F). The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases
dec the
drop across RC, thereby by increasing the output voltage, close to +5 V.
The transistor act
acts as an open switch which is considered ed as the OFF
condition. It is manifest
ested that, a high input gives a low output ut and a low
input gives a high outputput. Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter
in computer logic circuit
uitry.

74. Describe the function no of a transistor as an amplifier with thee neat

n circuit
diagram. Sketch the input
inp and output wave form.
Transistor as an amplifi
lifier:
Amplification is the
th process of increasing the signal strengt
ngth (increase
in the amplitude). If a la large amplification is required, multistage
ge amplifier is
used. Here, the amplific
ification of an electrical
signal is explained w with a single stage
transistor amplifier.
Single stage indic
dicates that the circuit
consists of one transinsistor with the allied
components. An NPN N transistor is
connected in the e common emitter
configuration. A load ad resistance, RC is
connected in series with ith the collector circuit
to measure the outputt vvoltage.
The capacitor C1 allows
ws only the ac signal to
pass through. The emitteitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low reac
eactance path
to the amplified ac signanal.
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The coupling capa

apacitor CC is used to couple one stage off the
th amplifier
with the next stage while w constructing multistage amplifiers.
rs. VS is the

ctor-emitter. I = βI
sinusoidal input signall source
s applied across the base-emitter. The
Th output is
taken across the collect
Applying Kirchhohoff’s voltage law in the output loop, the collector-
emitter voltage is VCE = VCC - IC RC
Working of the amplifie
ifier:
(1) During the positiv
itive half cycle:
Input signal (Vs)s) increases the forward voltage acrosss thet emitter-
base. As a result, the base
ba current (IB) increases. Consequently,, ththe collector
current (IC) increases β times. This increases the voltage drop rop across RC
which in turn decreases es the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
Therefore, the in input signal in the positive direction
produces an amplified ed signal in the negative direction at
the output. Hence, the eo output signal is reversed by 1800.
(2) During the negati
ative half cycle:
Input signal (Vs)) d
decreases the forward voltage across
the emitter-base. As a result, base current (IB) decreases
and in turn increases theth collector current (IC). The increase
in collector current (IC) ddecreases the potential drop across
RC and increases the co collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
Thus, the input ut signal in the negative direction
produces an amplified ied signal in the positive direction att the t output.
Therefore, 180 phase
0 e reversal
r is observed during the negativee half
h cycle of
the input signal

75. Explain the action trans

nsistor as an oscillator.
Transistor as an oscillat
llator:
An electronic oscscillator basically converts dc energy into ac
a energy of
high frequency ranging ng from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence,, it is a source
of alternating currentt o or voltage. Unlike an amplifier, oscillato
ator does not
require any externall ssignal source. Basically, there are two types of
oscillators: Sinusoidall a
and non-sinusoidal. An oscillator circuit consists
co of a
tank circuit, an amplifier
fier and a feedback circuit as shown
Amplifier:
Amplification is th
the process of increasing
amplitude of weak signals (i.e) Amplifier
amplifies the input ac si
signal
Feedback network:
The circuit usedd tto feedback a portion of
the output to the input
put is called the feedback
network. If the portion n of the output fed to the
input is in phase with th the input, then the magnitude of the iinput signal
increases. It is necessar
sary for sustained oscillations.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 230
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Tank circuit:
The LC tank circu
rcuit consists of an inductance
and a capacitor conne nected in parallel. Whenever
energy is supplied to o tthe tank circuit from a DC
source, the energy is stored in inductor and
capacitor alternatively.
This producess electrical oscillations of
definite frequency. Butt iin practical oscillator circuits
there will be loss of en
energy across resistors, inductor coils andd capacitors.
Due to this, the amplitud
itude of the oscillations decreases gradually.
lly. Hence, the
tank circuit produces damped
da electrical oscillations.
Therefore, in ord
order to produce undammed oscillations, s, a positive
feedback is provided d from the output circuit to the inputt circuit.
c The
frequency of oscillations
ons is determined by the values of L and d C using the

ƒ √¹¢
equation. f =

76. State and prove De Mor

organ’s First and Second theorems.
De Morgan’s First Theo
eorem :
The complement nt of the sum of two logical inputs is equaleq to the
ments. A + B = A . B
product of its compleme
Proof:
The Boolean equauation for NOR gate is Y = A + B
The Boolean equauation for a bubbled AND gate is Y = A . B
A B A
A+B :+} : } A. B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Thus De Morgan’an’s First Theorem is proved. It also sayss that

t a NOR
gate is equal to a bubble
bled AND gate.
The correspondining logic circuit diagram.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 231
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ANT IN PHYSICS

De Morgan’s Second the

theorem:
The complementnt of the product of two logical inputs is equal
e to the
sum of its complementsts. A. B = A + B
Proof:
uation for NAND gate is Y = A. B
The Boolean equa
uation for a bubbled OR gate is Y = m + n
The Boolean equa
A B A.
A.B :. } : } A + B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Thus De Morgan an’s First Theorem is proved. It also say
ays, a NAND
gate is equal to a bubb
bbled OR gate.
The correspondi
ding logic circuit diagram

77. State Boolean laws.. Elucidate

E how they are used to simpli plify Boolean
expressions with suitabl
able example.
Boolean laws:
(1) Compleme ment law:
(i) m̿ = A

(i) A+0 = A , (ii) A + 1 = 1 , (iii) A + A = A , (iv) A + m̅ = 1

(2) OR Laws:

0, (ii) A.1 = A, (iii) A. A = A, (iv) A. m̅ = 0

(3) AND Laws::
(i) A.0=0,
(4) Commutati tative Laws:
i) A + B = B + A, (ii) A . B = B . A
(5) Associativeive Laws:
(i) A + (B +C+C) = (A + B) + C , (ii) A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
(6) Distributive
tive Laws:
(i) A (B + C) = A B + A C , (ii) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C)
Example:
Simplify the follow
llowing Boolean expression. AC + ABC
Solution:
AC + ABC C = AC (1+B)
AC + ABC C = AC.1 [OR – Law (2)]
AC + ABC C = AC [AND – Law (2)]
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 232
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UNIT - X (COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS)

TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is called modulation? Give its types.
For long distance transmission, the low frequency base band signal
(input signal) is superimposed on to a high frequency carrier signal (radio
signal) by a process called modulation.
(1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(2) Frequency Modulation (FM)
(3) Phase Modulation (PM)

2. What is the necessity of modulation?

When the information signal of low frequency is transmitted over a
long distances, there will be information loss occurs. As the frequency of the
carrier signal is very high, it can be transmitted to long distances with less
attenuation. Thus in the modulation process, carrier signal of very high
frequency signal (radio signal) is used to carry the baseband signal
(information)

3. Define amplitude modulation (AM)

If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
modulation (AM)

4. Give the advantages and limitations of amplitude modulation (AM)

Advantages of AM :
Easy transmission and reception, lesser bandwidth requirements
Low cost
Limitations of AM:
Noise level is high, Low efficiency, Small operating range

5. Define frequency modulation (FM)

If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal then it is called frequency
modulation (FM)

6. Give the advantages and limitations of frequency modulation (FM)

Advantages of FM :
Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in signal-noise ratio.
The operating range is quite large. The transmission efficiency is very
high as all the transmitted power is useful. FM bandwidth covers the entire
frequency range which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has better
quality compared to AM radio.
Limitations of FM :
FM requires a much wider channel.
FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 233
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7. Define phase modulation (PM)

The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the
phase of the carrier signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is
called phase modulation.

8. What is called centre frequency or resting frequency?

When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal),
there is no change in the frequency of the carrier wave. It is at its normal
frequency and is called as centre frequency or resting frequency.
Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.

9. Give the advantages of phase modulation (PM)

Advantages of PM :
FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable.
The centre frequency called resting frequency is extremely stable.

10. Compare FM and PM?

Comparison between FM and PM:
PM wave is similar to FM wave. PM generally uses a smaller
bandwidth than FM. In other words, in PM, more information can be sent in a
given bandwidth. Hence, phase modulation provides high transmission
speed on a given bandwidth.

11. What is called base band signals?

Information can be in the form of a sound signal like speech, music,
pictures, or computer data. The electrical equivalent of the original
information is called the baseband signal.

12. Define band width.

The frequency range over which the baseband signals or the
information signals such as voice, music, picture, etc. is transmitted is
known as bandwidth. Bandwidth gives the difference between the upper and
lower frequency limits of the signal. If V1 and V2 are the lower and upper-
frequency limits of a signal, then the bandwidth, BW = V2 - V1

13. Define the size of the antenna.

Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver end. Antenna height
is an important parameter to be discussed. The height of the antenna must
be a multiple of . (i.e.) ℎ =
Ð - ¢
=
ª

14. What are the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves

through space.
Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave propagation
(nearly 2 kHz to 2 MHz) .
Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation
(nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
Space wave propagation (nearly 30MHz to 400GHz)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 234
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15. Write a note on ground wave propagation.

If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over
the surface of the earth to reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
ground wave propagation. The corresponding waves are called ground waves
or surface waves. It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation, for
ship-to-ship, ship to-shore communication and mobile communication.

16. Give the factors that are responsible for transmission impairments.
Increasing distance:
The attenuation of the signal depends on
(1) Power of the transmitter
(2) Frequency of the transmitter, and
(3) Condition of the earth surface.
Absorption of energy by the Earth:
When the transmitted signal in the form of EM wave is in contact with
the Earth, it induces charges in the Earth and constitutes a current.
Due to this, the earth behaves like a leaky capacitor which leads to
the attenuation of the wave. Tilting of the wave: As the wave:
As the wave a progress, the wave-front starts gradually tilting
according to the curvature of the Earth. This increase in the tilt decreases
the electric field strength of the wave. Finally, at some distance, the surface
wave dies out due to energy loss.

17. Define sky wave propagation.

The mode of propagation in which the electromagnetic waves
radiated from an antenna, directed upwards at large angles gets reflected
by the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave propagation or
ionospheric propagation. The corresponding waves are called sky waves.

18. Define skip distance.

The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of
reception of the sky wave along the surface is called as the skip distance.

19. Define skip zone.

There is a zone in between where there is no reception of
electromagnetic waves neither ground nor sky, called as skip zone or skip
area.

20. What is space wave propagation?

The process of sending and receiving information signal through
space is called space wave communication. The electromagnetic waves of
very high frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space waves.

21. Define fibre optical communication.

The method of transmitting information from one place to another in
terms of light pulses through an optical fiber is called fiber optic
communication. It works on the principle of total internal reflection.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 235
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

22. What is mean by RADAR?

Radar basically stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging System.
It is one of the important applications of communication systems and is
mainly used to sense, detect, and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships,
spacecraft, etc.

23. Write a note on mobile communication and give its applications.

Mobile communication is used to communicate with others in
different locations without the use of any physical connection like wires or
cables.
It enables the people to communicate with each other regardless of a
particular location like office, house, etc. It also provides communication
access to remote areas.
Applications:
It is used for personal communication and cellular phones offer voice
and data connectivity with high speed. Transmission of news across the
globe is done within a few seconds. Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made
possible to control various devices from a single device.
Example: home automation using a mobile phone.
It enables smart classrooms, online availability of notes, monitoring
student activities etc. in the field of education.

24. Write a note on internet and give its applications.

Internet is a fast growing technology in the field of communication
system with multifaceted tools. Internet is the largest computer network
recognized globally that connects millions of people through computers.
It finds extensive applications in all walks of life.
Applications:
Search engine:
The search engine is basically a web-based service tool used to
search for information on World Wide Web.
Communication:
It helps millions of people to connect with the use of social
networking: emails, instant messaging services and social networking tools.
E-Commerce:
Buying and selling of goods and services, transfer of funds are done
over an electronic network.

25. Write a note on Global positioning system.

Global positioning system:
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is a global navigation
satellite system that offers geo location and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth. GPS system works with the
assistance of a satellite network. Each of these satellites broadcasts a
precise signal like an ordinary radio signal.
These signals that convey the location data are received by a low-cost
aerial which is then translated by the GPS software.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 236
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The software is able to recognize the satellite, its location, and the
time taken by the signals to travel from each satellite. The software then
processes the data it accepts from each satellite to estimate the location of
the receiver.
Applications:
Global positioning system is highly useful many fields such as
(1) Fleet vehicle management (for tracking cars, trucks and buses),
(2) Wildlife management (for counting of wild animals) and
(3) Engineering (for making tunnels, bridges etc).

26. What do you mean by Internet of Things?

Using Internet of Things (IOT), it is made possible to control various
devices from a single device. (e.g.) Home automation using a mobile phone.

27. Distinguish between wire-line and wireless communication?

Wire line communication:
Specify the range of electromagnetic waves in which it is
used. Wire line communication. It is a point-point communication) uses
mediums like wires, cables and optical fibers. These systems cannot be used
for long distance transmission as they are connected physically. Examples
are telephone, intercom and cable TV.
Wireless communication
It uses free space as a communication medium. The signals are
transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves with the help of a
transmitting antenna. Hence wireless communication is used for long
distance transmission. Examples are mobile, radio or TV broadcasting, and
satellite communication.

28. What are called noises?

It is the undesirable electrical signal that interfaces with the
transmitted signal. Noise attenuates or reduces the quality of the
transmitted signal. It may be man-made (automobiles, welding machines,
electric motors etc.) or natural (lightning, radiation from sun and stars and
environmental effects).

29. What are repeaters?

Repeaters are used to increase the range or distance through which
the signals are sent. It is a combination of transmitter and receiver. The
signals are received, amplified, and retransmitted with a carrier signal of
different frequency to the destination. The best example is the
communication satellite in space.

30. Define attenuation.

The loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a medium is
known as attenuation.

31. Define Range. It is the maximum distance between the source and the
destination up to which the signal is received with sufficient strength.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 237
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

FIVE MAR
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

32. What is called modula ulation? Explain the types of modulation with w help of
necessary diagrams.
Modulation:
For long distance
nce transmission, the low frequency baseb seband signal
(input signal) is superierimposed onto a high frequency radio o signal
s by a
process called modulatilation. In the modulation process, a very high igh frequency
signal called carrier sign
ignal (radio signal) is used to carry the basebeband signal.
Types of modulation:
(1) Amplitude modula ulation (AM)
(2) Frequency modul ulation (FM)
(3) Phase modulation ion (PM)
Amplitude modulation n ((AM) :
If the amplitude e of the carrier signal
is modified according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the basebaeband signal, then it is
called amplitude mod odulation. Here the
frequency and the phase ph of the carrier
signal remain constant. nt. We can see clearly
that the carrier wav ave is modified in
proportion to the amplitudea of the
baseband signal. Ampl plitude modulation is
used in radio and TV bro
broadcasting.
Advantages of AM :
Easy transmissio sion and reception,
lesser bandwidth require
uirements
Low cost
Limitations of AM:
Noise level is high, Low w efficiency, Small operating range
Frequency modulation n ((FM) :
If the frequency of the carr
arrier signal is
modified according to the instantaneous
ins
amplitude of the baseband signa nal, then it is
called frequency modulation. Here the
amplitude and the phase off the carrier
signal remain constant.
When the amplitude of the baseband
signal is zero, the frequenc ency of the
modulated signal is the same as the carrier
signal.
The frequency of the modu dulated wave
increases when the amplitud tude of the
baseband signal increases in the t positive
direction (A, C). The increase in amplitude
a in
the negative half cycle (B, D)) rreduces the
frequency of the modulaulated wave.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 238
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ANT IN PHYSICS

When the frequen

uency of the baseband signal is zero (no input
in signal),
there is no change in t frequency of the carrier wave. It is at its normal
n the
frequency and is called
ed as centre frequency or resting frequency. cy. Practically
75 kHz is the allotted fre
frequency of the FM transmitter.
Advantages of FM :
Large decrease in noise
ise. This leads to an increase in signal-noise
e ratio.
r
The operating range iss q
quite large.
The transmission effici
ficiency is very high as all the transmitte tted power is
useful. FM bandwidth covers
c the entire frequency range which humans
h can
hear. Due to this, FM rad
radio has better quality compared to AM radadio.

Limitations of FM:
FM requires a much
mu wider channel.
FM transmitterss and
a receivers are more complex and costly tly.
In FM reception,, lless area is covered compared to AM.
Phase modulation (PM) M):
The instant
antaneous
amplitude of the baseband
ba
signal modifies the ph phase of
the carrier signal keepeping the
amplitude and fre
frequency
constant is called d phase
modulation. This moduldulation is
used to generate fre frequency
modulated signals.
When the mod odulating
signal goes positive tive, the
amount of phase lead ad increases with the amplitude of the e modulating
m
signal. Due to this, ththe carrier signal is compressed or its frequency
fr is
increased.
On the other han
hand, the negative half cycle of the baseb seband signal
produces a phase lagg in the carrier signal. Hence similar to frequency
modulated wave, phase ase modulated wave also comprises of compressions
co
and rarefactions.
When the signal al voltage is zero (A, C and E) the carrierr frequency
fr is
unchanged. The freque uency shift in carrier wave frequency exist ists in phase
modulation as well.
The frequency shi
shift depends on
(i) Amplitude of theem modulating signal and
(ii) The frequency of the signal.
Advantages of PM:
FM signal produced from
rom PM signal is very stable.
The centre frequency cacalled resting frequency is extremely stable.
le.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 239
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

33. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the

necessary block diagram.
Communication system:
Electronic communication is nothing but the transmission of sound,
text, pictures, or data through a medium.

Basic elements of communication system:

(1) Input transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts variations in a physical quantity
(pressure, temperature, sound) into an equivalent electrical signal or vice
versa. In communication system, the transducer converts the information
which is in the form of sound, music, pictures or computer data into
corresponding electrical signals. The electrical equivalent of the original
information is called the baseband signal. (e.g.) microphone
(2) Transmitter:
It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer to the communication
channel. The transmitter is located at the broadcasting station. It consists,
(i) Amplifier: The transducer output is very weak and is amplified
by the amplifier.
(ii) Oscillator: It generates high-frequency carrier wave
(a sinusoidal wave) for long distance transmission into space.
(iii) Modulator: It superimposes the baseband signal onto the
carrier signal and generates the modulated signal.
(iv) Power amplifier: It increases the power level of the electrical
signal in order to cover a large distance.
(3) Transmitting antenna:
It radiates the radio signal into space in all directions. It travels in the
form of electromagnetic waves with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1)
(4) Communication channel:
Communication channel is used to carry the electrical signal from
transmitter to receiver with less noise or distortion. The communication
medium is basically of two types: wire line communication and wireless
communication.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 240
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(5) Receiver:
The signals that are transmitted through the communication medium
are received with the help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the
receiver. The receiver consists of electronic circuits like demodulator,
amplifier, detector etc.

The demodulator extracts the baseband signal from the carrier signal.
Then the baseband signal is detected and amplified using amplifiers. Finally,
it is fed to the output transducer.
(6) Output transducer:
It converts the electrical signal back to its original form such as
sound, music, pictures or data. (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes,
computer monitor, etc.

34. Explain the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves through

space.
Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves:
The electromagnetic wave transmitted by :
(1) Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave propagation
(2 kHz to 2 MHz)
(2) Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation
(3 MHz to 30 MHz)
(3) Space wave propagation (30 MHz to 400 GHz)
Ground wave propagation:
If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over
the surface of the earth to reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
ground wave propagation. The corresponding waves are called ground waves
or surface waves. Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be close to
the earth.
The size of the antenna plays a major role in deciding the efficiency of
the radiation of signals. During transmission, the electrical signals are
attenuated over a distance. Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
Increasing distance, Absorption of energy by the Earth, Tilting of the wave
It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation,
for ship-to-ship, ship to- shore communication and mobile communication.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 241
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AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Sky wave propagation:

The mode of propropagation in which the electromagnetic wav aves radiated
from an antenna, direc rected upwards at large angles gets reflec lected by the
ionosphere back to ea earth is called sky wave propagation orr ionospheric
i
propagation. Extremely ely long distance communication is possi ssible as the
radio waves can under dergo multiple reflections between the earth
ear and the
ionosphere.
The phenomenon on of bending the radio waves back to eartarth is due to
the total internal refleflection. This is the reason why the EM M waves are
transmitted at a critica
tical angle to ensure that the waves undergo
un total
reflection and reachess ththe ground without escaping into space.
The shortest distance
dis between the transmitter and the th point of
reception of the sky wa wave along the surface is called as the skip
ski distance.
There is a zon one in between where there is no reception re of
electromagnetic waves es neither ground nor sky, called as skip zone
zo or skip
area.
Space wave propagation tion:
The process off sending and receiving information sign ignal through
space is called space w wave communication. The electromagneti etic waves of
very high frequencies ab above 30 MHz are called as space waves.
These waves tra travel in a straight line from the transmi mitter to the
receiver. Hence, it is used
us for a line of sight communication (LOSLOS). For high
frequencies, the transmnsmission towers must be high enough so s that the
transmitted and receiv eived signals (direct waves) will not enc ncounter the
curvature of the earth th and hence travel with less attenuation n and
a loss of
signal strength.
Certain waves re reach the receiver after getting reflected
ted from the
ground. The communic nication systems like television broadcas
cast, satellite
communication, and RA RADAR are based on space wave propagation tion.
The range or dististance (d) of coverage of the propagationn depends
d on
ntenna given by the equation, o = √2 K ℎ
where, K → Rad
the height (h) of the ante
adius of earth (6400 km)

35. Explain satellite commu munication.

Satellite communication tion:
The satellite
communication is a
mode of
communication of
signal between
transmitter and
receiver via satellite.
The message signal
from the Earth station
is transmitted to the
satellite on board via
an uplink (frequency b band 6 GHz), amplified by a transponde
der and then
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 242
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retransmitted to another earth station via a downlink (frequency band

4 GHz).
The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a straight line (line of
sight) may come across tall buildings or mountains or even encounter the
curvature of the earth.
A communication satellite relays and amplifies such radio signals via
transponder to reach distant and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.
It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.

Applications:
(1) Weather Satellites:
They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
By measuring cloud mass, these satellites enable us to predict rain
and dangerous storms like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
(2) Communication satellites:
They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc.
Multiple satellites are used for long distances.
(3) Navigation satellites:
These are employed to determine the geographic location of ships,
aircrafts or any other object.

36. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications.

RADAR :
Radar basically stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging System.
It is one of the important applications of communication systems and is
mainly used to sense, detect, and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships,
spacecraft, etc.
The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are invisible to the
human eye can be determined. Radar uses electromagnetic waves for
communication. The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into space
by an antenna in all directions.
When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets reflected or
reradiated in many directions. This reflected (echo) signal is received by the
radar antenna which in turn is delivered to the receiver.
Then, it is processed and amplified to determine the geographical
statistics of the object. The range is determined by calculating the time taken
by the signal to travel from RADAR to the target and back.
Applications:
In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.
It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne surface search, air
search and weapons guidance systems. To measure precipitation rate and
wind speed in meteorological observations, Radars are used.
It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.
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37. Give the applications of ICT in fisheries, mining and agriculture sectors.
(1) Agriculture :
ICT is widely used in increasing food productivity and farm
management. It helps to optimize the use of water, seeds and fertilizers etc.
Sophisticated technologies that include robots, temperature and moisture
sensors, aerial images, and GPS technology can be used.
Geographic information systems are extensively used in farming to
decide the suitable place for the species to be planted.
Fisheries:
Satellite vessel monitoring system helps to identify fishing zones.
Use of barcodes helps to identify time and date of catch, species name,
quality of fish.
Mining:
ICT in mining improves operational efficiency, remote monitoring and
disaster locating system. Information and communication technology
provides audio-visual warning to the trapped underground miners.
It helps to connect remote sites.

38. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity among the various

transmission media -justify.
Fiber optic communication:
The method of transmitting information from one place to another in
terms of light pulses through an optical fiber is called fiber optic
communication. It is in the process of replacing wire transmission in
communication systems. Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz)
than microwave radio systems.
The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon dioxide which is highly
abundant on Earth. Now it has been replaced with materials such as
chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline materials because they
provide larger infrared wavelength and better transmission capability.
As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is preferred in places where
multiple channels are to be laid and isolation is required from electrical and
electromagnetic interference.
Applications:
Optical fiber system has a number of applications namely,
international communication, inter-city communication, data links, plant and
traffic control and defense applications.
Merits:
Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than copper cables.
This system has much larger band width. This means that its
information carrying capacity is larger. Fiber optic system is immune to
electrical interferences. Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
Demerits:
Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
It is an expensive technology. Importance: Fiber optic cables provide
the fastest transmission rate compared to any other form of transmission. It
can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and business.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 244
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps. Recent developments in

optical communication provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps

39. Modulation helps to reduce the antenna size in wireless communication –

Explain.
Antenna:
Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver end. Antenna height
is an important parameter to be discussed. The height of the antenna must
Ð
be a multiple of .
Where # → Wavelength [# = Ò ¤“
Ò → Velocity of light and ¤ → frequency of the signal.
Let us consider two baseband signals. One signal is modulated and
the other is not modulated. The frequency of the original baseband signal
(un-modulated) is taken as ν = 10 kHz while the modulated signal is
ν = 1 MHz. The height of the antenna required to transmit the original
baseband signal of frequency ν = 10 kHz is
ℎ = =
Ð \ O5 K
ª
= = 7500 m
5 K 5 KU
The height of the antenna required to transmit the modulated signal of
frequency ν = 1 MHz is
ℎ = =
Ð \ O5 K
ª
= = 75 m
5 5 KU
We can infer that it is practically feasible to construct an antenna of
height 75 m while the one with 7.5 km is not possible. It clearly manifests
that modulated signals reduce the antenna height and are required for long
distance transmission.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 245
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT – XI (RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS)

TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Distinguish between Nano science and Nanotechnology.
Nano science:
It is the science of objects with typical size 1 - 100 nm
Nano means one - billionth of a metre. (i.e) 10−9 ¦
Nanotechnology:
It is a technology involving the design, production, characterization
and application of nano structured materials

2. What is the difference between Nano materials and Bulk materials?

If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm, it is said to be a
‘nano solid’. When the particle size exceeds 100 nm, it is a ‘bulk solid’
Though nano and bulk solids have same chemical composition, nano
form of the material shows strikingly different properties when compared to
its bulk counterpart.

3. Give the interdisciplinary nature of nano technology.

Nano science and technology is the interdisciplinary area covering its
applications in various fields. They are,
(1) Physics, (2) Chemistry, (3) Electrical & Mechanical Engineering
(4) Material science, (5) Molecular Biology,
(6) Applied Mathematics & Computer science

4. Explain how nano structures are made in the laboratory?

Nano in laboratories:
The nano structures made in the laboratory mimic some of the
nature’s amazing nano structures.
There are two ways of preparing the nano materials. They are.
(1) Top - Down approach, (2) Bottom - Up approach
(1) Top - Down approach:
Nano materials are synthesized by breaking down bulk solids in to
nano sizes. (e.g) Ball milling, sol-gel, lithography (2) Bottom - up approach:
Nano materials are synthesized by assembling the atoms or molecules
together. Selectively atoms are added to create structures.
(e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour deposition

5. List the applications of Nano technology.

Energy storage, Defense and security, Metallurgy and materials
Electronics, Optical engineering and communication
Biomedical and drug delivery, Agriculture and food, Cosmetics and paints
Bio-technology, Textiles
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 246
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

6. What is robotics?
Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical engineering, electronic
engineering, computer engineering and science. Robot is a mechanical
device designed with electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a
specific task.

7. What are the components of robotics?

The robotic system mainly consists of (1) Sensors, (2) Power supplies,
(3) Control systems, (4) Manipulators, (5) Necessary software

8. Give the types of robots.

(1) Human robot:
Certain robots are made to resemble humans in appearance and
replicate the human activities like walking, lifting and sensing etc..
(2) Industrial robots:
Six main types of industrial robots are Cartesian, SCARA, Cylindrical,
Delta, Polar and vertically articulated. They are ideal for Arc welding, Spot
welding, Material handling, machine tending and other applications.

9. What is artificial intelligence? What are its work?

The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in human like behaviour in
robots. It works on, (1) Face recognition
(2) Providing response to player’s actions is computer games
(3) Taking decisions based on previous actions
(4) To regulate the traffic by analyzing the density of traffic on
roads (5) Translate words from one language to another

10. Give the applications of robot in various fields.

Applications of robot:
Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing, cutting, under water, agriculture,
pool cleaning Welding, cutting, assembling, litter robot, transport.
Vacuum cleaners, hospitals, surgery, laboratory Exploring stars, planets etc.,
investigation of the mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis of
elements found in rocks and soils.

11. Write a note on nano robots.

Nano robots :
The size of the nano robots is reduced to microscopic level to perform
a task in very small spaces. In future nano robots are used in the medical
fields. Nano robots in blood stream to perform small surgical procedures, to
fight against bacteria, repairing individual cell in the body. It can travel into
the body and once after the job is performed it can find its way out.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 247
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

12. Why steels are preferred to make robots?

For robots, aluminum and steel are the most common metals.
Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with it.
But steel is several times stronger and because of the inherent strength of
steel, robot bodies are made using sheet, bar, rod, channel and other
shapes.

13. What is particle physics? Write down its recent development.

Particle physics and its development:
The study of the theory of fundamental particles of nature is called
particle physics. Initially it was thought that atom is the fundamental entity of
matter. But in 1930, it was established that atoms are made up of electrons,
Protons and neutrons, In 1960, it was discovered that protons and
neutrons were made up of quarks. Later it was found that quarks interact
through gluons. Recently in 2013, famous Higgs particles also known as God
particles were discovered which gives mass to many particles like protons,
neutrons etc .,

14. Write a note on Cosmology.

Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin and evolution of the
universe. It deals with the formation of stars, galaxy etc.

15. What are called gravitational waves?

The disturbance in the curvature of space-time is called gravitational
waves. Its travels with speed of light, any accelerated charge emits
electromagnetic waves. Similarly any accelerated mass emits gravitational
waves. But these gravitational waves are very weak even for masses like
earth. The strongest sources of gravitational waves are black holes.
The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are emitted by two black
holes when they merge to a single black hole. In 1915, Albert Einstein
theoretically proposed the existence of gravitational waves. After 100 years,
it is experimentally proved that his predictions are correct.

16. Write a note on black holes.

Black holes:
Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive
object. Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1 million times mass of
the sun. It has very strong gravitational force such that no particle or even
light can escape from it. The existence of black hole is studied when the
stars orbiting the black hole behave differently from the other stars. Every
galaxy has black hole at its centre. Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the
centre of the Milky Way galaxy.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 248
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

17. Explain Nano structure in nature with examples.
Nano in nature :
(1) Single strand DNA:
It is the basic building block of all living things.
It is about 3 nm wide
(2) Morpho butterfly:
The scales of the, wings of this butterfly contains nano
structures. When light wave interact with this giving the wings brilliant
metallic blue and green hues.
(3) Peacock feathers:
They get their iridescent coloration from light interacting with
2 dimensional photonic crystal structures just tens of nanometers
thick. Similar nano structures are made in lab to glow in different
colors
(4) Parrot fish:
It crunches up coral all day. The source of powerful bite is the
interwoven fibre nanostructure. Crystals of a mineral called
fluorapatite are woven together in a chain mail-like arrangement.
This structure gives parrot fish teeth incredible durability.
It provides a blue print for creating ultra - durable synthetic materials
that could be useful for mechanical components in electronics and in
other devices that undergo repetitive movement, abrasion and contact
stress.
(5) Lotus Leaf surface:
Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the nano structures
on the surface of a leaf from a lotus plant. This is the reason for self
cleaning process on lotus leaf.

18. Discuss the applications of Nano-materials in various fields.

Automotive industry:
Lightweight construction, Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)
Catalysts, Tires (fillers), Sensors, Coatings for windscreen and car bodies
Chemical industry:
Fillers for paint systems, Coating systems based on nano composites
Impregnation of papers, Switchable adhesives, Magnetic fluids
Engineering:
Wear protection for tools and machines, Lubricant-free bearings
Electronic industry:
Data memory, Displays, Laser diodes, Glass fibres, Optical switches
Filters (IR-blocking), Conductive, antistatic coatings
Construction:
Construction materials, Thermal insulation, Flame retardants
Surface-functionalized building materials for wood, floors, stone, facades,
tiles, roof tiles, etc.
Facade coatings, Groove mortar
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 249
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Medicine:
Drug delivery systems, Active agents, Contrast medium, Medical rapid
tests, Prostheses and implants, Antimicrobial agents and coatings
Agents in cancer therapy
Food and drinks:
Package materials, Storage life sensors, Additives, Clarification of fruit
juices
Energy:
Fuel cells, Solar cells, Batteries, Capacitors
Textile/fabrics/non-woven:
Surface-processed textiles, Smart clothes
Household:
Ceramic coatings for irons, Odors catalyst, Cleaner for glass,
ceramic, floor, windows.
Cosmetics:
Sun protection, Lipsticks, Skin creams, Tooth paste
Sports/ outdoor:
Ski wax, Antifogging of glasses/goggles, Antifouling coatings for
ships/boats, Reinforced tennis rackets and balls.

19. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of Nano particles? Why?
Possible harmful effects of nano particles:
The major concern here is that the nano particles have the
dimensions same as that of the biological molecules such as proteins. They
may easily get absorbed on to the surface of living organisms and they might
enter the tissues and fluids of the body.
The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of the nano particle.
Indeed, it is possible to deliver a drug directly to a specific cell in the body by
designing the surface of a nano particle so that it adsorbs specifically on to
the surface of the target cell.
The interaction with living systems is also affected by the dimensions
of the nano particles. Nano particles can also cross cell membranes. It is
also possible for the inhaled nano particles to reach the blood, to reach other
sites such as the liver, heart or blood cells. Researchers are trying to
understand the response of living organisms to the presence of nano
particles of varying size, shape, chemical composition and surface
characteristics.

20. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of Robotics.

Advantages of robotics:
The robots are much cheaper than humans. Robots never get tired
like humans. Hence absenteeism in work place can be reduced. Robots are
more precise and error free in performing the task.
Stronger and faster than humans Robots can work in extreme
environmental conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or underwater.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 250
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

In dangerous situations like bomb detection and bomb deactivation, In

warfare, robots can save human lives. Robots are significantly used in
handling materials in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants which
can lead to health hazards in humans.
Disadvantages of robotics:
Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience; they lack empathy
and hence create an emotionless workplace. If ultimately robots would do all
the work, and the humans will just sit and monitor them, health hazards will
increase rapidly. Unemployment problem will increase.
Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot handle unexpected
situations the robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small thing
goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to the company. If a robot malfunctions, it
takes time to identify the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if
necessary.
This process requires significant time. Humans cannot be replaced by
robots in decision making.
Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the humans in work
place will exit.

21. Comment on the recent advancement in medical diagnosis and therapy.

(1) Virtual reality:
Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from
processing pain and cure soreness in the hospitalized patients. It helps in
the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, and Mental illness.
(2) Precision medicine:
Precision medicine is an emerging approach for disease treatment
and prevention that takes into account individual variability in genes,
environment, and lifestyle for each person.
(3) Health wearable’s:
A health wearable is a device used for tracking a wearer's vital signs or
health and fitness related data, location, etc. Medical wearable’s with artical
intelligence and big data provide an added value to healthcare with a focus
on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring and prevention.
(4) Articial organs :
An articial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is implanted or
integrated into a human. It is possible to interface it with living tissue or to
replace a natural organ. It duplicates or augments a specific function or
functions of human organs so that the patient may return to a normal life as
soon as possible.
(5) 3D printing:
Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist physicians in a
range of operations in the medical field from audiology, dentistry,
orthopedics and other applications.
(6) Wireless brain sensors:
Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial pressure and temperature
and then are absorbed by the body. Hence there is no need for surgery to
remove these devices.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 251
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

(7) Robotic surgery:

Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done
using robotic systems. Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome
the limitations of pre-existing minimally-invasive surgical procedures
and to enhance the capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
(8) Smart inhalers:
Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma. Smart
inhalers are designed with health systems and patients in mind so
that they can offer maximum benefit. Smart inhalers use Bluetooth
technology to detect inhaler use, remind patients when to take their
medication and gather data to help guide care.

22. Discuss the functions of key components in Robots?

Functions of key components of Robots: Most robots are composed of
3 main parts: (1) Controller, (2) Mechanical parts, (3) Sensors
Controller:
It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a computer program.
It gives commands for the moving parts to perform the job.
Mechanical parts:
It consists motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and gears that make the
robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
Sensors:
It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to determine the sizes
and shapes of the objects around, distance between the objects, and
directions as well.

23. Explain the various components of robotics.

Power conversion unit:
Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
Actuators:
Converts energy into movement. The majority of the actuators produce
rotational or linear motion.
Electric motors:
They are used to actuate the parts of the robots like wheels, arms,
fingers, legs, sensors, camera, weapon systems etc. Different types of
electric motors are used. The most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed
DC motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
They are devices that can contract and expand when air is pumped
inside. It can replicate the function of a human muscle. ey contract almost
40% when the air is sucked inside them.
Muscle wires:
They are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. ey can
contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 252
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:

Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
Sensors:
Generally used in task environments as it provides information of real-
time knowledge.
Robot locomotion:
Provides the types of movements to a robot. The different types are
(a) Legged, (b) Wheeled, (c) Combination of Legged and
Wheeled Locomotion, (d) Tracked slip/skid
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 253
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

SOME
E IM
IMPORTANTS PROBLEMS

UNIT
IT - I (ELECTROSTATICS)

1. Calculate the numberr of electrons in one coulomb of negative charge.

ch
Solution:
According to the
eqquantization of charge q = ne
Here q = 1C. So the num
umber of electrons in 1 coulomb of charge is
£
N= J
= .£ 5 KÖ
= 6.25 x 1018 electrons

2. A sample of HCl gas is pplaced in a uniform electric field of magni

gnitude
3 × 10 N C . The dipol
4 -1 pole moment of each HCl molecule is 3.4 4 × 10-30 Cm.
Calculate the maximumum torque experienced by each HCl molecul cule.
Solution:
The maximum tortorque experienced by the dipole is when n it
i is aligned
perpendicular to the app
pplied field.
_-¾ø = +/ sin 90K ; = 3.14 x10-19 x 3x104 N m
_-¾ø = 10.2x10 0-26 Nm.

3. Consider a point chargerge +q placed at the origin and another point

poi charge -
2q placed at a distancence of 9 m from the charge +q. Determin ine the point
between the two charge rges at which electric potential is zero.
Solution:
According to the su
superposition principle, the total electric potential
po at a
point is equal to the sum
um of the potentials due to each charge att that
th point.
Consider the poinoint at which the total potential zero is located
lo at a
distance x from the char
harge +q as shown in the figure.

ic potential at P is zero. VQFQ =

The total electric Å5 c ((˽ È=0
½ 5¿
Which gives, 5 = (˽ 5¿ (or) 5 = (˽ 5¿ Hence, x = 3m

4. Calculate the electricc flux

fl through the rectangle of sides 5 cm
m and 10 cm
kept in the region of a uniform electric field 100 NC . The ang
-1 ngle θ is 600.
Suppose θ becomes zer zero, what is the electric flux?

The electric flux ϕD = / . m = EA coso = 100 x 5 x 10x10-44 x cos600

Solution:

⇒ ϕD = 0.25 Nm m2C-1 .
For o = 00, ϕD = / . m = EA coso = 100 x 5 x 10x10-4
= 0.5Nm2C-1
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 254
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

5. A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side 5 cm and separated by

a distance of 1 mm. (a) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor. (b) If a
10 V battery is connected to the capacitor, what is the charge stored in any
one of the plates? (The value of εo = 8.85 x 10-12 Nm2 C-2)
Solution:
' û.ûë 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 KÖÆ
(a) The capacitance of the capacitor is C =
5 KÖU
;
4
= 221.2 x 10- F;
13

C = 22.12 x 10-12 F; = 22.12 +F

(b) The charge stored in any one of the plates is Q = CV, Then
Q = 22.12 x 10-12 x 10 = 221.2 x 10-12C
Q = 221.2 +C

6. A parallel plate capacitor filled with mica having εr = 5 is connected to a 10

V battery. The area of the parallel plate is 6 m2 and separation distance is
6 mm. (a) Find the capacitance and stored charge.
(b) After the capacitor is fully charged, the battery is disconnected and the
dielectric is removed carefully. Calculate the new values of capacitance,
stored energy and charge.
Solution:
The capacitance of the capacitor in the presence of dielectric is
' ë 5 û.ûë 5 KÖ 5£
ß=
£ 5 KÖU
4
= ; = 44.25 x 10-9 F = 44.25 nF
The stored charge is Q = CV = 44.25 x10-9 x 10
= 442.5 x 10-9 C = 442.5nC
The stored energy is U = CV2; = x 44.25 C x 10-9 x 100
= 2.21 x 10-6 J = 2.21 ãJ
(b) After the removal of the dielectric, since the battery is already
disconnected the total charge will not change. But the potential
difference between the plates increases. As a result, the capacitance is
decreased.
£ . ë 5 KÖ
New capacitance is CK =
ë
= ; 8.85 x 10-9 F = 8.85nF
The stored charge remains same and 442.5 nC.
B
;= =ϵ U
B
Hence newly stored energy is UK =
£ £
= 5 x 2.21 ãJ = 11.05 ãJ
The increased energy is∆U = 11.05 ãJ – 2.21 ãJ = 8.84 ãJ
When the dielectric is removed, it experiences an inward pulling force due to
the plates. To remove the dielectric, an external agency has to do work on
the dielectric which is stored as additional energy. This is the source for the
extra energy 8.84 µJ.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 255
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

7. Dielectric strength of air is 3 × 106 V m -1. Suppose the radius of a hollow

sphere in the Van de Graff generator is R = 0.5 m, calculate the maximum
potential difference created by this Van de Graaff generator.
Solution:
The electric field on the surface of the sphere (by Gauss law) is given
™
by E =
ƒ„ Ô
The potential on the surface of the hollow metallic sphere is given by
™
V= = ER
ƒ„ Ô
With Vmax = Emax R
Ù
Here Emax = 3 x 106 . So, the maximum potential difference created
-
is given by Vmax = 3 × 106 × 0.5
= 1.5 × 106 V (or) 1.5 million volt

8. When two objects are rubbed with each other, approximately a charge of
50 nC can be produced in each object. Calculate the number of electrons
that must be transferred to produce this charge.
Solution:
Charge produced in each object q = 50 nc (or) q = 50 x 10-9 C
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 x 10-19 C
$ ëK 5 KÖ
.£ 5 KÖ
Number of electron transferred, n = =
®
= 31.25 x 10-9 x 1019
N = 31.25 x 1010 electrons.

9. The total number of electrons in the human body is typically in the order of
1028. Suppose, due to some reason, you and your friend lost 1% of this
number of electrons. Calculate the electrostatic force between you and your
friend separated at a distance of 1m. Compare this with your weight.
Assume mass of each person is 60 kg and use point charge approximation.
Solution:
Number of electrons in the human body = 1028
Number of electrons in me and my friend after lost of 1 % = 1028 x 1%
= 1028 x n = 1026 electrons.
KK
Separate distance d = 1m,
Charge of each person q = 1026 x 1.6 x 10-19 ; q = 1.6 x 107 C
$ $ Ë 5 K 5 .£ 5 K 5 .£ 5 K
Electrostatic force, F =
ƒõ }
;
F = 2.304 x 1024 N
Mass of the person, M = 60 kg,
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms-2 ; Wight (W) = mg
= 60 x 9.8 W = 588 N
Comparison: Electrostatic force is equal to 3.92 x 1021 times of
weight of the person.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 256
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

10. A spark plug in a bike e or a car is used to ignite the air-fuel mixture
mix in the
engine. It consists of tw
two electrodes separated by a gap of arou ound 0.6 mm
gap. To create the spapark, an electric field of magnitude 3 × 1 106 Vm-1 is
required. (a) What pot
potential difference must be applied to produce
p the
spark? (b) If the gap is increased, does the potential differenc nce increase,
decrease or remains the same? (c) find the potential difference e if
i the gap is
1 mm.
Solution:
Separation gap between en two electrodes, d = 0.6 mm (or) d = 0.66 x 10-3m
Ù
Magnitude of elec
lectric field E = 3 x 106 Vm-1 ; Electric field
ld E =
a) Applied potenti
ntial difference, V = E . d
= 3 x 106 x 0.6 x 10-13 ; = 1.8 x 103 ; V = 1800V
b) From equatio tion, V = E. d (If the gap (distance) be between the
electrodes increases, th
the potential difference also increases.
c) Gap between theth electrodes, d = 1mm = 1 x 10-3 m
Potential differen
ence, V = E . d
= 3 x 106 x 1 x 10-3 ; 3 x 103 ; V = 3000 V

11. For the given capacitor

tor configuration (a) Find the
charges on each ccapacitor (b) potential
difference across them m (c) energy stored in each
capacitor
Solution:

6 + 2) μF = 8μF
Capacitor b andd c in parallel combination
CP = Cb + Cc = (6
Capacitor, a, Cp and d are in series combination,
so the resultant capacita
citance.
O
= + + ;= + + =
£ £ £ [ £ û û û û
û
apacitor a, Qa = Cs V = x 9 ; Qa = 24 μC
a) Charge on cap
O
û
apacitor d, Qd = Cs V = x 9 ; Qd = 24 μC
Charge on cap
O
Capacitor b and c in parallel
£
apacitor b, Qb = Cs V = x 9 ; Qb = 18 μC
Charge on cap
O
apacitor c, Qc = Cs V = x 9 ; Qc = 6 μC
Charge on cap
O
b) Potential differ
ference across each capacitor, V =
£
5 KÖ¢
û 5 KÖ¢
Capacitor Ca, Va = = ; Va = 3V
£
û 5 KÖ¢
£ 5 KÖ¢
Capacitor Cb, Vb = = ; Vb = 3V
£
£ 5 KÖ¢
5 KÖ¢
Capacitor Cc, Vc = = ; Vc = 3V
£
5 KÖ¢
û 5 KÖ¢
Capacitor Cd, Vd = = ; Vd = 3V
£
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 257
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

c) Energy stores in a capacitor, U = CV2

Energy in capacitor Ca, Ua = Cc Vc = x 8 x 10-6 x (3)2; Ua = 36μs
Energy in capacitor Cb, Ub = C V = x 6 x 10-6 x (3)2; Ub = 27μs
Energy in capacitor Cc, Uc = C V = x 2 x 10-6 x (3)2; Ub = 9μs
Energy in capacitor Cd, Ud = C4 V4 = x 8 x 10-6 x (3)2; Ub = 36μs

UNIT - II (CURRENT ELECTRICITY)

12. Compute the current in the wire if a charge of 120 C is flowing through a
copper wire in 1 minute.
Solution:
› 120
The current (rate of flow of charge) in the wire is ò =
ù
= 60
= 2A

13. If an electric field of magnitude 570 N C-1, is applied in the copper wire, find
the acceleration experienced by the electron.
Solution:
E = 570 N C-1, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, m = 9.11 × 10-31 kg and a = ?
J ëòK 5 .£ 5 KÖ Ë 5 KÖ 5 KU
Ë. 5 KÖU Ë.
F = ma = eE ; a = ;= ;=
I
= 1.001 x 10 ms
14 -2

14. A copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 carries a current of 0.2 A. If
the free electron density of copper is 8.4 x 10 28 m-3 then compute the drift
velocity of free electrons.
Solution:
The relation between drift velocity of electrons and current in a wire of
ä K.
PJ' û. 5 K 5 .£ 5 KÖ 5 K.ë 5 KÖ¢
cross- sectional area A is Vd = ;
Vd = 0.03 x 10-3 ms-1

15. Determine the number of electrons flowing per second through a conductor,
when a current of 32 A flows through it.
Solution:
I = 32 A , t = 1 s Charge of an electron, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C The number of
electrons flowing per second, n =?
$ ¶® á O 5
ò= =
.£ 5 KÖ ±
;n= ;n=
á á ®
n = 20 × 10 = 2 × 10 electrons
19 20
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 258
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

16. The resistance of a w wire is 20 Ω. What will be new resistan

tance, if it is
stretched uniformly 8 times
tim its original length?
Solution:
R1 = 20 Ω, R2= ? ; Let the original length (¥ ¿ be ¥
The new length, ¥ = 8¥ (i.e.) , ¥ = 8 ¥
%
istance, R1 = ρ
The original resist
š
% è (û%¿
ance R2 = ρ
The new resistanc =
š š
Though the wire e is stretched, its volume is unchanged.
Initial volume = Fi
Final volume
=8
û%
m ¥ = m ¥ ; m ¥ = m 8¥ ;
š
=
š %
Ô è (û%¿
= x
m1
By dividing equati
ation R2 by equation R1, we get
Ô š è%
x8
Ô š
=
Ô š
= 8 x 8 = 64
š Ô
Substituting the
e vvalue of , we get
š Ô
R2 = 64 × 20=1280
2 Ω
Hence, stretching
ing the length of the wire has increased its re
resistance.

17. Calculate the equivalen lent resistance for the circuit which is connected
co to
24 V batteries and also lso find the potential difference across 4 Ω and 6 Ω
resistors in the circuit.
Solution:
Since the resistors ar are connected in series, the
effective resistance in ththe circuit = 4 Ω + 6 Ω = 10 Ω
Ù
The Current ò in the circu
ircuit = = = 2.4A
Ｅ K
Voltage across 4Ω resist
istor
V1 = òR1 = 2.4A x 4 Ω = 9.6 V
Voltage across 6 Ω resis
sistors
V2 = òR1 = 2.4A x 6 Ω = 14.4 V

18. Calculate the equivalen

lent resistance in the following circuit and also
a find the
current í, í" and í! in the
th given circuit.
Solution:
Since the resististances are connected in parallel, the herefore, the
equivalent resistance in the circuit is
ë
Ô-
=Ô +Ô = +£ ;Ô = Ω (or) RP = ë
Ω
-
The resistors arere connected in parallel; the potential (volta
oltage) across
each resistor is the sam
me.
Ù Ù Ù Ù
ò = = 6 ;ò = =
£!
= 6A = 4A
Ô ! Ô
The current I is th
the total of the currents in the two branches
es. Then,
ò = ò + ò = 6 A + 4 A = 10 A
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 259
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

19. When two resistances connected in series and parallel their equivalent
ôú
resistances are 15 Ω and Ω respectively. Find the individual resistances.
"ô
Solution:
Rs = R1 + R2 = 15 Ω ……………….. (1)
Ô Ô ôú
RP = = Ω ……………….. (2)
Ô ÀÔ "ô
From equation (1) substituting for R1 + R2 in equation (2)
Ô Ô ôú
= Ω ; ∴ R1R2 = 56
ë "ô
ôú
R2 = Ω …………………….(3)
"ô
Substituting for R2 in equation (1) from equation (3)
= 15 ; K + 56 = 15 R1
ë£ Ô Àë£
R1 + = 15 ; Then ,
K - 15 R1 + 56 = 0
Ô Ô

K - 8 R1 - 7 R1 + 56 = 0 ; R1 (R1– 8) – 7 (R1– 8) = 0
The above equation can be solved using factorization.

(R1– 8) (R1– 7) = 0 ; If (R1= 8 Ω)

Using in equation (1)
8 + R2 = 15 ; R2 = 15 – 8 = 7 Ω ,
R2 = 7 Ω i.e , (when R1 = 8 Ω ; R2 = 7 Ω) ; If (R1= 7 Ω)
Substituting in equation (1) 7 + R2 = 15
R2 = 8 Ω , i.e , (when R1 = 8 Ω ; R2 = 7 Ω )

20. If the resistance of coil is 3 Ω at 20 0C and α = 0.004/0C then determine

its resistance at 1000C.
Solution:
R0= 3 Ω, T = 1000C, T0 = 200C
α = 0.004/0C, RT= ?
RT= R0(1 + α(T-T0))
R100 = 3(1 + 0.004 × 80) ; R100 = 3(1 + 0.32)
R100 = 3(1.32) ;R100 = 3.96 Ω

21. Resistance of a material at 100C and 400C are 45 Ω and 85 Ω respectively.

Find its temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Solution:
T0 = 100C, T = 400C, R0= 45 Ω , R = 85 Ω
ð ûë½ ë K
α= ;α= Å È;= Å È
ð ë K½ K ë OK

α = 00296 /0C
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 260
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

22. From the given circuit,

Find
i) Equivalent emf of thehe combination
ii) Equivalent internall resistance
re
iii) Total current
iv) Potential difference e across
a external resistance
v) Potential difference eaacross each cell
Solution:
i) Equivalent emff of the combination ξeq = nξ = 4 9 = 36 V
ii) Equivalent inte
ternal resistance req = nr = 4 × 0.1 = 0.4 Ω
P 5Ë 5Ë O£
iii) Total current I = ;= ;= ;=
ðÀP KÀ( 5 K. ¿ KÀK. K.
I = 3.46 A
iv) Potential diffe
fference across external resistance
V = IR = 3.46
3. × 10 = 34.6 V. The remaining 1.4 V is dropped
across the interna
rnal resistance of cells.
) O .£
v) Potential differe
ference across each cell = = 8.65 V
P

23. From the given circuit

Find
i) Equivalent emf
ii) Equivalent internall resistance
re
iii) Total current (I)
iv) Potential difference e across
a each cell
v) Current from each cel cell
Solution:
i) Equivalent emff ξeq = 5 V
}
ii) Equivalent inte
ternal resistance, Req =
¶
K.ë
= = 0.12
.125Ω
ë ë
t, ò = ;ò= = ò
ë ë
iii) Total Current, Ú 0.5A
0.5
ÔÀ Ï KÀK. K.
iv) Potential differ
ference across each cell V = IR = 0.5 × 10 = 5 V
K.ë
each cell,ò =
v) Current from ea ;ò = = 0.125 A
¶

24. Calculate the currentt thatth flows in the 1 Ω resistor

in the following circuit.
Solution:
We can denote the current that flows from 9V
battery as I1 and it spli plits into I2 and I1 – I2 in the
junction according Kirch rchhoff’s current rule (KCR). It
is shown below.
Now consider the loop pE EFCBE and apply KVR, we get
1I2 + 3I1 + 2I1 = 9
5I1 + I2 = 9 ..........
..........(1)
Applying KVR to o th
the loop EADFE, we get
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 261
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

3 (I1 – I2) – 1I2 = 6

3I1 – 4I2 = 6 ........
..............(2)
Solving equation n ((1) and (2), we get
I1 = 1.83 A and d II2 = – 0.13 A
It implies that the
he current in the 1 ohm resistor flows from F to E.

25. In a Wheatstone’s brid

ridge P = 100 Ω, Q = 1000 Ω and R = 40 4 Ω. If the
galvanometer shows zero
ze deflection, determine the value of S.
Solution:
ð B KKK
B
= ;S= xR ;S= KK
x 40 ; S = 400 Ω

What is the value of W when

P = 500 Ω, Q = 800 Ω,, R = W + 400,
26. w the Wheatstone’s network is balance
nced?

S = 1000 Ω
Solution:
ð ëKK øÀ
À KK øÀ KK ëKK
B
= ; ûKK = KKK
; KKK
= ûKK
ëKK ë
0 + 400 = 1000 ; 0 + 400 = x 1000
ûKK û
x 10
0 + 400 = 0.625 5 × 1000
0 + 400 = 625 ; 0 = 625 – 400
0 = 225 Ω

27. In a meter bridge, the

e vvalue of resistance in the resistance boxx is 10 Ω. The
balancing length is ô" = 55 cm. Find the value of unknown resista
istance.
Solution:
% % % K 5 ëë
Q = 10 Ω
B
= KK %
KK½
= %
;P=Qx KK½ %
P= KK½ëë
ëëK
ë
P= ; P= 12.2
2.2 Ω

28. Find the heat energyy p produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when

n 5 A current
flows through it for 5 minutes.
mi
Solution:
R = 10 Ω, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 s
H = I2 R t
= 52 × 10 × 5 × 660 ; = 25 × 10 × 300
= 25 × 3000 ; = 75000 J (or) 75 kJ

29. A copper wire of 10-6 m2 area of cross section, carries a currentt of

o 2 A. If the
number of electrons per p cubic meter is 8 × 1028, calculate e the
t current
density and average drif
drift velocity.
Solution:
Cross – sectionss a
area of copper wire, A = 10-6 m2 , I = 2A
Number of electro
tron, n = 8 x 1028
ä
=
KÖ¢
Current density,, J = ; J = 2 x 106 Am-2
'
ä
Average drift velo
locity, Vd =
PJ'
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 262
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

e is the charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Vd =
û5 K 5 .£ 5 KÖ 5 KÖ¢
=£ 5 KU

Vd = 0.15625 x 10-3 ; Vd = 15.625 x 10-3 ms-1

30. The resistance of a nichrome wire at 00C is 10Ω. If its temperature

coefficient of resistance is 0.004/0C, find its resistance at boiling point of
water. Comment on the result.
Solution:
Resistance of nichrome wire at 00C, R0 = 10 Ω
Temperature coefficient of resistance ü =0.004/0C
Resistance at boiling point of water, RT = ?
Temperature of boiling point of water, T =1000 C ?
RT = R0 (1 + üT) ; = 10[1+(0.004 x 1000]
RT = 10(1+0.4) = 10 x 1.4 ; RT = 14 Ω
As the temperature increases the resistance of the wire also increases.

31. An electronics hobbyist is building a radio which requires 150 Ω in her

circuit, but she has only 220 Ω, 79 Ω and 92 Ω resistors available. How can
she connect the available resistors to get desired value of resistance?
Solution:
Required effective resistance = 150 Ω
Resistors of resistance, R1 = 220 Ω, R2 = 79 Ω , R3 = 92 Ω
Parallel combination of R1 and R2
òËÀ K
= + = +
òË K 5 òË
; Rp = 58 Ω
ð% ð ð K
Parallel combination of RP and R3
RS = RP + R3 ; = 58 + 92 Rs = 150 Ω

32. A potentiometer wire has a length of 4 m and resistance of 20 Ω. It is

connected in series with resistance of 2980 Ω and a cell of emf 4 V.
Calculate the potential along the wire.
Solution:
Resistance of the wire, r = 20 Ω
Length of the potential wire, ¥= 4m
Resistance connected series with potentiometer wire, R - 2980 Ω
Emf of the cell, ñ = 4V
Effective resistance, R = r + R = 20 + 2980 = 3000 Ω
Current flowing through the wire, ò = =
Ô¹ OKKK
ò = 1.33 x 10-3 A
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 263
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

33. Two cells each of 5V are connected in series across a 8 Ω resistor and three
parallel resistors of 4 Ω, 6 Ω and 12 Ω. Draw a circuit diagram for the above
arrangement. Calculate i) the current drawn from the cell (ii) current
through each resistor.
Solution:
V1 = 5V ; V2 = 5V
R1 = 8 Ω , R2 = 4 Ω, R3 = 6 Ω, R4 = 12 Ω
Three resistors R2, R3 and R4 are connected parallel combination
= + + ; = + +
£
;
ð% ð ðU ðÆ
O £
= + + ;= ; RP = 2 Ω
Resistors R1, and RP are connected in series combination
RS = R1 + RP ; = 8 + 2 =10
Total voltage connected series to the circuit V = V1 + V2
= 5 + 5 = 10 ; V = 10 V
Ù K
i) Current through the circuit, I = = ; I =1A
ÔÝ K
Potential drop across the parallel combination, V′ = IRP = 1 x 2; V′ =2 V
)
ii) Current in 4 Ω resistor, I = = = 0.5 A
ð
)
Current in 6 Ω resistor, I = = £ = 0.33 A
ðU
)
Current in 12 Ω resistor, I = = = 0.17 A
ðÆ

34. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point

at 35 cm length of the wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the
balance point shifts to 63 cm, what is the emf of the second cell?
Solution:
Emf of the cell1, ñ = 1.25V
Balancing length of the cell, ¥ = 35 cm = 35 x 10-2 m
Balancing length after interchanged, ¥ = 63 cm = 63 x 10-2 m
Emf of the cell2, ñ ?
%
The ratio of emf’s =
%
%
The ratio of emf’s ñ = ñ Å È
%
£O 5 KÖ
= 1.25 x Å È
Oë 5 KÖ
= 12.5 x 1.8
ñ = 2.25V
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 264
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - III (MAGNETISM AND

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT)
35. The repulsive force between two magnetic poles in air is 9 x 10-3 N. If the
two poles are equal in strength and are separated by a distance of 10 cm,
calculate the pole strength of each pole.

The force between two poles are given by º = 2

Solution:
$#ž $#8
̂
}
$#ž $#8
The magnitude of the force is F = k
}
Given : F = 9 x 10-3N, r = 10 cm = 10 x 10-2 m
Therefore, 9 x 10-3 = 10-7 x &
( K 5 KÖ ¿
⟹ 30 NT-1

36. A coil of a tangent galvanometer of diametre 0.24 m has 100 turns. If the
horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is 25 × 10-6 T then, calculate
the current which gives a deflection of 600.
Solution:
The diameter of the coil is 0.24 m.
Therefore, radius of the coil is 0.12 m.
Number of turns is 100 turns.
Earth’s magnetic field is 25 x 10-6 T
Deflection is θ = 60K ⟹ tan 60K = √3 = 1.732
ð 5 K. 5 ë 5 KÖ¢
I= tanθ ; =
b / 5 KÖ 5O.
x 1.732
5 KK
= 0.82 x 10-1 A (or) I = 0082 A.
37. Compute the intensity of magnetisation of the bar magnet whose mass,
magnetic moment and density are 200 g, 2 A m2 and 8 g cm-3, respectively.

⟹Volume =
c c
Solution:
Density of the magnet is, Density =
)FGHIJ 'JP Q(
KK 5 KÖU ²)
(û 5 KÖU ¿ 5 K¢ IÖU
Volume = = 25 x 10-6 m3
Magnitude of magnetic moment +- = 2 Am2
c)PJQ IFIJPQ
Intensity of magnetization, I = ; =
)FGHIJ ë 5 KÖ¢
M = 0.8 x 105Am-1
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 265
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

38. Two materials X and Y are magnetized, whose intensity of magnetization

are 500 Am-1 and 2000 Am-1, respectively. If the magnetizing field is
1000 Am-1, then which one among these materials can be easily
magnetized?. (March 2020)
Solution:
g¾g ëKK
The susceptibility of material X is *m X = = = 0.5
g+ g KKK

g¾g KKK
The susceptibility of material Y is *m Y = = =2
g+g KKK
Since, susceptibility of material Y is greater than that of material X,
material Y can be easily magnetized than X.

39. Compute the magnitude of the magnetic field of a long, straight wire
carrying a current of 1 A at distance of 1m from it. Compare it with Earth’s
magnetic field.
Solution:
Given that 1 = 1 A and radius r = 1 m
b ä 5 KÖ 5
B Q c ),Q - J = = 5
= 2 x 10-7 T

But the Earth’s magnetic field is B c Q, ~10

½ë
T

So, B Q c ),Q - J is one hundred times smallerB c Q,

40. An electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field 0.500 T

undergoes circular motion of radius 2.80 mm. What is the speed of
electron?

Charge of an electron q = -1.60 × 10-19 C ⟹ |M| = 1.60 × 10-19 C

Solution:

Magnitude of magnetic field B = 0.500 T

Mass of the electron, m = 9.11 × 10-31 kg
Radius of the orbit, r = 2.50 mm = 2.50 × 10-3m
},
Velocity of the electron, ¤ = |M|
-
¤ = 1.60 x 10 ½ Ë .ëK 5 KÖU 5 K.ëKK
x
Ë. 5 KÖU
;
¤ = 2.195 x 108 ms-1
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 266
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

41. Suppose a cyclotron is operated to accelerate protons with a magnetic field

of strength 1 T. Calculate the frequency in which the electric field between
two Dees could be reversed.
Solution:
Magnetic field B = 1 T ; Mass of the proton, ¦Ã = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Charge of the proton, q = 1.6 x 10-19 C
.£ 5 K½ Ë 5
f=
5 .£ò 5 KÖ
=
I[ 5 O.
= 15.3 x 106 Hz; f = 15.3 MHz

42. The resistance of a moving coil galvanometer is made twice its original
value in order to increase current sensitivity by 50%. Will the voltage
sensitivity change? If so, by how much?.
Solution:
ä
Yes, voltage sensitivity will change. ; Voltage sensitivity is Vs =
When the resistance is doubled, then new resistance is K′ = 2R
ð

ëK O
Increase in current sensitivity is I = Å1 + ÈI = I
KK
U
ä O
The new voltage sensitivity is V = = V
ð
Hence the voltage sensitivity decreases. The percentage decrease in
) ½ )•
voltage sensitivity is x 100% = 25%
)

43. A circular coil with cross-sectional area 0.1 cm2 is kept in a uniform
magnetic field of strength 0.2 T. If the current passing in the coil is 3 A and
plane of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
Calculate
(a) Total torque on the coil
(b) Total force on the coil
(c) Average force on each electron in the coil due to the magnetic field of
the free electron density for the material of the wire is 1028 m-3.
Solution:
Cross sectional area of coil, A = 0.1 cm2 ; A = 0.1 x 10-4m2
Uniform magnetic field of strength, B = 0.2T
Current passing in the coil, I = 3A
Angle between the magnetic field and normal to the coil, θ = 00
a) Total torque on the coil,
_ = ABI sin θ = 0.1 x 10-4 x 0.2 x 3 sin 00 sin 00 = 0
_=0
b) Total force on the coil F= BI¥ sin θ = 0.2 x 3 x ¥ x sin 00
F=0
c) Average force: F = qVdB [∴ q = e]
ä ä
Drift velocity, Vd =
PJ'
; F = e ÅPJ'ÈB [∴ n = 1028 m-3]
ä O 5 K.
K 5 K. 5 KÖÆ
=
P'
= = 6 x 10-24 ; Fav = 0.6 x 10-23 N
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 267
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

44. Calculate the magnetic tic field at the center of a square loop whic
hich carries a
current of 1.5 A, length
th of each loop is 50 cm. Answer 3.4 x 10-6 T
Solution:
Current through the square loop, I = 1.5A
h th
Length of each loop,
lo ¥ = 50 cm = 50 x 10-2m
According to Biot
iot – Savart Law,
Magnetic field due
du to a current carrying straight wire
(sin α + sin β¿
b ä
c
B=
((sin 45K + sin 45K ¿
π 5 KÖ 5 .ë
= /
π5Å È
5 .ë 5 KÖ 5 .ë 5 KÖ
Å + È = ëK 5 KÖ
Å È
√ √ √
= %
B = 0.084866 x 1
10-5T

UNIT - IV (ELECT
ECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND
AN
ALTE
LTERNATING CURRENT)
45. A circular antenna off area
ar 3m2 is installed at a place in Madurai rai. The plane
of the area of antenn nna is inclined at 470 with the direction ion of Earth’s
magnetic field. If the magnitude
m of Earth’s field at that place is 40773.9
4 nT
find the magnetic fluxx linked
li with the antenna.
Solution:

We know that ϕ = BA cos θ

B = 40773.9 nT;T; θ = 900 – 470 = 430°; A = 3m2

= 40,773.9 x 10-9- x 3 x cos 430

- μWb
= 40.7739 x 10 x 3 x 0.7314
ϕ = 89.47 x 10-6
-6
6

46. A circular loop of area ea 5 x 10-2m2 rotates in a uniform magne gnetic field of
0.2 T. If the loop rotateates about its diameter which is perpendic dicular to the
magnetic field as show own in figure. Find the magnetic flux linke nked with the
loop when its plane iss (i (i) normal to the field (ii) inclined 600 to the
th field and
(iii) parallel to the field.
ld.
Solution:
A = 5 x 10-2 m2; B = 0.2 T
(i) θ = 00;
ϕ = BA cos θ
= 0.2 x 5 x 10-2 x cos00 ; ϕ = 1 x 10-2 Wb.
(ii) θ = 900 – 600 = 300;
ϕ = BA cos θ ;
√O
= 0.2 x 5 x 10-2 x cos300 ; ϕ = 1 x 10-2 x = 8.66 x 10-3Wb.
W
(iii) θ = 900; ϕ = BA cos 900 = 0
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 268
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

47. A cylindrical bar magnet is kept along the axis of a circular solenoid. If the
magnet is rotated about its axis, find out whether an electric current is
induced in the coil.
Solution:
The magnetic field of a cylindrical magnet is symmetrical about its
axis. As the magnet is rotated along the axis of the solenoid, there is no
induced current in the solenoid because the flux linked with the solenoid
does not change due to the rotation of the magnet.

48. A closed coil of 40 turns and of area 200 cm2, is rotated in a magnetic field
of flux density 2 Wb m-2. It rotates from a position where its plane makes
an angle of 300 with the field to a position perpendicular to the field in a
time 0.2 sec. Find the magnitude of the emf induced in the coil due to its
rotation.
Solution:
N = 40 turns; B = 2 Wb m-2 ; A = 200 cm2 = 200 ´ 10-4 m2;
Initial flux, ϕ = BA cos θ ; = 2 x 200 x 10-4 x cos 600
Since θ = 900 – 300 = 600 ; ϕ = 2 x 10-2 Wb
Final flux, ϕ0 = BA cos θ ; = 2 x 200 x 10-4 x cos 00
Since θ = 00 ; ϕ0 = 4 x 10-2 Wb
Magnitude of the induced emf is ϵ = N
4Ÿ1
4Q
K 5 b 5 K Ö ½ 5 KÖ d
= = 4V
K.

49. A straight conducting wire is dropped horizontally from a certain height with
its length along east – west direction. Will an emf be induced in it? Justify
your answer.
Solution:
Yes ! An emf will be induced in the wire because it moves
perpendicular to the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.

50. A conducting rod of length 0.5 m falls freely from the top of a building of
height 7.2 m at a place in Chennai where the horizontal component of
Earth’s magnetic field is 40378.7nT. If the length of the rod is perpendicular
to Earth’s horizontal magnetic field, find the emf induced across the
conductor when the rod is about to touch the ground. [Take g = 10 m s-2]
Solution:

The final velocity of the rod is v = u + 2gh ; 0 + (2 x 10 x 7.2)

l = 0.5 m; h = 7.2 m; u = 0 m s-1; g = 10 m s-2; BH = 40378.7nT

v = 144 ; v = 12 ms-1
Induced emf when the rod is about to touch the ground, ö = n+ ¥¤

ö = 242.27μF
= 40378.7 x 10-9 x 0.5 x 12 ; = 242.27 x 10-6 V
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 269
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

51. A solenoid of 500 turns is wound on an iron core of relative permeability

800. The length and radius of the solenoid are 40 cm and 3 cm
respectively. Calculate the average emf induced in the solenoid if the
current in it changes from 0 to 3 A in 0.4 second.

N = 500 turns; ã} = 800 ; ¥ = 40 cm = 0.4 m; r = 3 cm = 0.03 m;

Solution:

.â = 3 – 0 = 3 A; .ù = 0.4 s
3
Self inductance, L = ãN m ¥ Å∴ ã = ãK ã} ; m = ° ;N = È
%
b b / 5 O. 5 KÖ 5 ûKK 5 ëKK 5 O. 5 bO 5 KÖ d
= ;=
% K.
L = 1.77 H
Magnitude of induced emf, ö = * ; ö = 13.275V
· .òò 5 O
;
á K.

52. The self-inductance of an air-core solenoid is 4.8 mH. If its core is replaced
by iron core, then its self-inductance becomes 1.8 H. Find out the relative
permeability of iron.

Lair = 4.8 x 10-3 H ; Liron = 1.8 H ; Lair = μK N2 m ¥ = 4.8 x 10-3 H

Solution:

Liron = μn m ¥ ; μK μ N2 m ¥ = 1.8 H
∴ μr =
Liron 1.8
Lair
= = 375
4.8 x 10c3

53. The current flowing in the first coil changes from 2 A to 10 A in 0.4 sec. Find
the mutual inductance between two coils if an emf of 60 mV is induced in
the second coil. Also determine the induced emf in the second coil if the
current in the first coil is changed from 4 A to 16 A in 0.03 sec. Consider
only the magnitude of induced emf.
Solution:

.â = 10 – 2 = 8 A; .ù = 0.4 s; ö = 60 x 10-3 V
Case (i):

Case (ii):
.â = 16 – 4 = 12 A; .ù = 0.03 s
(i) Mutual inductance of the second coil with respect to the first coil
õ £K 5 KÖU 5 K.
û
M21 = úÎ = ; M21 = 3 x 10-3 H
úš
(ii) Induced emf in the second coil due to the rate of change of current
in the first coil is ϵ = M
4 O 5 KÖU 5
;= ; ϵ = 1.2 V
4Q K.KO
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 270
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

54. A circular metal of area 0.03 m2 rotates in a uniform magnetic field of 0.4
T. The axis of rotation passes through the centre and perpendicular to its
plane and is also parallel to the field. If the disc completes 20 revolutions in
one second and the resistance of the disc is 4 Ω, calculate the induced emf
between the axis and the rim and induced current flowing in the disc.
Solution:
A = 0.03 m2; B = 0.4 T; f = 20 rps; R = 4 Ω
Area covered in 1 sec = Area of the disc × frequency
= 0.03 × 20 ; = 0.6 m2
Induced emf, ε = Rate of change of flux
•8 4( '¿ K. 5 K.£
ε=
á
= 4Q
;ε= ; ε = 0.24 V
õ K.
Induced current, = = ; â =0.06 A
Ô

55. A rectangular coil of area 70 cm2 having 600 turns rotates about an axis
perpendicular to a magnetic field of 0.4 Wb m-2. If the coil completes 500
revolutions in a minute, calculate the instantaneous emf when the plane of
the coil is (i) perpendicular to the field (ii) parallel to the field and (iii)
inclined at 600 with the field.
Solution:

The instantaneous emf is ϵ = ϵI sinωt since ϵI = NϕI ω

A = 70 x 10-4m2; N = 600 turns , B = 0.4 Wbm-2; f = 500 rpm

= N (BA) (2°{ ¿
ö = NBA x 2°{ x sinωt
i) When ωt = 00, ϵ = ϵI sin0K = 0
ii) When ωt = 900, ϵ = ϵI sin90K = NBA x 2°{ x 1
ëKK
= 600 x 0.4 x 70 x 10-4 x 2 x
ò
x Å £K È
ϵ = 88 V
iii) When ωt = 900 – 600 = 300, ϵ = ϵI sin30K = 88 x
ϵ = 44 V
56. An ideal transformer has 460 and 40,000 turns in the primary and
secondary coils respectively. Find the voltage developed per turn of the
secondary if the transformer is connected to a 230 V AC mains. The
secondary is given to a load of resistance 104 Ω. Calculate the power
delivered to the load. (March 2020)
Solution:
NP = 460 turns; NS = 40,000 turns ; VP = 230 V; RS = 104 Ω
)% /3 OK 5 KKKK
=
/% £K
(i) Secondary voltage, VS = ; VS = 20000V
)3 KKKK
=
/3
Secondary voltage per turn, ; = 0.5 V
KKKK
)3 KKKK 5 KKKK
(ii) Power delivered = VS IS = = ; = 40 kW
ð3 KÆ
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 271
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

57. An inverter is common electrical device which we use in our homes. When
there is no power in our house, inverter gives AC power to run a few
electronic appliances like fan or light. An inverter has inbuilt step-up
transformer which converts 12 V AC to 240 V AC. The primary coil has 100
turns and the inverter delivers 50 mA to the external circuit. Find the
number of turns in the secondary and the primary current.
Solution:
Vp = 12 V; Vs = 240 V, Is = 50mA; Np = 100 turns
)3 /3 ä% K
= =
/%
= K ; Transformation ratio, K = = 20
)% ä3
The number of turns in the secondary NS = NP x K = 100 x 20 = 2000
Primary current, IP = K x IS = 20 x 50 mA = 1A

58. The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 77 sin 314t. Find the
peak value, frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
Solution:
â = 77 sin 314t; t = 2 ms = 2×10-3 s
The general equation of an alternating current is â = ò- ÓâNxù.
On comparison,
(i) Peak value, ò- = 77 A
(ii) Frequency, { =
n O
= ; = 50Hz
ƒ 5 O.
(iii) Time period, T = =
Š ëK
= 0.02 s
(iv) At t = 2 m s, Instantaneous value, â = 77 sin (314 x 2×10-3)
â = 45.24 A

59. A 400 mH coil of negligible resistance is connected to an AC circuit in which

an effective current of 6 mA is flowing. Find out the voltage across the coil if
the frequency is 1000 Hz.
Solution:
L = 400 x 10-3 H; Ieff = 6 x 10-3A ; f = 1000 Hz
Inductive reactance, XL = Lx = L x 2°f
= 2 x 3.14 x 1000 x 0.4 ; =2512 Ω
Voltage across L, V = IXL = 6 x 10-3 x 2512
V = 15.072V(RMS)

" !
G
60. A capacitor of capacitance µF is connected across a 220 V, 50 Hz A.C.
mains. Calculate the capacitive reactance, RMS value of current and write
down the equations of voltage and current.
Solution:
" !
G
C= x 10-6F, VRMS = 220V; f = 50 Hz
i) Capacitive reactance, XC = = ;= ÖÆ ; =100Ω
4£ 0£ 5 5 ëK 5 5
)²63 K
¯±
ii) RMS value of current, IRMS = ;= KK
; = 2.2A
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 272
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

iii) Vm = 220 x √2 = 311 V ; Im = 2.2 x √2 = 3.1 A

Therefore, í = 311 sin 314t ; â = 3.1 sin Å314 t + È

61. Find the impedance of a series RLC circuit if the inductive reactance,
capacitive reactance and resistance are 184 Ω, 144 Ω and 30 Ω
respectively. Also calculate the phase angle between voltage and current.
Solution:
XL = 184 Ω; XC = 144 Ω ; R = 30 Ω
(i ) The impedance is Impedance, Z = R À(¯° ½¯± ¿

= 30 À( û ½ ¿ ; = √900 + 1600
Impedance, Z = 50 Ω

¯° ½¯± û ½
(ii) Phase angle is tan ϕ = ; ; = 1.33 ; ϕ = 53.10
Ô OK
Since the phase angle is positive, voltage leads current by 53.10 for this
inductive circuit.

62. The current in an inductive circuit is given by 0.3 sin (200t – 400) A. Write
the equation for the voltage across it if the inductance is 40 mH.
Solution:
L = 40 × 10-3 H; i = 0.1 sin (200t – 400)
XL = ωL = 200 × 40 × 10-3 = 8 Ω
Vm = Im XL = 0.3 × 8 = 2.4 V
In an inductive circuit, the voltage leads the current by 900 Therefore,
¤ = ¤- sin (xù + 90K ¿ ; ¤ = 2.4 sin (200ù c 40K + 90K ¿
¤ = 2.4 sin (200ù + 50K ¿

63. A square coil of side 30 cm with 500 turns is kept in a uniform magnetic
field of 0.4 T. The plane of the coil is inclined at an angle of 30o to the field.
Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil.
Square coil of side (a) = 30 cm = 30 x 10-2m
Area of square coil (A) = a2 = (30 x 10-2)2 = 9 x 10-2 m2
Number of turns (N) = 500; Magnetic field (B) = 0.4 T
Angular between the field and coil (θ) = 90 – 30 = 600
Magnetic flux (ϕ) = NBA cosθ = 500 x 0.4 x 9 x 10-2 x cos600
= 18 x ; ϕ = 9 Wb

64. A straight metal wire crosses a magnetic field of flux 4 mWb in a time
0.4 s. Find the magnitude of the emf induced in the wire.
Solution:
Magnetic flux (ϕ) =4 mWb = 4 x 10-3 Wb ; time (t) = 0.4 Sec.
4• 5 KÖU
The magnitude of induced emf (e) =
4Q
= K.
= 10½
e = 10 mV
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 273
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

65. An induced current of 2.5 mA flows through a single conductor of resistance

100 Ω. Find out the rate at which the magnetic flux is cut by the conductor.
Solution:
Induced Current, I = 2.5 mA , Resistance of conductor, R = 100 Ω
4Ÿ1
∴ The rate of change of flux, =e
4Q
4Ÿ1
= e = IR = 2.5 x 10-3 x 100
4Q
4Ÿ1
= 250 x 10-3 = 250 mWbs-1
4Q

66. A fan of metal blades of length 0.4 m rotates normal to a magnetic field of
4 x 10-3 T. If the induced emf between the centre and edge of the blade is
0.02 V, determine the rate of rotation of the blade.
Solution:
Length of the metal blade, ¥ = 0.4m
Magnetic field, B = 4 x 10-3 T ; Induced emf, e = 0.02V
Rotational area of the blade, A = πr2 = 3.14 x (0.4)2 = 0.5024 m2
Induced emf in rotational of the coil, e = NBA ω sinθ
ω=
J
[N = 1, θ = 90K , sin 900 = 1]
/ ' PŽ
ω=
K.K K.K
=
5 5 KÖU 5K.ëK 5 PËK .KKË£ 5 KÖU
= 9.95222 x 10-3x 103

Rate of rotational of the blade, ω = 9.95 revolutions / second

= 9.95 revolutions / second

67. A bicycle wheel with metal spokes of 1 m long rotates in Earth’s magnetic
field. The plane of the wheel is perpendicular to the horizontal component
of Earth’s field of 4 x 10-5 T. If the emf induced across the spokes is
31.4 mV, calculate the rate of revolution of the wheel.
Solution:
Length of the metal spokes, ¥ = 1m
Rotational area of the spokes, A = πr2 = 3.14 x (1)2 = 3.14 m2
Horizontal area of the Earth’s field, B = 4 x 10-5 T
Induced emf , e = 3.14 mV
The rate of revolution of wheel, ω =
J
/ '
[N = 1, θ = 90K , sin 900 = 1]
PŽ

ω=
O . 5 KÖU O . 5 KÖU
=
5 5 KÖ7 5 O. 5 PËK .ë£ 5 KÖ7

ω = 250 revolutions / second

= 2.5 x 102
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 274
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

68. Determine the self-inductance of 4000 turn air-core solenoid of length 2m

and diameter 0.04 m.
Solution:
Length of the air core solenoid, ¥ = 2m; Diameter, d = 0.04 m;
Radius, r = = 0.02 m
Area of the air core solenoid, A = πr2 = 3.14 x (0.02)2 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
Number of turns, N = 4000 turns
Self inductance, L = μKP ; = μK [n = , μK = 4π x 10-7 Hm-1]
/ 3
'G A¥
% %
/ ' 5 KÖ 5 ( KKK¿ 5 . ë£ 5 KÖU
= ãK %
=
ë Këò£K 5 KÖ
= ; = 126202880 x 10-10
= 12.62 x 10-3 ; L = 12.62 mH

69. A coil of 200 turns carries a current of 4 A. If the magnetic flux through the
coil is 6 x 10-5 Wb, find the magnetic energy stored in the medium
surrounding the coil.
Solution:

Magnetic flux through the coil, ϕ = 6 x 10-5 Wb

Number of turns of the coil, N = 200 , Current, I = 4 A

/•
Energy stored in the coil, U = LI2 ; Self inductance of the coil, L =
ä
Nϕ
U= x = NϕI ; = x 200 x 6 x
I2 10-5 x4
I
U = 2400 x 10-5 ; U = 0.024 J (or) Joules

70. A coil of 200 turns carries a current of 0.4 A. If the magnetic flux of 4 mWb
is linked with the coil, find the inductance of the coil.
Solution:

Magnetic flux linked with coil, ϕ = 4mWb = 4 x 10-3 Wb

Number of turns of the coil, N = 200 , Current, I = 0.4 A

/• KK 5 5 KÖU ûKK 5 KÖU

Inductance of the coil, L = ;= ;=
ä K. K.
L=2H

71. A 200 turn coil of radius 2 cm is placed co-axially within a long solenoid of
3 cm radius. If the turn density of the solenoid is 90 turns per cm, then
calculate mutual inductance of the coil.
Solution:
Number of turns of the solenoid, N2 = 200;
Radius of the solenoid, r = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
Area of the solenoid, A = πr2 = 3.14 x (2 x 10-2)2 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
Turn density of long solenoid per cm, N1 = 90 x 102
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 275
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

b / / '
Mutual inductance of the coil, M =
%
5 KÖ 5 ËK 5 K 5 KK 5 . ë£ 5 KÖU
=
= 283956.48 x 10-8 ⟹ M = 2.84 mH
72. A step-down transformer connected to main supply of 220 V is made to
operate 11V,88 W lamp. Calculate (i) Transformation ratio and (ii) Current
in the primary.
Solution:
Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 220 V ; Voltage in secondary coil, Vs =11 V
Output power = 88 W
)
i) To find transformation ratio, k =
)[
= K
= K
)
ii) Current in primary, Ip = Is So, Is = ?
)[
Output power = Vs Is ⟹ 88 = 11 x Is
ûû )
Is = = 8A Therefore, Ip = Is ; = x 8 = 0.4A
)[ K

73. Calculate the instantaneous value at 600, average value and RMS value of
an alternating current whose peak value is 20 A.
Solution:
Peak value of current, Im = 20 A ; Angle, θ = 600
i) Instantaneous value of current, â = II ÓâNxù; = II ÓâNθ
√O
= 20 sin 600 = 20 x = 10 √3 = 10 x 1.732
< = 17.32 A
ä& 5 K
ii) Average value of current, Iav = = ; Iav =12.74 A
O.
ä
iii) RMS value of current, IRMS = 0.707Im or & = 0.707 x 20
√
IRMS = 14.14 A
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 276
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - V (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)

74. Consider a parallel plate capacitor which is maintained at potential of

200 V. If the separation distance between the plates of the capacitor and
area of the plates are 1 mm and 20 cm2. Calculate the displacement
current for the time in µs.
Solution:
Potential difference between the plates of the capacitor, V = 200 V
The distance between the plates, d = 1 mm = 1 × 10-3 m
Area of the plates of the capacitor, A = 20 cm2 = 20 × 10-4 m2
Time is given in micro-second, µs = 10-6 s
Displacement current, Id = öK ⟹ Id = öK
•8 Dš
á á
Id ; = öK
Ù Ù Ùš
But electric field, E = ; Therefore, ò = á
;
KK 5 K 5 KÖÆ
KÖ¢ 5 5 KÖU
= 8.85 x 10-12 x ; = 35400 x 10-7 = 3.5 mA

75. The relative magnetic permeability of the medium is 2.5 and the relative
electrical permittivity of the medium is 2.25. Compute the refractive index
of the medium.
Solution:
Dielectric constant (relative permeability of the medium) is εr = 2.25
Magnetic permeability is µr = 2.5
Refractive index of the medium, n = ϵ b ; = √2.25 x 2.5 ; n =2.37

76. Compute the speed of the electromagnetic wave in a medium if the

amplitude of electric and magnetic fields are 3 × 104 N C-1 and 2 × 10-4 T,
respectively.
Solution:
The amplitude of the electric field, Eo = 3 × 104 N C-1
The amplitude of the magnetic field, Bo = 2 × 10-4 T.
Therefore, speed of the electromagnetic wave in a medium is
O 5 KÆ
¤= 5 KÖÆ
= 1.5 x 108 ms-1

77. A magnetron in a microwave oven emits electromagnetic waves (em

waves) with frequency f = 2450 MHz. What magnetic field strength is
required for electrons to move in circular paths with this frequency?.
Solution:
Frequency of the electromagnetic waves given is f = 2450 MHz
The corresponding angular frequency is
ω = 2πf = 2 x 3.14 x 2450 x 106
= 15,386 x 106 Hz
= 1.54 × 1010 s-1
-º¨
The magnetic field B =
|$|
Mass of the electron, me = 9.22 x 10-31 kg
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 277
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Charge of the electron q = - 1.60 x 10-19 C ⟹ |M| = 1.60 x 10-19 C

(Ë. 5 KÖU ¿( .ë 5 K ¿
( .£K 5 KÖ ¿
B= ; = 8.87425 x 10-2 T ; B = 0.0887 T
This magnetic field can be easily produced with a permanent magnet.
So, electromagnetic waves of frequency 2450 MHz can be used for heating
and cooking food because they are strongly absorbed by water molecules.

78. A transmitter consists of LC circuit with an inductance of 1 µH and a

capacitance of 1 µF. What is the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves it
emits?

Inductance of LC circuit, L = 1 μH = 1 x 10-6 H

Solution:

Capacitance of LC circuit, C = 1 μF = 1 x 10-6 F

¢
Wavelength of the electromagnetic wave # =
Š
Velocity of light C = 3 x 108 ms-1

√”£
Frequency of electromagnetic wave, f =
⟹ f = 15.92 x 104 Hz
£. û 5 KÖ¢
;=
5 KÖ¢ 5 KÖ¢
=
5 O.
; 0.1884 x 104 ; ê = 18.84 x 102 m
¢ O5 K
Wave length # = =
Š ë.Ë 5 KÆ

79. A pulse of light of duration 10-6 s is absorbed completely by a small object

initially at rest. If the power of the pulse is 60 × 10-3 W, calculate the final
momentum of the object.
Solution:
Duration of the absorption of light pulse, t = 10-6 s
Power of the pulse P = 60 x 10-3 W
E
Final momentum of the object, P =
£
Velocity of light, C = 3 x 108
Energy U = power x time
£K 5 KÖU 5 KÖ¢
Momentum, P = ; P = 20 x 10-17 kg ms-1
O5 K

80. If the relative permeability and relative permittivity of the medium is 1.0 and
2.25, respectively. Find the speed of the electromagnetic wave in this
medium.

Relative permeability of the medium, μ = 1

Solution:

&μ =b È
b
Relative permittivity of the medium, ϵ = 2.25 Åϵ =

Speed of electromagnetic wave, ¤ =

√b
£
]Where, C = ^
b b √b b
= =
O5 K O5 K
¤ = 2 x 108 ms-1
√ 5 . ë
= ;=
.ë
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 278
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

UNIT - VI (OPTICS)
81. An object is placed at a distance of 20.0 cm from a concave mirror of focal
length 15.0 cm.
(a) What distance from the mirror a screen should be placed to get a sharp
image? (b) What is the nature of the image?
Solution:
Given, f = –15 cm, u = –20 cm
(a) Mirror equation, + = ; Rewriting to find v, = c
ª ¬ Š ª Š ¬
(½ KK¿½ (½ ë¿
= c ; =
½ ë
Substituting for f and u,
ª ½ K ª OKK
½ë ½
= ; ¤ = c60.0 cm
£K
=
OKK
As the image is formed at 60.0 cm to the left of the concave mirror,
the screen is to be placed at distance 60.0 cm to the left of the concave
mirror.
-• ª -• (½£K¿
(b) Magnification, m = = c ; m = = c ; = c3
- ¬ - (½ K¿
As the sign of magnification is negative, the image is inverted.
As the magnitude of magnification is 3, the image is enlarged three
times. As the image is formed to the left of the concave mirror, the image is
real.

83. One type of transparent glass has refractive index 1.5. What is the speed of
light through this glass?
Solution:
\ \ O5 K
n= ;¤= ;¤= ; = 2 x 108 ms-1
ª ¶ .ë
Light travels with a speed of 2 × 108 ms-1 through this glass.

84. Light travels from air in to glass slab of thickness 50 cm and refractive
index 1.5.
(i) What is the speed of light in glass?
(ii) What is the time taken by the light to travel through the glass slab?
(iii) What is the optical path of the glass slab?
Solution:
Given, thickness of glass slab, d = 50 cm = 0.5 m, refractive index, n = 1.5
\
refractive index, n =
ª
\ O5 K
Speed of light in glass is, ¤ = ; = ; = 2 x 108 ms-1.
¶ .ë
Time taken by light to travel through glass slab is,
K.ë
ù= ª
;= 5 K
= 2.5 x 10-9 s
Optical path, . = N. = 1.5 × 0.5; = 0.75m ; =75 cm
Light would have travelled 25 cm more (75 cm – 50 cm) in vacuum by the
same time had there not been a glass slab.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 279
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85. Light travelling through transparent oil enters in to glass of refractive index
1.5. If the refractive index of glass with respect to the oil is 1.25, what is the
refractive index of the oil?
Solution:
Given, ngo =1.25 and ng =1.5 ;
¶9
Refractive index of glass with respect to oil, ngo =
¶
¶9 .ë
Rewriting for refractive index of oil, no =
¶•
= . ë
= 1.2
The refractive index of oil is, no = 1.2

86. What is the radius of the illumination when seen above from inside a
swimming pool from a depth of 10 m on a sunny day? What is the total
angle of view? [Given, refractive index of water is 4/3]
Solution:
4
√P ½
Given, n = , d = 10 m, Radius of illumination, R =
O
K K5O OK
√ £½Ë √ò
R= ;= ;R= ; R = 11.32m
¥ÅÆÈ ½
U

To find the angle of the view of the cone, i = sin½ Å È

P
O
i = sin½ : Æ ; ; = sin½ Å È ; = 48.60
U
The total angle of view is, 2â = 2 x 48.60 = 97.20

87. The thickness of a glass slab is 0.25 m. it has a refractive index of 1.5. A ray
of light is incident on the surface of the slab at an angle of 600. Find the
lateral displacement of the light when it emerges from the other side of the
mirror.
Solution:
Given, thickness of the lab, t = 0.25 m,
refractive index, n = 1.5, angle of incidence,
â = 600.
P· P £K
Using Snell’s law, 1 × sin â = n sin r ; sin r = = = 0.58
¶ .ë
R = sin-1 0.58 = 35.250
E·¶ (·½}¿
Lateral displacement is, L = tÅ È;
F (}¿
E·¶ (£K½Oë. ë¿
L = (0.25) x Å È ; = 0.1281 m
F (Oë. ë¿
The lateral displacement is, L = 12.81 cm
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 280
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

88. Determine the focal lenlength of the lens made up of a materiall of

o refractive
index 1.52 as shown in the diagram. (Points C1 and C2 are the centers of
curvature of the first and
an second surface.)
Solution:

This lens is called

led convexo-concave lens
Given, n = 1.52,, R1= 10 cm and
R2= 20 cm
Lens makers formula, = (N c 1¿ Å cÔ È
Š Ô
Substituting the values,
s,
1 1 1
= (1.52 c 1¿ c
{ 10 20
= (0.52¿ Å È ; = ((0.52¿ Å KÈ = ;{=
½ K.ë K
Š
= 38.46 cm
K K K.ë
As the focal length is po
positive, the lens is a converging lens.

89. If the focal length is 150

50 cm for a glass lens, what is the powerr of the lens?
Solution:
Given, focal lengt
gth, f = 150 cm (or) f = 1.5 m

Š
Equation for powe
wer of lens is, P =
Substituting the
e vvalues, P =
.ë
= 0.67 diopter
As the power is po
positive, it is a converging lens.

90. What is the focal length

gth of the combination if a lens of focal leng
ength –70 cm
is brought in contact with
wi a lens of focal length 150 cm? Whatt is the power
of the combination?
Solution:
Given, focal lengt
gth of first lens, f1 = –70 cm,
focal length of sec
second lens, f2 = 150 cm.
Equation for focal
cal length of lenses in contact,
³
=Š +Š
= + ;= c +
ëK òK ëK
Substituting the
e vvalues,
³ ½òK
½ ëKÀòK ½ûK
= ;= ;
³ òK 5 ëK òK 5 ëK
ûK KëK
=c KëKK
;F=c û
; = c131.25 cm
As the focal leng
ngth is negative, the combination of two
o lenses is a
diverging system of lens
nses.
The power of com
ombination is, P =
³
=½ .O ë-
= c0.76 diopter
dio
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 281
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

91. A monochromatic light is incident on an equilateral prism at an angle 300

and emerges at an angle of 750. What is the angle of deviation produced by
the prism?
Solution:
Given, as the prism is equilateral,
A=600; â 1 =300; â2 =750
Equation for angle of deviation, d = â1 + â 2 – A
Substituting the values, d = 300 +750 – 600 = 450
The angle of deviation produced is, d = 450

92. The angle of minimum deviation for a prism is 370. If the angle of prism is
600, find the refractive index of the material of the prism.
Solution:
Given, A= 600; D=370
ž Ï
E·¶ Å È
4·¶ Å È
Equation for refractive index is, n = ž

¢
E·¶
U
E·¶ b û.ë d
¢ 4·¶ (OK ¿
Substituting the values, n = ;=
4·¶
K.òë
= ; = 1.5
K.ë
The refractive index of the material of the prism is, n = 1.5

93. Find the dispersive power of flint glass if the refractive indices of flint glass
for red, green and violet light are 1.613, 1.620 and 1.632 respectively.
Solution:
Given, nV =1.632; nR =1.613; nG =1.620
Equation for dispersive power is, x =
(¶Ü ½ ¶ ¿
(¶N ½ ¿

Substituting the values, x =

.£O ½ .£ O K.K Ë
;= ; = 0.0306
.£ K ½ K.£ K

The dispersive power of flint glass is, x = 0.0306

94. Two light sources with amplitudes 5 units and 3 units respectively interfere
with each other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and minimum intensities.
Solution:
Amplitudes, a1 = 5, a2 = 3
Resultant amplitude, A = a + a + 2a a cosϕ

Resultant amplitude is, maximum when,

ϕ = 0, cos 0 = 1, Amax = a + a + 2a a
Amax = (a + a ¿ ; = (5 + 3¿ ; = (8¿ ; = 8 units

Resultant amplitude is, minimum when,

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 282
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

95. The wavelength of a liglight is 450 nm. How much phase it will
ill differ for a
path of 3 mm?
Solution:
is, # = 450 nm = 450 x 10-9 m
is, Ã = 3 mm = 3 x 10-3 m
The wavelength is
Path difference is
Relation between s, ϕ =
en phase difference and path difference is, xÃ
»
Substituting, ϕ =
ëK 5 KÖ
x 3 x 10-3 ; = òë x 106;
ϕ = òë x 106 rad.
ad.

96. A monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Å passes through a single

ht o s slit
producing diffraction pattern
p for the central maximum as shown
sho in the
figure. Determine the width
w of the slit.
Solution:
# = 5000 Å = 500000 x 10-10m ;
sin 300 = 0.5, n = 1, a = ?
Equation for diffra
ffraction minimum is,
a sin θ = n#
The central maxim
ximum is spread up to the
first minimum. Hence,, n = 1
» ëKKK 5 KÖ
Rewriting, a = ; substituting, a =
PŽ K.ë
a = 1 x 10-6 m = 0
0.001 x 10-3 m = 0.001 mm

97. Calculate the distance

ce for which ray optics is good approxima
mation for an
aperture of 5 mm anddwwavelength 500 nm.
Solution:
10-3m, # = 500nm = 500 x 10-9m ;z = ?
a = 5 mm = 5 x 1
¾
Equation for Fresn
esnel’s distance, z =
Ð
(ë 5 KÖU ¿ ë 5 KÖ¢
5 ëKK 5 KÖ 5 KÖ¢
Substituting, z = ;= ; z = 25 m

98. A diffraction grating consisting

co of 4000 slits per centimeter is illuminated
with a monochromatic ic light
l that produces the second order diffra
ffraction at an
angle of 30 . What is the
0 th wavelength of the light used?
Solution:
p cm = 4000; m = 2; o = 300 ; # = ?
Number of liness per
KKK
ø KÖ
Number of liness per
p unit length, N = ; =4 x 105
ffraction maximum in grating is, sin o = Nm #
Equation for diffra
P
PŽ POK K.ë
Rewriting,, λ = ; Substituting, λ =
/I
= ;
5 K7 5 5 K7 5

£ 5 K7
= 5 K7 5
;=
λ = 6250 x 10-100 m = 6250 Å
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 283
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

99. A monochromatic light of wavelength of 500 nm strikes a grating and

produces fourth order bright line at an angle of 300. Find the number of slits
per centimeter.
Solution:
λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m; m = 4; o = 300 ,
Number of lines per cm = ?
Equation for diffraction maximum in grating is, sin o = Nm #
PŽ K.ë
Rewriting, λ =
/I 5 5 ëKK 5 KÖ
; Substituting, N =
= 2.5 x 10 lines per meter
5

Number of lines centimeter=2.5x105x10-2 = 2500 lines per centimeter

100. The optical telescope in the Vainu Bappu observatory at Kavalur has an
objective lens of diameter 2.3 m. What is its angular resolution if the
wavelength of light used is 589 nm?
Solution:
a = 2.3 m; # = 589 nm = 589×10-9 m; o = ?
. Ð
The equation for angular resolution is, o =
¾
. 5 ëûË 5 KÖ
Substituting, = ; = 321.4 x 10-9
.O
o = 3.214 x 10-7 rad 0.0011′
Note: The angular resolution of human eye is approximately,
3 x 10-4 rad 1.03′

101. Find the polarizing angles for (i) glass of refractive index 1.5 and
(ii) water of refractive index 1.33.
Solution:
Brewster’s law, tanâw = n
For glass, tanâw = 1.5 ; âw = tan-1 1.5; âw = 56.30
For water, tanâw = 1.33 ; âw = tan-1 1.33; âw = 53.10

102. A microscope has an objective and eyepiece of focal lengths 5 cm and

50 cm respectively with tube length 30 cm. Find the magnification of the
microscope in the (i) near point and (ii) normal focusing.
Solution:
f0 = 5cm = 5 x 10-2 m ; fe = 50 cm = 50 x 10-2 m
L = 30 cm = 30 x 10-2m ; D = 25 cm = 25 x 10-2 m
(i) The total magnification m in near point focusing is ,
¹ ¶
m = mome = Å È Å1 + È
Š Šº
OK 5 KÖ ë 5 KÖ
Substituting, mome = Å
ë5 KÖ
È Å1 + ëK 5 KÖ
È;
= (6) (1.5) = 9
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 284
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

(ii) The total magnification m in normal focusing is,

¹ ¶
m = mome = Å È Å È
Š Šº
OK 5 KÖ ë 5 KÖ
Substituting, mome = Å È ÅëK 5 È;
ë5 KÖ KÖ
= (6) (0.5) = 3

103. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 125 cm and an
eyepiece of focal length 2 cm. What is the magnification of the telescope?
What is the separation between the objective and the eyepiece? Two stars
separated by 1’ will appear at what separation when viewed through the
telescope?
Solution:
fo = 125 cm; fe = 2 cm; m = ?; L = ?; o· = ?
Š
Šº
Equation for magnification of telescope, m =
ë
Substituting, m = = 62.5
Equation for approximate length of telescope, L = fo+ fe
Substituting, L = 125 + 2 = 127 cm = 1.27 m
”Î
Equation for angular magnification, m =
”
Rewriting, o· = m x oK ;
Substituting, o· = 62.5 x 1 = 62.5 =
£ .ë
£K
; = 1.040

104. Calculate the power of the lens of the spectacles necessary to rectify the
defect of nearsightedness for a person who could see clearly only up to a
distance of 1.8 m.
Solution:
The maximum distance the person could see is, x = 1.8 m.
The lens should have a focal length of, f = –x m = –1.8 m.
It is a concave or diverging lens. The power of the lens is,
P=c = c 0.56 diopter
.û -

105. A person has farsightedness with the minimum distance he could see
clearly is 75 cm. Calculate the power of the lens of the spectacles
necessary to rectify the defect.
Solution:
The minimum distance the person could see clearly is, y = 75 cm.
The lens should have a focal length of,{ =
(5 ë I
(½ ë I
;
{=
òë I 5 ë I
òë I½ ë I
; f = 37.5 cm
It is a convex or converging lens. The power of the lens is,
1
0.375 ¦
P= = 2.67 diopter
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 285
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

106. An object is placed at a certain distance from a convex lens of focal length
20 cm. Find the distance of the object if the image obtained is magnified
4 times.
Solution:
f = c 20 cm ; ¤ = c4u
= + ;
Š
According to lens formula,
ª ¬
= +
(½ K¿ (½ ¬¿ ¬
O
= Rc + 1X ; = R X ;
(½ K¿ ¬ ¬
O5 K
C= ; = c15 cm.
107. A compound microscope has a magnification of 30. $e focal length of eye
piece is 5 cm. Assuming the final image to be at least distance of distinct
vision, find the magnification produced by the objective.
Solution:
Magnification of compound microscope, M = 30
Focal length, f = 5 cm, Least distance of distinct vision, D = 25 cm
Now, M = Mo x Me ;
j
= M0 x ]1 + ^ ; 30
{§
25
R1 + X
5
= M0 x
OK
£
M0 = ; M0 = 5

108. In Young’s double slit experiment, 62 fringes are seen in visible region for
sodium light of wavelength 5893 Å. If violet light of wavelength 4359 Å
is used in place of sodium light, then what is the number of fringes seen?

# = 5893 Å; # = 4359 Å , n1 = 62 , n2 = ?
Solution:

¶ Ð ¶ ¶ Ð ¶
From young’s double slit experiment. =
The above condition is total extent of fringes is constant for both
wavelengths.
£ 5 ëûËO 5 KÖ 5' P 5 ëûËO 5 KÖ 5'
=
4 4
£ 5 ëûËO
n2 = ;
OëË
O£ëO££
= OëË ; = 83.8
n2 = 84
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 286
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

109. A compound microscope has a magnifying power of 100 when the image is
formed at infinity. The objective has a focal length of 0.5 cm. and the tube
length is 6.5 cm. What is the focal length of the eyepiece?
Solution:
Magnifying Power, m = 100, Focal length of the objective, f0 = 0.5 cm
Tube length, ¥ = 6.5 cm
Since the image is formed at infinity, the real image produced by the

¤K + {® = 6.5 cm …………….(1)
objective lens should lie on the focus of the eyepiece.

The magnifying power for normal adjustment is given by

ª ¶ ¤0 j
M=Å Èx ; = c ]1 c ^
¬ Šº { 0 {§

; 2¤K c 4{® = 1 …………(2)

¤0 25
100 = c R1 c X
0.5 {§
On solving equations (1) and (2), we get ¤K = 4.5 cm and {® = 2 cm
Thus, the focal length of the eyepiece is 2 cm.

UNIT - VII (DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER)

110. A radiation of wavelength 300 nm is incident on a silver surface. Will
photoelectrons be observed?

ℎÒ
Solution:
Energy of the incident photon is E = ℎ¤ = (in Joules)
#
-\
E = (in eV)
Ю
Substituting the known values, we get
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
= ; = 0.18112 x 104 ; ¤ = 1811 ms-1
OKK 5 KÖ 5 .£ 5 KÖ
E = 4.14 eV
The work function of silver = 4.7 eV. Since the energy of the incident
photon is less than the work function of silver, photoelectrons are not
observed in this case.

111. The work function of potassium is 2.2 eV. UV light of wavelength

3000 Å and intensity 2 Wm-2 is incident on the potassium surface.
i) Determine the maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons
ii) If 40% of incident photons produce photo electrons, how many electrons
are emitted per second if the area of the potassium surface is 2 cm2 ?
Solution:
-\ £.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
i) The energy of the photon is E= ;=
Ð OKKK 5 KÖ
E = 6.626 x 10 J = 4.14 eV
-19

Kmax = ℎ¤ – ϕ0 = 4.14 – 2.30 = 1.84 eV

Maximum KE of the photoelectrons is

ii) The number of photons reaching the surface per second is

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 287
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RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

w
nP = x A ; =
£.£ £ 5 KÖ
x 2 x 10-4
D
The rate of emission of photoelectrons is
=(0 40) nP = 0. 4 × 6. 04 ×1014
= 2.415 x1014 photoelectrons / sec

112. Calculate the momentum and the de Broglie wavelength in the following
cases: i) an electron with kinetic energy 2 eV. ii) a bullet of 50 g fired from
rifle with a speed of 200 m/s iii) a 4000 kg car moving along the highways
at 50 m/s. Hence show that the wave nature of matter is important at the
atomic level but is not really relevant at macroscopic level.
Solution:
i) Momentum of the electron is
p = √2¦‹ = √2 x9.1 x 10½O x 2 x 1.6 x 10½ Ë
p = 7.63 x 10-25 kg ms-1
- £.£O 5 KÖUÆ
Its de Broglie wavelength is = =
ò.£O 5 KÖ 7
; = 0.868 x 10-9 m
Ã
# = 8.68 Å
ii) Momentum of the bullet is p = m¤ = 0.050 x 200 = 10 kgms-1
ℎ 6.634 x 10c34
Its de Broglie wavelength is # = = ; = 6.626 x 10-33 m
+ 10
iii) Momentum of the car is p = m¤ = 4000 x 50 = 2 x 105 kgms-1
- £.£O 5 KÖUÆ
Its de Broglie wavelength is = = ; = 3.313 x 10-39 m
à 5 K7
From these calculations, we notice that electron has significant value
of de Broglie wavelength (≈10–9m which can be measured from diffraction
studies) but bullet and car have negligibly small de Broglie wavelengths
associated with them (≈10–33m and 10–39m respectively, which are not
measurable by any experiment). This implies that the wave nature of matter
is important at the atomic level but it is not really relevant at the
macroscopic level.

113. Find the de Broglie wavelength associated with an alpha particle which is
accelerated through a potential difference of 400 V. Given that the mass of
the proton is 1.67 × 10–27 kg.
Solution:
An alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Therefore, the
mass M of the alpha particle is 4 times that of a proton (mp) (or a neutron)
and its charge q is twice that of a proton (+e). The de Broglie wavelength
, ,
associated with it is # = =
¥ 5 b I[ d 5 ( J¿ 5 )
)

£.£O 5 KÖUÆ
=
5 5 .£ò 5 KÖ 5 5 .£ 5 KÖ 5 KK
£.£O 5 KÖUÆ
; = 0.00507 Å
5 K 5 KÖ U √ .£ò 5 .£
=
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 288
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

114. Calculate the cut-off wavelength and cutoff frequency of x-rays from an x –
ray tube of accelerating potential 20,000 V.
Solution:
Å
KK
The cut-off wavelength of the characteristic x-rays is λK =
)
Å ; = 0.62 Å
KK
=
KKKK
O5 K
The corresponding frequency is vK = ;=
» K.£ 5 KÖ
= 4.84 x 1018 Hz

115. How many photons per second emanate from a 50 mW laser of 640 nm?
Solution:
P = 50 mW , # = 640 nm , h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js, c = 3 x108 ms-1
w wÐ
=
-\
Number of photons emanate per second nP =
D
ëK 5 KU 5 £ K 5 KÖ O KKK 5 KÖ¢
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K Ë.û 5 KÖ ¢
= ;= ; = 1616.16 x 1020
nP =1.6 x 1017 s-1

116. Calculate the energies of the photons associated with the following
radiation:
(i) violet light of 413 nm (ii) X-rays of 0.1 nm (iii) radio waves of 10 m.
Solution:
h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js, c = 3 x108 ms-1
-\
Energy of photon, E = ℎì ; E =
Ð
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
i) Violet light, # = 413 nm ; E =
O 5 KÖ
= 0.04794 x 10-17
.òË 5 KÖ
.£ 5 KÖ
= 4.794 x 10-19 J ; = ev
E = 3 eV
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
ii) X –Ray, # = 0.1 nm ; E =
K. 5 KÖ
= 198 x 10-17
Ëû 5 KÖ
.£ 5 KÖ
= ; 123.75 x 102
E = 12375 eV
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
iii) Radio waves, # = 10 m ; E = = 1.98 x 10-26J
K
.Ëû 5 KÖ ¢
.£ 5 KÖ
= ; 1.2375 x 10-7
E = 1.24 x 10-7 eV
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 289
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

117. A 150 W lamp emits light of mean wavelength of 5500 Å . If the efficiency
is 12%, find out the number of photons emitted by the lamp in one second.
Solution:
P = 150 W , # = 5500 Å , h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js, c = 3 x108 ms-1
wÐ
Number of photons emanated per second n =
-\
If the efficiency is 12% , • = = 0.12
KK
w Ð
n=
-\
ëK 5 K. 5 ëëKK 5 KÖ ËËKKK 5 KÖ
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 Ë.û 5 KÖ ¢
= ;= ; = 5000 x 1016
K
n =5 x 1019

118. How many photons of frequency 1014 Hz will make up 19.86 J of energy?
Solution:
Total energy emitted per second = Power x time
19.86 = Power x 1 s ; ∴ Power = 19.86 W
Ì Ì Ë.û£
Number of photons, n = = ℎì £.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 K Æ
/
;=
= 3.009 x 1020 n = 3 x 1020 ; np = 3 x 1020
119. What should be the velocity of the electron so that its momentum equals
that of 4000 Å wavelength photon.
Solution:
- - - £.£ 5 KÖUÆ
#= = ;¤=
w Ë. 5 KÖU 5 KKK 5
;=
-ª -Ð K
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ
; = 0.18112 x 104 ; ¤ = 1811 ms-1
O£. 5 KÖU

120. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic energy is

equal to 81.9 × 10–15 J. (Given: mass of proton is 1836 times that of
electron).
Solution:
Mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg, KE = 81.9 x 10-15 J
-
de Broglie wavelength of a proton, # =
√ -î
£.£ 5 KÖUÆ
;
5 .£ò 5 KÖ 5 û .Ë 5 KÖ 7
=

£.£ 5 KÖUÆ
.£ëOË 5 KÖ
= ; = 3.99 x 10-14
# = 4 x 10-14 m
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 290
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

121. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 81V. What is

the de Broglie wavelength associated with it? To which part of
electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength correspond?
Solution:
de – Broglie wavelength of an electron beam accelerated through a
- . O
potential difference of V volts is # = ;=
√ -Ù √Ù
nm
. O
V = 81 V, So # =
√û
x 10-9 m = 0.1366 x 10-9 m
# = 1.36 Å
X –Ray is the part of electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength
corresponds. X – Ray has the wavelengths ranging from about
10-8 to 10-12 m

UNIT – VIII (ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS)

122. The radius of the 5th orbit of hydrogen atom is 13.25 Å. Calculate the
wavelength of the electron in the 5th orbit.

2° = N# ; 2 x3.14 x 13.25 Å = 5 x # ; ∴ # = 16.64 Å

Solution:

123. Find the (i) angular momentum (ii) velocity of the electron in the 5th orbit
of hydrogen atom.
Solution:
ë 5 £.£ 5 KÖUÆ
(i) Angular momentum is given by = Nℏ =
¶-
;=
ƒ 5 O.
= 5.25 x 10-34 kgm2s-1
% (ë. ë 5 KÖUÆ ²)I Ö ¿
(ii) Velocity is given by velocity, = ;= Ö
(Ë. 5 KÖU >?¿ ( U. 7 @
-} &¿

ö = 4.4 x 105 ms-1

124. Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine if no distinction is made
between its different isotopes?
Solution:
The element chlorine is a mixture of 75.77% of Oëòߥ and 24.23% of
òߥ . So the average atomic mass will be
Oò
òë.òò . O
x 34.96885u + x 36.96593u ; = 35.453 u
KK KK
In fact, the chemist uses the average atomic mass or simply called
chemical atomic weight (35.453u for chlorine) of an element. So it must be
remembered that the atomic mass which is mentioned in the periodic table
is basically averaged atomic mass.
Ëò
125. Calculate the radius of òËmC nucleus.
Solution:
According to the equation (R = R0mU ), R = 1.2 x 10-15 x (197¿U
= 6.97 x 10-15m (or) R = 6.97 F
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 291
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

126. Compute the binding energy of ;§ nucleus using the following data:
Atomic mass of Helium atom, MA (He) = 4.00260 Ó and that of hydrogen
atom, mH = 1.00785 .
Solution:
Binding energy BE [ZmH + Nmn –MA] c2
For helium nucleus, Z = 2, N = A–Z = 4–2 = 2
Mass defect ∆¦ = [(2 x 1.00785C ) + (2 x 1.008665C) – 4.00260C ]
∆¦ = 0.03038 C ; B.E = 0.03038 C x c2
B.E = 0.03038 × 931MeV = 28MeV ; •∴ 1CÒ = 931 C§ï “

127. Calculate the number of nuclei of carbon-14 un-decayed after 22,920 years
if the initial number of carbon-14 atoms is 10,000. The half-life of carbon-
14 is 5730 years.
Solution:
á Ë K(
=
ëòOK (
To get the time interval in terms of half-life, n = =4
û /
The number of nuclei remaining un-decayed after 22,920 years,
¶
N = Å È No = = Å È x 10000 ; N = 625

128. Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy per nucleon of the
òm nucleus. [Atomic mass of Ag = 107.905949]
Kû

Solution:
Mass of proton (mp) =1.007825 amu, Mass of neutron(mn) =1.008865 amu
Mass defect, ∆¦ = Zm\ + Zm/ c M/ ;
= 47 x 1.007825 + 61 x 1.008665 – 107.905949
= 108.89634 – 107.905949; ∆¦ = 0.990391C
Binding energy per nucleon of the Kûòm nucleus
∆I 5 ËO K.ËËKOË 5 ËO Ë .Kë K
B. E = ;= ;= ; = 8.537
' Kû Kû
J)
B. E = 8.5
'

129. Half lives of two radioactive elements A and B are 20 minutes and
40 minutes respectively. Initially, the samples have equal number of nuclei.
Calculate the ratio of decayed numbers of A and B nuclei after 80 minutes.
Solution:
80 minutes = 4 half lives of A = 2 half live of B
Let the initial number of nuclei in each sample be N.
/
NA after 80 minutes = Æ
ë
£
Number of A nuclides decayed = N
/
NB after 80 minutes = Æ
O
Number of B nuclides decayed = N
ë ë
£
Required ratio = xO= ; NA :NB = 5 : 4
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 292
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

130. Calculate the time required for 60% of a sample of radon undergo decay.
Given T½ of radon =3.8 days.
Solution:
Here consider Rn – 222 with a half life of 3.823 days.
From decay equation, Current amount = Initial amount x (2)-n
š
/ ½
N = N0 (2¿½¶ ; = (2¿ ý /
/
N
N log N
• •
log Å È = log (2) x c A 0
= cA
N0 log (2¿
;
"/! "/!
GF)(K. ¿
t=
GF)( ¿
x (c3.823) ; time t = 5.05 days.

131. Assuming that energy released by the fission of a single 92U235 nucleus
is 200MeV, calculate the number of fissions per second required to produce
1 watt power.
Solution:
The fission of a single 92U235 nucleus releases 200 Mev of energy
⟹Q=
Q P
Energy released in the fission is given by the formula E =
P
E = 200 Mev = 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19
E = 320 x 10-13 ; E = 3.2 x 10-11 J
P
Q
= = O. 5 KÖ
; = 0.3125 x 1011 = 3.125 x 1010
P
Q
= 3.125 x 1010

132. Show that the mass of radium ( 88Ra 226 ) with an activity of 1 curie is
almost a gram. Given T½ =1600 years.
Solution:
The activity of the sample at any time t
K.£ËO
R = λN ; Here, λ = ; R = 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 dis s-1
T / = 1600 year = 1600 x 3.16 x 107 dis
/

ð ð
∴ The amount of radium, N = = /
» K.£ËO
O.ò 5 K 5 £KK 5 O. £ 5 K ûòKò. 5 K
= ;=
K.£ËO K.£ËO
= 26990.62 x 1017 ; N = 2.7 x 1021 atoms

As 226 g of radiation contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms so the amount of

required strength.
£ 5 .ò 5 K
£.K O 5 K U
= ; = 101.311 x 10-2 ; = 1.013g 1g
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 293
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

133. Characol pieces of tree

ee is found from an archeological site. The
e carbon-14
c
content of this characol
col is only 17.5% that of equivalent sample
le of
o carbon
from a living tree. What
at is the age of tree?

, T / = 5730 years
Solution:
K.£ËO
17.5%, # =
R0 = 100% , R = 1
û /
Ô
dioactive law R = R0 § ½Ðá ; § Ðá =
According to radio
Ô
Ô
oth sides t = In Å È
Taking log on both
on, T
Ð Ô
Half life of carbon / = 5730 years
û / ëòOK (Jc
T= in ÅK. òëÈ ; K.£ËO x 1.74297
K.£ËO
= 14409.49 years
ars; t = 1.44 x 104 years

UNIT- IX (SEM
EMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS)
CS)
134. An ideal diode and a 5 Ω resistor are connected in series with a 15
1 V power
supply as shown in figur
gure below. Calculate the current that flows
ws through
the diode.
Solution:
The diode is forwa
rward biased and it is an ideal
one. Hence, it acts like
e a closed switch with no
barrier voltage. Therefor
fore, current that flows
through the diode can b be calculated using Ohm’s
; = 5 ; = 3A
)
law. V = IR ; I =
ð

135. Consider an ideal junctio

ction diode. Find the value of current flowinging through
Solution:
The barrier poten
ential of the diode is neglected as it is an ideal
ide diode.
The value of cururrent flowing through AB can be obtaine ined by using
Ohm’s law,
) 3c(c7¿ K
I= ;= 3 ;= ; 10-2 A = 10 mA
ð 1 x 10 KU

136. Find the current through

ugh the Zener diode when the load resistan
tance is 1 KΩ.
Use diode approximatiotion.
Solution:
Voltage across AB is VZ = 9V
Voltage drop acro
cross R = 15 - 9 = 6V
Therefore current
nt through the resistor R,
£
I= = 6 mA
5 KU
Voltage across the load resistor = VAB = 9V
Ùž 8 Ë
Current through load resistor, ò¹ =
h lo = ; = 4.5 mA
A
Ô+ 5 KU
The current throuough the Zener diode,
Iz = I – IL = 6 mA
A – 4.5 mA = 1.5 mA
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 294
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

137. Determine the wavelen length of light emitted from LED which is m
made up of
GaAsP semiconductor or whose forbidden energy gap is 1.875 eV. e Mention
the colour of the lightt em
emitted (Take h = 6.6 × 10-34 Js).
Solution:
-\ -\ £.£ 5 KÖUÆ 5 O 5 K
fore, # =
.ûòë 5 .£ 5 KÖ
Eg = ; Therefore ;=
Ð D9
= 660 nm
The wavelength 660 nm corresponds to red colour light.

cted in the common base configuration,, a ½ =0.95 ,

138. In a transistor connecte
I = " mA . Calculatee th
the values of IC and IB .
Solution:
ä±
α= ; I£ = αI
α = 0.95 x 1 = 0.95 mA
ä1
I = I + I£ ∴ I = I£ c I ; = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05 mA
139. In the circuit shown in tthe figure, the input voltage Vi is 20 V, VBE
B = 0 V and
he values of I , I£ , β?
VCE = 0 V. What are the (Marc
arch 2020)
Solution:
ÙÎ K)
I = =
ëKK ²
; = 40ãA
Ô8 ²!
•∴ V = 0V“
Ùªª K)
I£ = = ; = 5mA
Ôª !
²!
•∴ V£ = 0V“
β= ; β = 125
ä± ë -š
=
ä1 K%'

140. Calculate the range of tthe variable capacitor that is to be used

ed in a tuned-
collector oscillator whic
hich has a fixed inductance of 150 µH. The frequency
band is from 500 kHzz to 1500 kHz.
Solution:

√”£ 0 ”
Resonant frequen
ency, f0 = ; On simplifying we get C =
When frequencyy iis equal to 500 kHz

5 (ëKK 5 KU ¿ 5 ëK 5 KÖ¢
C= ; = 676 pF
5 O.
When frequencyy iis equal to 1500 kHz

5 ( ëKK 5 KU ¿ 5 ëK 5 KÖ¢
C= ; = 75 pF
5 O.
Therefore, the cap
capacitor range is 75 – 676 pF
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 295
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

141. What is the output Y in the following circuit, when all the three
e inputs
i A, B,
and C are first 0 and then
the 1?
Solution:

A B C X = A.B Y = X. C
0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

142. In the combination of the

t following gates, write the Boolean equation
e for
output Y in terms of inp
inputs A and B.
Solution:
AN gate: A B
The output at the 1st AND
AN gate: A B
The output at the 2nd AND
gat Y = A. B + A. n
The output at the OR gate:

143. Simplify the Boolean identity

ide AC + ABC = AC
Solution:
Step 1: AC (1 + B) = AC.1
C.1 [OR law – 2]
Step 2: AC . 1 = AC [AND
ND law – 2]
Therefore, AC + ABC = AC
A
Circuit Description
Y=AC + ABC Y=AC
Thus the given statemenent is proved.

144. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as shown in figu
igure below.
Calculate the current flo
flowing through the resistance R1
Solution:
Diode D1 is revers
erse biased so, it will block
the current and Diode D2 is forward biased, so it
will pass the current.
) 10 10
ircuit is I =
Current in the circ ;= = ;
ð 2+2 4
I = 2.5A

145. Four silicon diodes and nd a 10 Ω resistor are connected as show

own in figure
below. Each diode has as a resistance of 1Ω. Find the current flows
flo through
the 18Ω resistor.
Solution:
Diode D2 and D4 are forward biased while diodes
D1 and D3 are reverse rse biased . Only current flowing
through the closed loop lo is EADCBFE. Consider the
applied voltage is 4V. FoFor silicon diode, Barrier voltage is
0.7 V. Net circuit voltage
ages = 4 – (0.7 + 0.7) = 4 – 1.4
V = 2.6 V
istance = 1 + 18 + 1 R = 20 Ω
Total circuit resist
) .£
nt I =
∴ Circuit Current = ; = 0.13 A
ð K
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 296
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK

HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR

,aw;gpay;
PHYSICS
PREPARED BY

RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A.,

P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS,
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
SRM HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KAVERIYAMPOONDI,
TIRUVANNAMALAI – 606603
[email protected], [email protected]

2020 - 2021
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 297
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
01. Before coming to the laboratory, a student should plan the experiment in
advance by consulting with his / her friends and reading this book.

02. As separate observation Note Book must be used and everything regarding
the experiment must be written before coming to the laboratory.

03. Write the date, experiment number, aim, apparatus required, formula,
procedure and result in the right-hand page and diagram (Ray diagrams, and
Circuit diagrams), tabulations, observations and calculations, in the left-hand
page of the observation note book / record note book.

04. After the completion of experiment with all observations in the laboratory, the
student should get the signature of the teacher. Within three days of the
experiment the student should complete the calculations and get the
signature of the teacher.

05. Enter the observed reading with the relevant units (gram, cm, mm…) but the
final calculation must be done with SI units only. The result must be given
with proper SI Unit.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 298
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

PHYSICS PRACTICAL – SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Internal Assessment : 15 Marks
External Examination : 15 Marks
Total Marks : 30 Marks

Internal Assessment (15)

(Teacher should maintain the Assessment Register and the Head of the Institution
should monitor it)
Attendance (Above 80.01%) : 02 Marks

Test : 04 Marks

Assignment : 02 Marks

Performance (while doing the experiment : 02 Marks

In the laboratory
Record Note Book : 03 Marks
Co-curricular Activities : 02 Marks

External Examination (15)

01. Formula : 02 Marks
(mere expression –1, explanation of notations –1)

02. Brief Procedure : 03 Marks

03. Observations : 05 Marks

04. Calculations (Including graphs) : 04 Marks

05. Result : 01 Mark

(Correct Value –½ Mark, Mentioning SI Unit – ½ Mark)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 299
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Determination of the specific resistance of the material of the given coil
using Metre Bridge.

2. Determination of the value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s

magnetic field using tangent galvanometer.

3. Determination of the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil.

4. Determination of the refractive index of the material of the prism by finding

angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation using spectrometer.

5. Determination of the wavelength of a composite light by normal incidence

method using diffraction grating and spectrometer (The number of lines per
metre length of the grating is given).

6. Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of PN junction diode.

7. Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of Zener diode.

8. Investigation of the static characteristics of a NPN Junction transistor in

common emitter configuration.

9. Verification of the truth table of the basic logic gates using integrated
circuits.

10. Verification of De Morgan’s theorems using integrated circuits.

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 300
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 01
Date :
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OFF THE
T MATERIAL OF THE COIL USING METRE RE BRIDGE
AIM:
To determine the specif
cific resistance of the material of the given coil
c using
metre bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter Bridge, Galvanom
ometer, Key, Resistance box, Connecting wire ires,
Lechlanche cell, Jockey
ey and High resistance.
FORMULA:
C‰D !
B=
›
(Ωm)
Where, X → Resistancece of the given coil (Ω)
R → Known resistance e (Ω)
(
L → Length of the coill (m
(m)
r → Radius of the wire
e (m(m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
A resistance box R is connected
con in the left gap and the unknown n resistance
r X
in the right gap. A Lechlanch che cell is connected across the wire off length
l 1 m
through a key. A sensitive galvalvanometer G is connected between the e central
c strip
and the jockey through a high gh resistance (HR). With a suitable resistancance included
in the resistance box, the circu
cuit is switched on.
To check the circuit cononnections, the jockey is pressed near one ne end of the
wire, say A. The galvanometerer wwill show deflection in one direction. Whenen the jockey
is pressed near the other endnd of the wire B, the galvanometer will show ow deflection
in the opposite directions. This
his ensures that the circuit connections are e correct.
c
By moving the jockey over
ov the wire, the point on the wire at which ch the
galvanometer shows null defle flection i.e., balancing point J is found. The balancing
b
length AJl= is noted.
Ô ( KK½
½%¿
The unknown resistance
ce X1 is found using the formula X1 =
%
The experiment is repea
eated for different values of R. The same procedure
pro is
repeated after interchanging R and X.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 301
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Ô%
The unknown resistance X2 is found using the formula X2 =
( KK½ %¿
The experiment is repeated for same values of R as before. The resistance
of the given coil is found from the mean value of X1 and X2. The radius of the wire r
is found using screw gauge. The length of the coil L is measured using meter scale.
From the values of X, r and L, the specific resistance of the material of the wire is
determined.
OBSERVATION:
Length of the coil L = 100 cm = 1 m.

Table 1: To find the resistance of the given coil

Before interchanging After interchanging

Resistance (R)

C‰D !
Mean
B=
C "ÀC ! ›
(Ω)

(" ½ô¿ ô X=
! (Ωm)
Balancing

Balancing

X1 = X2 =
ô (" ½ ô¿ (Ω)
length ¥

length ¥
S. No.

(Ω) (Ω)
(cm)

(cm)

1 1 14.3 5.993 85.7 5.993 5.993 1.750

2 2 25.1 5.968 74.9 5.968 5.968 1.742
3 3 33.4 5.982 66.6 5.982 5.982 1.746
4 4 41.3 5.685 58.7 5.685 5.685 1.660
5 5 45.9 5.893 54.1 5.893 5.893 1.720
Mean / Average 5.904 1.723

Table 2: To find the radius of the wire

Zero error = No Error ; LC = 0.01mm ; Zero correction = No Correction
S. PSR HSC Total Reading = Corrected Reading
No. (mm) (Div.) PSR + (HSC x LC)+ZC (mm) = TR + ZC (mm)
1 0 60 60 0.60
2 0 60 60 0.60
3 0 61 61 0.61
4 0 62 62 0.62
5 0 62 62 0.62
Mean / Average (2r) = 0.61 mm
Radius of the wire r = 0.305 mm
r= 0.305 x 10-3 m
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 302
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:

(" ½ô¿ ô C‰D !

B=
S. X2 = (Ω)
›
No. X1 = ô
(Ω) (" ½ ô¿ (Ωm)
1 (100c14.3¿ 1 (85.7¿
ë.ËËO 5 O. 5 bK.OKë 5 KÖU d
ρ=
= = (100c85.7¿
14.3
85.7 85.7
ë.ËËO 5 O. KÖ¢
= =
14.3 14.3 5 K.KËOK5
01 X1 = 5.993 Ω X2 = 5.993 Ω =
¯ À¯ ë.ËËO Àë.ËËO
X= ;= ;=
.Ëû£
B = 1.750 x" ½ú
(Ωm)
X = 5.993 Ω
ë.Ë£û 5 O. 5 bK.OKë 5 KÖU d
2 (100c25.1¿ 2 (74.9¿
=
25.1
=
(100c74.9¿ ρ=
149.8 149.8
ë.Ë£û 5 O. 5 K.KËOK5 KÖ¢
=
= =
25.1 25.1
02 X1 = 5.968 Ω X2 = 5.968 Ω
X=
¯ À¯
;=
ë.Ë£û Àë.Ë£û
;=
.ËO£ B = 1.742 x" ½ú
(Ωm)
X = 5.968 Ω
ë.Ëû 5 O. 5 bK.OKë 5 KÖU d
3 (100c33.4¿ 3 (66.6¿
=
33.4
=
(100c 66.6¿ ρ=
199.8 199.8
= 33.4 ô.É ! H ‡."ˆ H . ɇ H " Öú
=
=
33.4
03 X1 = 5.982 Ω X2 = 5.982 Ω "

X=
¯ À¯
;=
ë.Ëû Àë.Ëû
;=
.Ë£ B = 1.746 x" ½ú
(Ωm)
X = 5.982 Ω
ë.£ûë 5 O. 5 bK.OKë 5 KÖU d
4 (100c41.3¿ 4 (58.7¿
=
41.3
=
(100c58.7¿ ρ=
234.8 234.8
= ë.£ûë 5 O. 5 K.KËOK5 KÖ¢
=
41.3
=
41.3
04 X1 = 5.685 Ω X2 = 5.685 Ω
X=
¯ À¯
;=
ë.£ûë Àë.£ûë
;=
.OòK B = 1.660 x" ½ú
(Ωm)

X = 5.685 Ω
5 (100c45.9¿ 5 (54.1¿
ë.ûËO 5 O. 5 bK.OKë 5 KÖU d
=
45.9
= (100c54.1¿
ρ=
270.5 270.5
ë.ûËO 5 O. 5 K.KËOK5 KÖ¢
=
= =
45.9 45.9
05 X1 = 5.893 Ω X2 = 5.893 Ω
X=
¯ À¯
;=
ë.ûËO Àë.ûËO
;=
.òû£ ρ = 1.720 x" ½ú
(Ωm)

X = 5.893 Ω

RESULT:
The specific resistance of the material of the given coil
ρ = 1.723 x 10-6 (Ωm)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 303
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 02
Date :
HORIZONTAL COMPO
PONENT OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD USIN
SING
TA
TANGENT GALVANOMETER
AIM:
To determine the horizo
izontal component of the Earth’s magnetic fi
field using
tangent galvanometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Tangent galvanometerr (T
(TG), Commutator, Battery, Rheostat, Amm
meter, key
and Connecting wires.
b P²
FORMULA: BH = (Tesla
sla)
Where, BH → Horizontaltal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
d (T)
(
μK → Permeability of fre
free space (4π × 10−7 Hm−1)
n → Number of turns of TG in the circuit (No unit)
k → Reduction factor of TG (A)
r → Radius of the coill (m
(m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
The preliminary adjustm tments are carried out as follows. The leveveling screws
at the base of TG are adjusted ted so that the circular turn table is horizon
ontal and the
plane of the circular coil is vert
ertical.
The circular coil is rota
otated so that its plane is in the magneti etic meridian
i.e., along the north-south di direction. The compass box alone is rota tated till the
aluminium pointer reads 00 – 00.The connections are made as shown in circuit.
The number of turn’s n is seleclected and the circuit is switched on.
The range of cur current through TG is chosen in such a wa way that the
deflection of the aluminium p pointer lies between 300 – 600. A suitableble current is
allowed to pass through the e circuit;
c the deflections θ1 and θ2 are note
oted from two
ends of the aluminium point inter. Now the direction of current is reve versed using
commutator C, the deflections ns θ3 and θ4 in the opposite direction are noted.
not
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 304
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

The mean value θ of θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 is calculated and tabulated.

The reduction factor k is calculated for each case and it is found that k is a
constant. The experiment is repeated for various values of current and the readings
are noted and tabulated. The radius of the circular coil is found by measuring the
circumference of the coil using a thread around the coil.
From the values of r, n and k, the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
field is determined.

OBSERVATION:
Number of turns of the coil (n) = 5
Circumference of the coil (2πr) = 49.5 x 10-2 m
Radius of the coil (r) = 2πr = 49.5 x 10-2 m
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
r= ;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ I
= 5 O.
;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
£. û
=
r = 7.882 x 10-2 m
To find horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
µ P²
Deflection of T.G. (Degree) a BH =
ÌÍs Ç
S. Current k=
I (A) Mean θ tan θ
No. (Tesla)
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 (A)

1 0.6 32 32 33 33 320 30′ 0.637 0.941 3.748

2 0.8 39 39 40 40 390 30′ 0.824 0.970 3.864

3 1.0 45 45 46 46 450 30′ 1.017 0.983 3.915

4 1.2 50 50 51 51 500 30′ 1.213 0.989 3.939

Mean / Average 0.970 3.866

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 305
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
S. a b P²
ÌÍs Ç
k= BH = (Tesla)
No.
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.Ë
B! =
Ë.ë 5 KÖ /
;
K.£ 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.Ë
QcP O
k= ;
OK Ë.ë 5 KÖ
=
5 O. 5 O. 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.Ë
K.£
01
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
= ;
K.£Oò
= ;
ûë.ëëò 5 KÖ
Ë.ë KÖ
=
}E = 3.748 x"
k = 0.941 A ½ô
(Tesla)
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËòK
B! =
Ë.ë 5 KÖ /
;
K.û
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËòK
QcP OË OK
k= ;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
=
5 O. 5 O. 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËòK
K.û
02
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
= ;
K.û
= ;
Ë . ò£ 5 KÖ
Ë.ë KÖ
=
}E = 3.864 x"
k = 0.970 A ½ô
(Tesla)
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûO
B! =
Ë.ë 5 KÖ /
;
.K
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûO
QcP ë OK
k= ;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
=
03 5 O. 5 O. 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûO
.K
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
= ;
.K ò
= ;
ËO.ûOË 5 KÖ
Ë.ë KÖ
=
}E = 3.915 x"
k = 0.983 A ½ô
(Tesla)
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûË
B! =
Ë.ë 5 KÖ /
;
.
5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûË
QcP ëK OK
k= ;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
=
04 5 O. 5 O. 5 KÖ 5 ë 5 K.ËûË
.
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
= ;
= ;
. O Ëë.K 5 KÖ
Ë.ë KÖ
=
}E = 3.939 x"
k = 0.989 A ½ô
(Tesla)

RESULT:
The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is found to be
BH = 3.866 x 10-5 Tesla
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 306
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 03
Date :
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE
EAAXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL - DETERMINATI
ATION OF BH
AIM:
To determine the horizon
izontal component of Earth’s magnetic field
d using
u
current carrying circular
lar coil and deflection magnetometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Circular coil apparatus,
s, compass box, rheostat, battery or powerr ssupply,
ammeter, commutator, r, kkey and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
_ s aD ! a
Å È(Tesla)
ÌÍs Ç
BH = ‡/!
!bD ! ÀW! d
Where, BH → Horizontaltal component of Earth’s magnetic field (T)
μK → Permeability of ththe free space (4π × 10−7 Hm−1)
n → Number of turns incincluded in the circuit (No unit)
I → Current flowing thro
rough the coil (A)
r → Radius of the circula
ular coil (m)
0 → Distance between n ccenter of compass box and centre of the coil
co (m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
The preliminary adjustm
tments are carried out as follows.
The leveling screws are
re adjusted so that the circular coil is vertical
cal.
The wooden bench is adjust usted to be along the magnetic east-wes est direction
i.e., along aluminium pointer.
er. The circular coil is rotated so that its ts plane is in
magnetic meridian i.e., alongng the north-south direction. A compass box bo is placed
with its centre coinciding with
th tthe axis of the coil. The compass box alonone is rotated
till the aluminium pointer read
ads 00 – 00. Electrical connections are mad ade as shown
in the circuit diagram.
The compass box is p placed along its axis, with its centre at a distance
0 from the centre of the coill o
on one side. A suitable current (1A) is pass
assed through
the coil by adjusting rheostatat so that the deflection of the aluminium m pointer lies
between 300 and 600. The valu alue of the current I is noted from ammeter. r.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 307
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Two readings θ1 and θ2 corresponding to two ends of the pointer are noted.
Now the direction of the current is reversed using commutator, two more
readings θ3 and θ4 are noted. Now the compass box is taken to the other side and
is kept at the same distance 0. Four more readings θ5, θ6, θ7 and θ8 are taken as
done before. These eight readings and their average value are tabulated.
The experiment is repeated for another value of current, say 1.5 A by keeping
the compass box at the same distance0.The radius of the circular coil is found by
measuring the circumference of the coil using a thread around the coil.
The number of turn’s n of the coil is noted.
ä
From the values of n, r, 0 and , the horizontal component of Earth’s
QcP Ž
magnetic field is now found using the formula.
OBSERVATION:
Number of turns of the coil (n) = 5
Circumference of the coil (2πr) = 49.5 x 10-2 m
Radius of the coil (r) = 2πr = 49.5 x 10-2 m
Ë.ë 5 KÖ Ë.ë 5 KÖ I
r= ;= 5 O.
;
Ë.ë 5 KÖ
£. û
= ; r = 7.882 x 10-2 m
To find horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
BH =
Current I (A)

Deflection of T.G. Deflection of T.G.

I _ s aD ! a
Distance W

Å È
(Degree) (Degree)
ÌÍs Ç
Mean θ

tan θ
‡/!
!bD ! ÀW! d
S. No.

Tan θ
(cm)

(Tesla)
θ1
θ2
θ3
θ4
θ5
θ6
θ7
θ8
320 30′

0.637

1 6 1.2 32 32 33 33 33 33 32 32 1.883 3.743

350 30′

0.713

2 6 1.4 35 35 36 36 36 36 35 35 1.963 3.902

380 30′

0.795

3 6 1.6 38 38 39 39 39 39 38 38 2.012 3.999

410 30′

0.884

4 6 1.8 41 41 42 42 42 42 41 41 2.036 4.047

440 30′

0.982

5 6 2.0 44 44 45 45 45 45 44 44 2.036 4.047

Mean / Average 1.986 3.947

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 308
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
a _ s aD! a
Å È
S.
ÌÍs Ç ÌÍs Ç
BH = (Tesla)
No. !(D ÀW ¿
! ! ‡/!

4 x3.14 x 10½ò x 5 x (7.882 x 10½ ¿ x 1.883

B! =
. 2 x ((7.882 x 10½ ¿ + (6 x 10½ ¿ ¿O/
QcP O
k= ;
OK òO £. OK 5 KÖ òO £. OK 5 KÖ
ë 5 KÖÆ ¿ Ë£. ë 5 KÖÆ
= ;=
01 (Ëû.
.
òO £. OK 5 KÖ
K.£Oò
= ;
; = 3743403.8 x 10½ ;
K.KK Ë£ ë KÖÆ
=

k = 1.883 A }E = 3.743 x" ½ô

(Tesla)

. 4 x3.14 x 10½ò x 5 x (7.882 x 10½ ¿ x 1.963

B! =
k=
QcP Oë OK
; 2 x ((7.882 x 10½ ¿ + (6 x 10½ ¿ ¿O/
ò£ëû.ë £ 5 KÖ ò£ëû.ë £ 5 KÖ
ë 5 KÖÆ ¿ Ë£. ë 5 KÖÆ
. = ;=
02 (Ëû.
Kò O
= ;
ò£ëû.ë £ 5 KÖ
; = 3902443.8 x 10½ ;
K.KK Ë£ ë KÖÆ
=
k = 1.963 A }E = 3.902 x" ½ô (Tesla)
4 x3.14 x 10½ò x 5 x (7.882 x 10½ ¿ x 2.012
.£
B! =
2 x ((7.882 x 10½ ¿ + (6 x 10½ ¿ ¿O/
QcP Oû OK
;
òû Ë.ò ò 5 KÖ òû Ë.ò ò 5 KÖ
k=
ë 5 KÖÆ ¿ Ë£. ë 5 KÖÆ
= ;=
(Ëû.
.£
03
òû Ë.ò ò 5 KÖ
K.òËë
= ; ; = 3999855.7 x 10½ ;
K.KK Ë£ ë KÖÆ
=
}E = 3.999 x" ½ô
(Tesla)

4 x3.14 x 10½ò x 5 x (7.882 x 10½ ¿ x 2.036

k = 2.012 A
.û
B! =
k=
QcP OK
; 2 x ((7.882 x 10½ ¿ + (6 x 10½ ¿ ¿O/
òË O.Oë 5 KÖ òË O.Oë 5 KÖ
04 .û =
(Ëû. ë 5 KÖÆ ¿
;=
Ë£. ë 5 KÖÆ
K.ûû
= ;
òË O.Oë 5 KÖ
; = 4047567.8 x 10½ ;
K.KK Ë£ ë KÖÆ
=
k = 2.036 A }E = 4.047 x" ½ô (Tesla)
.K 4 x3.14 x 10½ò x 5 x (7.882 x 10½ ¿ x 2.036
B! =
k=
QcP OK
; 2 x ((7.882 x 10½ ¿ + (6 x 10½ ¿ ¿O/
òË O.Oë 5 KÖ òË O.Oë 5 KÖ
ë 5 KÖÆ ¿ Ë£. ë 5 KÖÆ
.K = ;=
05 (Ëû.
K.K.Ëû
= ;
òË O.Oë 5 KÖ
; = 4047567.8 x 10½ ;
K.KK Ë£ ë KÖÆ
=
k = 2.036 A }E = 4.047 x" ½ô
(Tesla)
RESULT:
Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at a place
BH = 3.947x 10-5 Tesla
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 309
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 04
Date :
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM
AIM:
To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism using
spectrometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp, spirit level.
FORMULA:

μ=
F G
PÅ È
F (No unit)
PÅ È
Where, µ → Refractive index of the material of the prism (No unit)
A → Angle of the prism (degree)
D → Angle of minimum deviation (degree)
DIAGRAMS:
To find the Angle of Prism: To find the Angle of Minimum Deviation:

PROCEDURE:
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer:
Eye-piece:
The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen
clearly.
Slit:
The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.
Base of the spectrometer:
The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal using leveling
screws.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 310
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Telescope:
The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the clear
inverted image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to
receive parallel rays.
Collimator:
The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is adjusted
until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator gives
parallel rays.
Prism table:
Using a spirit level, the prism table is adjusted to be horizontal with the three
leveling screws provided in the prism table.
2) Determination of angle of the prism (A):
The slit is illuminated by yellow light from sodium vapour lamp. The given
equilateral prism is placed on the prism table in such a way that refracting edge of
the prism is facing the collimator. The light emerging from the collimator is incident
on both reflecting faces of the prism and is reflected.
Telescope is rotated towards left to obtain reflected image of the slit from
face 1 of the prism and is fixed. Using tangential screws, the telescope is adjusted
until the vertical cross-wire coincides with the reflected image of the slit.
The main scale reading and vernier coincidence are noted from both vernier
scales. The telescope is now rotated towards right to obtain the reflected image
from face 2 of the prism. As before, the readings are taken.
The difference between the two readings gives 2A from which the angle of
the prism A is calculated.
3) Determination of angle of minimum deviation (D):
The prism table is rotated such that the light emerging from the collimator is
incident on one of the refracting faces of the prism, gets refracted and emerges out
from the other refracting face. The telescope is turned to view the refracted image.
Looking through the telescope, the prism table is rotated in such a direction that
the image moves towards the direct ray. One particular position, the refracted ray
begins to retrace its path. The position where the refracted image returns is the
position of minimum deviation.
The telescope is fixed in this position and is adjusted until the vertical cross-
wire coincides with the refracted image of the slit. The readings are taken from both
vernier scales. The prism is now removed and the telescope is rotated to obtain the
direct ray image and the readings are taken.
The readings are tabulated and the difference between these two readings
gives the angle of minimum deviation D. From the values of A and D, the refractive
index of the material of the glass prism is determined.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 311
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

OBSERVATION:
Table 1: To find the angle of the prism (A)
VERNIER A (Degree) VERNIER B (Degree)
RAY TR = TR =
MSR VC MSR VC
MSR+ (VC×LC) MSR+ (VC×LC)

Reflected image
600 7 600 7′ 2400 7 2400 7′
from face 1

Reflected image
2990 3 2990 3′ 1190 3 1190 3′
from face 2

Difference 2A 2A= R1 ∼R2 1210 4′ 2A= R1 ∼R2 1210 4′

Mean / Average 2A = 1210 4′

Mean / Average A = 600 32′

Table 2: To find the angle of minimum deviation (D)

VERNIER A (Degree) VERNIER B (Degree)

Image
TR = TR =
MSR VC MSR VC
MSR+ (VC×LC) MSR+ (VC×LC)

Reflected image
3190 14 3190 14′ 1390 14 1390 14′
(R3)

Direct image (R4) 00 0 00 0′ 1800 0 1800 0′

Difference D D = R3 ∼R4 400 4ú′ D = R3 ∼R4 400 4ú′

Mean / Average 2D = 810 32′

Mean / Average D = 400 4ú′

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 312
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
To find “A” (Vernier – A)
2A= R1 ∼R2 = 2990 3′– 600 7′ = 2380 56′
This value is larger Obtuse angle, so, it must be subtracted from 3600
2A = 3600 – 2380 56′ = 1210 4′
To find “A” (Vernier – B)
2A= R1 ∼R2 = 2400 7′ – 1190 3′ = 1210 4′
′ À ′ û′
Average 2 A = ;= = 1210 4′
′
= ; A = 600 32′ (Degree)
To find “D” (Vernier – A)
D = R3 ∼R4 = 3190 14′– 00 0′ = 3190 14′
D = 3600 – 3190 14′ = 400 46′
To find “D” (Vernier – B)
D = R3 ∼R4 = 1800 0′– 1390 14′ = 400 46′
K £′ À K £′
Average D = ;
û O ′
= ; D = 400 46′ (Degree)
To find “μ” :

μ=
F G
PÅ È
F (No unit)
PÅ È
¢ U ′ Æ Æ¢′
P: ; P: ;
′

= ¢ U ′
;=
¢ U ′
;
P P

PbëK OË′ d
= PbOK £′ d
K.òòO
=
K.ëK K
_ = 1.534 (No Unit)

RESULT:
1. Angle of the Prism A = 600 32′ (Degree)
2. Angle of the minimum deviation of the prism D = 400 46′ (Degree)
3. Refractive index of the material of the Prism _ = 1.534 (No Unit)
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 313
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 05
Date :

WAVELENGTH OF THE CONSTITUENT COLOURS OF A COMPOSITE LIGHT USING

DIFFRACTION GRATING AND SPECTROMETER
AIM:
To find the wavelength of the constituent colours of a composite light using
diffraction grating and spectrometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Spectrometer, mercury vapour lamp, diffraction grating, grating table, and
spirit level.
FORMULA:
Å
PŽ
λ=
P/
Where, λ → Wavelength of the constituent colours of a composite light (Å)
N → Number of lines per metre length of the given grating (No unit)
(The value of N for the grating is given)
n → Order of the diffraction (No unit)
θ → Angle of diffraction (degree)
DIAGRAMS:
ADJUSTING THE GRATING FOR NORMAL INCIDENCE: (NOT FOR EXAMINATION)

DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF DIFFRACTION: (NOT FOR EXAMINATION)

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 314
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer
Eye-piece:
The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen
clearly.
Slit:
The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.
Base of the spectrometer:
The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal using leveling
screws.
Telescope:
The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the clear
image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to receive
parallel rays.
Collimator:
The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is adjusted
until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator gives
parallel rays.
Grating table:
Using a spirit level, the grating table is adjusted to be horizontal with the
three leveling screws provided in the grating table.
2) Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence:
The slit is illuminated with a composite light (white light) from mercury
vapour lamp. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The vertical cross-
wire is made to coincide with the image of the slit (Figure (a).
The vernier disc alone is rotated till the vernier scale reads 00 - 1800 and is
fixed. This is the reading for the direct ray. The telescope is then rotated
(anti-clockwise) through an angle of 900 and fixed (Figure (b).
Now the plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating table.
The grating table alone is rotated so that the light reflected from the grating
coincides with vertical cross-wire of the telescope.
The reflected image is white in colour (Figure (c). Now the vernier disc is
released. The vernier disc along with grating table is rotated through an angle of
450 in the appropriate direction such that the light from the collimator is incident
normally on the grating (Figure (d).
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 315
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

3) Determination of wave length of the constituent colours of the mercury

spectrum:
The telescope is released and is brought in line with the collimator to receive
central direct image. This un-dispersed image is white in colour. The diffracted
images of the slit are observed on either side of the direct image.
The diffracted image consists of the prominent colours of mercury spectrum
in increasing order of wavelength. The telescope is turned to any one side (say left)
of direct image to observe first order diffracted image. The vertical cross-wire is
made to coincide with the prominent spectral lines (Violet, Blue, Yellow and Red)
and the readings of both vernier scales for each case are noted.
Now the telescope is rotated to the right side of the direct image and the first
order image is observed. The vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the same
prominent spectral lines and the readings of both vernier scales for each case are
again noted. The readings are tabulated.
The difference between these two readings gives the value of 2θ for the
particular spectral line. The number of lines per metre length of the given grating N
is noted from the grating. From the values of N, n and θ, the wave length of the
prominent colours of the mercury light is determined using the given formula.
OBSERVATION:
To find the wave length of prominent colours of the mercury spectrum:
Diffracted Ray Reading (Degree)
Difference
Colour of Light

2Ç (Degree)
Left Right
VERNIER A VERNIER B VERNIER A VERNIER B

Ç (Degree)
VER . - A

VER . -B

Mean
MSR

MSR

MSR

MSR
VSC

VSC

VSC

VSC
TR

TR

TR

TR
3020 0′

1220 0′

25 25
3270 0′

1470 0′
3020

1220

250 120
3270

1470
Blue

0 0 0 0 0
0′
0

0′ 0′ 30′
3300 30′

1500 30′

31 31
2990 0′

1190 0′
Green
2990

1190

310 150
3300

1500

0 0 30 30 0
30′
0

30′ 30′ 45′

3310 30′

1510 30′

33 33
2980 0′

1180 0′
Yellow
2980

1180

330 160
3310

1510

0 0 30 30 0
30′
0

30′ 30′ 45′

3330 30′

1530 30′

37 37
2960 0′

1160 0′
2960

1160

370 180
3330

1530
Red

0 0 30 30 0
30′
0

30′ 30′ 45′

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 316
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:

sin θ
Å
S.
λ=
nN
Colour
No.

P OK K. £
= ; =
5 ë 5 K7 ë 5 K7
;
01 Blue
= 0.04328 x 10½ë
H = 4328 x " ½"
m (or) H = 4328Å

P ë ë K. ò
= ; =
5ë5 ë 5 K7
;
K7
02 Green
= 0.05428 x 10½ë
H = 5428 x 10−10 m (or) λ= 5428 Å

P £ ë K. ûû
= ; =
5 ë 5 K7 ë 5 K7
;
03 Yellow
= 0.05763 x 10½ë
H = 5763 x " ½"
m (or) H = 5763Å

P û ë K.O
= ; =
5ë5 ë 5 K7
;
K7
04 Red
= 0.06428 x 10½ë
H = 6428 x " ½"
m (or) H = 6428Å

m (or) H = 4328Å
RESULT:
1. The wavelength of blue line H = 4328 x " ½"

2. The wavelength of green line H = 5428 x 10−10 m (or) λ= 5428 Å

3. The wavelength of yellow line H = 5763 x " ½"
m (or) H = 5763Å
4. The wavelength of red line H = 6428 x " ½"
m (or) H = 6428Å
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 317
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 06
Date :

VOLTAGE - CURRENTT CHARACTERISTICS

C OF A PN JUNCTION DIO
IODE

AIM:
To draw the voltage-curr
urrent (V- I) characteristics of the PN junction
ion diode and
to determine its knee vo
voltage and forward resistance.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PN junction diode (IN40
4007), variable DC power supply, milli-amme meter, micro-
ammeter, voltmeter, resistance
res and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
∆IÁ
RF = (Ω)
∆aÁ
Where, RF → Forward resistance
re of the diode (Ω)
∆IÁ → The change in forward
for voltage (volt)
∆aÁ → The change in for
forward current (mA)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(PN Junction diode and its symbo

bol (Silver ring denotes the negative terminal of the diode)

(PN Junction diode in forwar ard bias) (PN Junction diode in revers
erse bias)
PROCEDURE:
i) Forward bias characteristicsics:
In the forward bias, the P- region of the diode is connected to o the
t positive
terminal and N-region to the negative terminal of the DC powerr supply. s The
connections are given as perr tthe circuit diagram. The voltage across the diode can
be varied with the help of the e vvariable DC power supply.
The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is increased from 0.1 V in steps of
0.1 V up to 0.8 V and the forw orward current (IF) through the diode is note
oted from the
milli-ammeter. The readings ar are tabulated.
The forward voltage VF and the forward current IF are taken n as
a positive.
A graph is drawn taking the fo forward voltage (VF) along the x-axis and
d the
t forward
current (IF) along the y-axis.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 318
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

The voltage correspon onding to the

dotted line in the forward characteristics
ch
gives the knee voltage or thresreshold voltage
or turn-on voltage of the diode.
The slope in the linear po portion of the
forward characteristics is calculated.
The reciprocal of the slope ope gives the
forward resistance of the diode de.
ii) Reverse bias characteristics
tics:
In the reverse bias, theeppolarity of
the DC power supply is reverse
rsed so that the
P- region of the diode is connec
nected to the
negative terminal and N-regionion to the positive terminal of the DC powerr ssupply .The
connections are made as givenven in the circuit diagram. The voltage acrossoss the diode
can be varied with the help of the
t variable DC power supply.
The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is increased from 1 V in steps of 1
V up to 5 V and the reverse cur
current (IR) through the diode is noted from the
th micro-
ammeter. The readings are tab tabulated. The reverse voltage VR and reverse rse current IR
are taken as negative. A graphph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage (V ( R) along
negative x-axis and the reverse
rse bias current (IR) along negative y-axis.
OBSERVATION:
Table 1 Table 2
Forward bias characteristic
stic curve Reverse bias characteristicic curve
S. Forward Bias Forwa
rward Bias S. Reverse Bias Revers
verse Bias
No. Voltage VF (V) Curren
rent IF (mA) No. Voltage VF (V) Curren
rent IR (_A)

1 0.1 0 1 1 5
50

2 0.2 0 2 2 7
70

3 0.3 0 3 3 9
90

4 0.4 0 4 4 10
100

5 0.5 0 5 5 11
110

6 0.6 3.5 6 6 12
120

7 0.7 1
17.5 7 7 13
130
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 319
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Forward bias characteris

eristic curve
Scale: X axis 1 cm = 0.1 V ; Y axis 1 cm = 2 mA
Reverse bias characteris
eristic curve
Scale: X axis 1 cm = 1 V ; Y axis 1 cm = 10 _A

Note: Graph for Reference

nce Only
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 320
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:

∆IÁ
(i) Forward resistance RF = Ω
∆aÁ

." I
"ˆ H " Ö‡ :
=

= 0.007142 x 103

RF = 7.142 Ω

(ii) Knee voltage = 0.55 V (From Graph)

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of the PN junction diode are studied.
i) Knee voltage of the PN junction diode = 0.55 V (From Graph)
ii) Forward resistance of the diode RF = 7.142 Ω
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 321
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 07
Date :

VOLTAGE - CURREN
ENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE
DE
AIM:
To draw the voltage-curr
urrent (V-I) characteristic curves of a Zenerr d
diode and to
determine its knee volta
ltage, forward resistance and reverse breakdakdown
voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Zener diode IZ5.6V, vari
ariable dc power supply (0 – 15V), milli amm
meter,
volt meter, 470 Ω resista
istance, and connecting wires.

FORMULA:
∆IÁ
RF = (Ω)
∆aÁ
Where, RF → Forward resistance
re of the diode (Ω)
∆IÁ → The change in forward
for voltage (volt)
∆aÁ → The change in for
forward current (mA)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Z
Zener diode and its symbol
(The black colour ring d
denotes the negative terminal of the Zener diod
iode)

Zener diode in forward

rd bias Zener diode in reverse
rse bias
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 322
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:
i) Forward bias characteristics
ics:
In the forward bias, the P- region of the diode is connected to o the
t positive
terminal and N-region to the negative terminal of the DC powerr supply. s The
connections are given as perr tthe circuit diagram. The voltage across the diode can
be varied with the help of thee vvariable DC power supply.
The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is increased from 0.1V 1V in steps of
0.1V up to 0.8V and the forw rward current (IF) through the diode is note oted from the
milli-ammeter. The readingss are a tabulated. The forward voltage and d the
t forward
current are taken as positive.
A graph is drawn takingng the forward voltage along the x-axis and d the forward
current along the y-axis. The voltage
vo corresponding to the dotted line in the forward
characteristics gives the knee
ee voltage or threshold voltage or turn-on voltage
vo of the
diode.
The slope in the linearr pportion of the
forward characteristics is cal
calculated. The
reciprocal of the slope gives es the forward
resistance of the diode.
ii) Reverse bias characteristics
tics:
In the reverse bias, th the polarity of
the DC power supply is reversersed so that the
P- region of the diode is conn nnected to the
negative terminal and N-re region to the
positive terminal of the DC p power supply.
The connections are made as given in the
circuit diagram. The voltage ge across the
diode can be varied with the he help of the variable DC power supply.
The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is increased from 0.5V 5V in steps of
0.5V up to 6V and the reverse se current (IR) through the diode is noted fro
from the milli-
ammeter. The readings are ta tabulated. Initially, the voltage is increased
ed in steps of
0.5V. When the breakdown reg region is approximately reached, then the inputin voltage
may be raised in steps of, sayy 00.1V to find the breakdown voltage.
The reverse voltage and reverse current are taken as negative. ve. A graph is
drawn taking the reverse bias as voltage along negative x-axis and the reverse
re bias
current along negative y-axis.is. In the reverse bias, Zener breakdown n occurs
o at a
particular voltage called Zene ner voltage VZ (~5.6 to 5.8V) and a large ge amount of
current flows through the diode
ode which is the characteristics of a Zener diode.
di
The breakdown voltage of the eZZener diode is determined from the graph ph as shown.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 323
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

OBSERVATION:
Table 1 Table 2
Forward bias characteristic curve Reverse bias characteristic curve

Current IR (_A)
S. Forward Bias Forward Bias S. Reverse Bias Reverse Bias
No. Voltage VF (V) Current IF (mA) No. Voltage VF (V)

1 0.1 0 1 1 0

2 0.2 0 2 2 0

3 0.3 0 3 3 0

4 0.4 0 4 4 0

5 0.5 0 5 5 0

6 0.6 0 6 6 0

7 0.7 0 7 6.2 0.2

8 0.8 4 8 6.4 10

9 0.9 14 9 6.5 11
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 324
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Forward bias characteris

eristic curve
Scale: X axis 1 cm = 0.1 V ; Y axis 1 cm = 2 mA
Reverse bias characteris
eristic curve
Scale: X axis 1 cm = 1 V ; Y axis 1 cm = 1 _A

Note: Graph for Reference Only

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 325
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
∆IÁ
(i) Forward resistance RF = Ω
∆aÁ
." I
" H " Ö‡ :
= ; = 0.01 x 103
RF = 10 Ω

(ii) Knee voltage = 0.75 V (From Graph)

(iii) The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode VZ = 6.4 V (From Graph)

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of the Zener diode are studied.
(i) Forward resistance RF = 10 Ω
(ii) Knee voltage = 0.75 V (From Graph)
(iii) The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode VZ = 6.4 V (From Graph)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 326
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 08
Date :

CHARACTERISTIC
TICS OF A NPN-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR IN
COMMO
MON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To study the characteris
ristics and to determine the current gain off a NPN
junction transistor in com
common emitter configuration.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Transistor - BC 548/BC1C107, bread board, micro ammeter, milli ammeter,
am
voltmeters, variable DC C power supply and connecting wires.
FORMULA :
X (Ω), β = R X (No unit)
∆)1 ∆)± ∆ä±
r =R X (Ω), rK = R
∆ä1 ) ∆ä± ∆ä1 )
± ±
Where, ri → Input imped
edance (Ω)
∆VBE → The change in b base-emitter voltage (volt)
∆IB → The change in bas
base current (µA)
ro → Output impedance ce (Ω)
∆VCE → The change in cocollector-emitter voltage (volt)
∆ IC → The change in collector
co current (mA)
β → Current gain of the
he transistor (No unit)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

NPN - Junction
Ju transistor and its symbol
(Transistorr is held with the flat surface facing us)

NPN junc
nction transistor in CE configuration
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 327
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:
The connections are giv
given as shown in the diagram. The current nt aand voltage
at the input and output regions ns can be varied by adjusting the DC power er supply.
(i) Input characteristic curve:: VBE vs IB (VCE constant):
The collector-emitter voltage
vo
VCE is kept constant. The e base-
emitter voltage VBE is varie ried in
steps of 0.1V and the
corresponding base currentt (IB) is
noted. The readings are take ken till
VCE reaches a constant value lue. The
same procedure is repeated ted for
different values of VCE. The rea
eadings
are tabulated.
A graph is plotted byy taking
t
VBE along x-axis and IB alongg yy-axis
for both the values of VCE. The curves thus obtained are called ed the input
characteristics of a transistor.r. The reciprocal of the slope of these curve
rves gives the
input impedance of the transis sistor.
(ii) Output characteristic curve
rve: VCE vs IC (IB constant):
The base current IB is
kept constant.VCE is varied in
steps of 1V and the he
corresponding collector
tor
current IC is noted. The he
readings are taken till the he
collector current becomes es
almost constant.
Initially IB is kept at
0 mA and the corresponding ng
collector current is noted. Thisis
current is the reverse
se
saturation current IC. The he
experiment is repeated for var arious values of IB. The readings are tabulat
lated. A graph
is drawn by taking VCE along x--axis and IC along y-axis for various valuess of
o IB.
The set of curves thus us obtained is called the output characte cteristics of a
transistor. The reciprocal of th the slope of the curve gives output impeda
edance of the
transistor.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 328
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

(iii) Transfer characteristic curv

urve: IB vs IC (VCE constant):
The collector-emitter vvoltage VCE is
kept constant. The base curren rent IB is varied
in steps of 10 µA and the ccorresponding
collector current IC is noted.
This is repeated byy cchanging the
value of VCE. The readings are e ttabulated.
The transfer characteristics ics is a plot
between the input current IB along x-axis
and the output current IC C along y-axis
keeping VCE constant. The e slope of the
transfer characteristics plot lot gives the
current gain β can be calculateated.
OBSERVATION:
(i) Input characteristic curve:: VBE vs IB (VCE constant):

VCE = 2 V VCE = 5 V
S. No.
VBE (V) IB (_A) VBE (V) IB (_A)

1 0 0 0.1 0

2 0.1 0 0.2 0

3 0.2 0 0.3 0

4 0.3 0 0.4 0

5 0.4 0 0.5 0

6 0.5 25 0.6 12

7 0.55 80 0.7 48

8 0.6 140 0.8 86

9 0.9 - 0.9 148

10 1.0 - 1.0 200

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 329
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

(ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant):

IB = 20 _A IB = 40 _A
S. No.
VCE (V) IC (@A) VCE (V) IC (@A)

1 0 0 0 0

2 0.2 5.5 0.2 8

3 0.4 7 0.4 9.5

4 0.6 8 0.6 10.5

5 0.8 8.5 0.8 11

6 1.0 9 1.0 11

7 2.0 9 2.0 11

8 3.0 9 3.0 11

(iii) Transfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE constant):

VCE = 5 V VCE = 5 V
S.
S. No.
No.
IB (_A) IC (@A) IB (_A) IC (@A)

1 0 0 5 40 5

2 10 1.25 6 50 6.25

3 20 2.5 7 60 7.5

4 30 3.75 8 70 8.75
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 330
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

(i) Input characteristic curve:: VBE vs IB (VCE constant):

Scale:

Y axis 1 cm = 10 _A
X axis 1 cm = 0.1 V ;

Note: Graph for Reference

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 331
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

(ii) Output characteristic curve

rve: VCE vs IC (IB constant):
Scale:
X axis 1 cm = 0.2 V ;
Y axis 1 cm = 1 mA
m

Note: Graph for Reference

 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 332
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

(iii) Transfer characteristic curv

urve: IB vs IC (VCE constant):

X axis 1 cm = 5 _A
_ ;
Scale:

Y axis 1 cm = 1 mA
m

Note: Graph for Reference

 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 333
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
∆)1
i) Input impedance (r ¿ : r = R X (Ω)
∆ä1 )±
∆V – 0.6 – 0.5 = 0.1 V ; ∆I - 140 – 25 = 115μA
K.
r =
ë 5 KÖ¢
;
= 8.695 x 10-4 x 106
= 8.695 x 102
Dr = 869.5 Ω

∆)±
ii) Output impedance (rK ¿ : rK = R X (Ω)
∆ä±
∆V£ – 1.0 – 0.6 = 0.4 V ; ∆I£ - 9 – 8 = 1mA
K.
rK =
5 KÖU
;
= 0.4 x 103
= 0.4 x 1000
D = 400 Ω

iii) Current Gain (β¿ : β = R

∆ä±
X (No unit)
Ɗ1 )
±
∆I - 40 – 30 = 10μA ; ∆I£ - 5 – 3.75 = 1.25mA
β=
. ë 5 KÖU
K 5 KÖ¢
;
= 0.125 x 10-3 x 106
= 0.125 x 103

β =125 (No Unit)

= 0.125 x 1000

RESULT:
i) The input, output and transfer characteristics of the NPN junction in
common emitter mode are drawn.
ii) (a) Input impedance Dr = 869.5 Ω
(b) Output impedance D = 400 Ω
(c) Current gain é = 125 (No Unit)
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 334
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 09
Date :

VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TAB

ABLES OF LOGIC GATES USING INTEGRATED
ED CIRCUITS
AIM:
To verify the truth tables
les of AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, NAND and NOR R gates
using integrated circuitsits
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
AND gate (IC 7408), NO NOT gate (IC 7404), OR gate (IC 7432), NAND
ND gate
(IC 7400), NOR gate (IC IC 7402), X-OR gate (IC 7486), Power supply
ply,
Digital IC trainer kit, con
onnecting wires.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS:
Logic 1 represents TRUE
UE or high voltage 5V or LED ON
Logic 0 represents FALS
LSE or low voltage 0V or LED OFF
OR Function When any one
o input or all inputs are true, output is true
ue Y =A + B
AND Function only when
n all inputs are true, output is true Y = AB
NOT Function Output is the
t complement of input Y = A
NOR Function n all inputs are false, output is true Y = A + B
only when
NAND Function A∙B
When anyy one of the inputs is false, output is true Y=A
EXOR Function Only when
n the inputs are different, output is true
Y = A⨁B = AB + AB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 335
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:
To verify the truth table
le o
of a logic gate, the suitable IC is taken and
nd the
connections are given using th the circuit diagram.
NAND Gate:
Power supply +5V is co connected to pin 14 and ground to pin 7 of the IC.
Inputs A & B are connected d to pins 1 & 2 of the IC. Output pin 3 of o the IC is
connected to logic level indi dicator. Both inputs A & B are kept att logic lo 0 and
output LED is observed, Then en the inputs are changed as logic 0 & logi gic 1, logic 1
& logic 0 and logic 1 & logic 1 and the outputs are observed each time. e. The inputs
and outputs are tabulated in th the truth table.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 336
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

AND, OR and EX-OR Gates:

ICs 7408 (AND), 7432 (OR) and 7486 (EXOR) are placed on the board arid
the same procedure is followed as for NAND gate and outputs are tabulated in the
truth table.
NOR Gate:
IC 7402 is placed on the board. Power supply and ground are connected as
before. The inputs are connected to pins 2 & 3 and the output to pin 1 of IC.
Then the same procedure is repeated and tabulation is done in the truth table.
NOT Gate:
IC 7404 is placed on the board. One input A is connected to pin 1 and the
output to pin 2 of IC. Input is kept at logic 1 and then at logic 0 and the
outputs are found and tabulated in the truth table.
In this way, the truth table of a logic gate is verified.

OBSERVATION:

AND OR NOT EX - OR NAND NOR

INPUT
Gate Gate Gate Gate Gate Gate

A B Y = A.B Y = A+B Y=: K = :. } + :. } Y = :. } Y= :+}

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 337
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
AND Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ;Y=A.B =0.0=0
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ;Y=A.B =0.1=0
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ;Y=A.B =1.0=0
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ;Y=A.B =1.1=1

OR Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B =0+0=0
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B =0+1=1
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B =1+0=1
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B =1+1=1

NOT Gate:
1) A = 0 , Y = A = 0 = 1
2) A = 1 , Y = A = 1 = 0

EX - OR Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ;Y=A B + AB = = 0 0 + 00 = 1.0 +0.1 = 0+0 = 0
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ;Y=A B + AB = = 0 1 + 01 = 1.1 +0.0 = 1+0 = 1
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ;Y=A B + AB = = 1 0 + 10 = 0.0 +1.1 = 0+1 = 1
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ;Y=A B + AB = = 1 1 + 11 = 0.1 +1.0 = 0+0 = 0

NAND Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ; Y = A .B = 0.0 = 0 = 1
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ; Y = A .B = 0.1 = 0 = 1
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ; Y = A .B = 1.0 = 0 = 1
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ; Y = A .B = 1 .1 = 1 = 0

NOR Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B =0+0 =0=1
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B=0+1 =1=0
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B=1+0 =1=0
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B =1+1 =1=0

RESULT:
The truth table of logic gates AND, OR, NOT, Ex-OR, NAND and NOR
using integrated circuits is verified.
 XII STD.. P OF PHYSICS , 338
PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENTT O
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAVANNAMALAI
RAJ
AJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT
ANT IN PHYSICS

Ex. No. : 10
Date :

VERIFICATI
TION OF DE MORGAN’S THEOREMS
AIM:
To verify De Morgan’s fir
first and second theorems.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Power Supply (0 – 5V), ), IIC 7400, 7408, 7432, 7404, and 7402,
Digital IC trainer kit, con
onnecting wires.

orem : + } = : . }
FORMULA:
De Morgan’s first theore

theorem : . } = : + }
De Morgan’s second the

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
De Morgan’s First Theor
eorem:

De Morgan’s Second the

theorem:
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 339
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

PROCEDURE:

The connections are made for LHS • : + }“ of the theorem as shown in the
i) Verification of De Morgan’s first theorem

circuit diagram using appropriate ICs. The output is noted and tabulated for all
combinations of logical inputs of the truth table. The same procedure is repeated
for RHS •A . B“ of the theorem.
From the truth table, it can be shown that : + } = : . }

The connections are made for LHS • : . }“ of the theorem as shown in the
ii) Verification of De Morgan’s second theorem

circuit diagram using appropriate ICs. The output is noted and tabulated for all
combinations of logical inputs of the truth table. The same procedure is repeated
for RHS •A + B“of the theorem.
From the truth table, it can be shown that : . } = : + }

OBSERVATION:

De Morgan’s First Theorem: De Morgan’s Second Theorem:

Truth Table: Truth Table:

A B :+} :. } A B : .} : + }

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 340
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

CALCULATION:
De Morgan’s First Theorem:

:+}=:. }
1) A = 0 , B = 0 A+B=0+0 =0=1 A. B=0.0 =1.1=1
2) A = 0 , B = 1 A+B =0+1 =1=0 A. B=0.1 =1.0=0
3) A = 1 , B = 0 A+B =1+0 =1=0 A. B=1.0 =0.1=0
4) A = 1 , B = 1 A+B =1+1 =1=0 A. B=1.1 =0.0=0

De Morgan’s Second Theorem:

: .} = : + }
1) A = 0 , B = 0 A .B = 0 .0 = 0 = 1 A+B=0+0 =1+1=1
2) A = 0 , B = 1 A .B = 0 .1 = 0 = 1 A+B= 0+1 =1+0=1
3) A = 1 , B = 0 A .B = 1 .0 = 0 = 1 A+B =1+0 =0+1=1
4) A = 1 , B = 1 A .B = 1 .1 = 1 = 0 A+B =1+1 =0+0=0

RESULT:
De Morgan’s first and second theorems are verified.
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 341
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

1. Determine the resistance of a given wire using metre bridge. Also find the
radius of the wire using screw gauge and hence determine the specific
resistance of the material of the wire. Take at least 4 readings.
2. Determine the value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic
field, using tangent galvanometer. Take at least 4 readings.
3. Determine the value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic
field using the magnetic field produced along the axial line of the carrying-
current circular coil. Take at least 2 readings.
4. Using the spectrometer, measure the angle of the given prism and angle of
minimum deviation. Hence calculate the refractive index of the material of
the prism.
5. Adjust the grating for normal incidence using the spectrometer. Determine
the wavelength of green, blue, yellow and red lines of mercury spectrum (The
number of lines per metre length of the grating can be noted from the
grating).
6. Draw the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode and determine its forward
resistance and knee voltage from forward characteristics.
7. Draw the V-I characteristics of Zener diode and determine its forward
resistance and knee voltage from forward characteristics. Also find break
down voltage of the Zener diode from reverse characteristics.
8. Draw the input and transfer characteristic curves of the given NPN junction
transistor in CE mode. Find the input impedance from input characteristics
and current gain from transfer characteristics.
9. Draw the output and transfer characteristic curves of the given NPN junction
transistor in CE mode. Find the output impedance from output
characteristics and current gain from transfer characteristics.
10. Verify the truth table of logic gates AND, NOT, Ex-OR and NOR gates using
integrated circuits.
11. Verify the truth table of logic gates OR, NOT, Ex-OR and NOR gates using
integrated circuits.
12. Verify De Morgan’s first and second theorems.
“tho;ehs; KOtJk; xt;nthU kzpj;JspAk;
NeHikaha;, cz;ikaha; ciof;fpd;wtHfspd;
fuq;fNs J}a;ikahd fuq;fs;.”
 XII STD. PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 342
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS

Notes: