CHAPTER ONE Poisous
CHAPTER ONE Poisous
CHAPTER ONE Poisous
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Poisonous plants that affect animals are a major concern for the practicing veterinarian and
livestock producer over the world. This may be due to great effects it causes on animal health
and production loss as a result. The problem of such toxic plants may be greater in countries
possess higher plant biodiversity. This means if the biodiversity of plants on one area is high, the
probability to get greater number of poisonous plant and the risk of toxicity increased (Diaz,
2011). Our country, Nigeria also possesses diverse agro climatic zones, due to this and the like
reasons enjoy wide ranges of plant biodiversity. These conditions contribute their own impacts
on the country to being home for different toxic plants that cause adverse effects even life
treating hazards on livestock (Abdul et al., 2018). From the known poison around the world,
plants share third largest division. Since they cover the major parts of livestock feed, animals are
livestock are the first to get hazard and develop acute or chronic illness (Nwude and Parsons
2017). Ranges of toxic plants have caused broad losses to the livestock industry in many parts of
The most ancient poisons came from plants, it seems for that reason and others many members
of the plant kingdom have toxins that can be highly poisonous, even lethal if ingested still today.
systems, but still poisoning through consuming poisonous plants continues being appreciable
cause of morbidity and mortality of animals (Akobundu and Agyakwa, 2017).. Poisonous plants
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can harm entire organs of the body, while some plants having several toxic principles that affect
different systems. The main effect may depend on the condition like, maturity stage, part and
amount of the plant consumed, and the species and susceptibility of the animal. The active
principles and mode of action are known for many plants, while others are known to induce
poisoning, but the mechanism of intoxication has yet to be clarified. History and clinical
symptoms are important to diagnose and take action before animal die due to poisonous plants,
while postmortem findings and laboratory tests can be analyzed for farther evidence and
confirmation. Most of the time plant poisoning results from the toxic composition that found in
plant itself, on other hands poisoning can be result of contaminants found on or mixed with non-
toxic plants such as, mycotoxin synthesizing fungi, insects, helminths and microorganisms like
bacteria (Ogwang, 2015).. Under normal conditions, some poisonous plants consumed by
livestock as familiar diets without negative effects on the animals, poisoning occurs only when
these animals are hunger or under other stress conditions to eat too much and too fast
Economic losses which caused by such poisonous plants can be grouped as direct and indirect.
Decrease in productivity and health problem of livestock considered as direct losses of poisonous
plants and while, the costs played for prevention, treatments, management of poisoned animals
and the like are indirect losses caused by poisonous plants. Additionally, poisonous plants affect
producers through increased death of animals, delayed weight gain, reproductive inefficiency
and poisonous plant contaminated pasture. Losses caused by inefficient reproduction may be
abortion, infertility, giving birth to weak or deformed offspring on female and permanent or
temporary infertility on male. The outcome of these reduces the number of animal in generally
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The poisonous plants contain powerful toxic ingredients (phytochemicals) if introduced in to the
body of any animal, may be of relatively smaller quantity, will affect harmfully and may be fatal
at times. These toxic ingredients act by injuring the protoplasm of the cell and the harmful
adversely by consuming poisonous plants purposefully, even though frequently animals poisoned
by toxic plants unintentional and following unfavorably conditions like pastures are poor due to
drought, wild fire, overstocking and trampling of the grazing and consumption of contaminated
feed with poisonous plant is also possible. So, such conditions that aggravated the exposure to
poisonous plants also need consideration among all responsible individuals (Ebbo et al., 2013).
This research was aimed to analyze common poisonous plants found around Shagari Local
i. To investigate toxic plants and assess the knowledge of respondents on the toxic plant
ii. To provide scientific names of identified major toxic plants in study area,
iii. To explore the main impacts of toxic plants on livestock producers in the area,
iv. To provide control and prevention measures practiced among local people toward
As determined from the above, even though plants have vital nutritional values, provide the
normal atmospheric oxygen and have many other importance, without compromising they may
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cause life threatening impacts on livestock if they are toxic. Furthermore, there is no habit among
veterinarians to write case reports; because of this, there is no documented literature in the area
that describes the occurrence of poisonous plants. Hence, the attention of all professionals is
needed to settle down effects of poisonous plants on animal health and productivity
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Plants comprise the third largest category of poisons known around the world. They form a
major part of livestock feed, thus toxicosis in animals consuming these plants can be expected. It
is also known that poisonous plants constitute a major cause of economic loss in livestock
industry since the days of early settlement (Clarke and Clarke, 2017). This loss may be in form
these losses. These plants affect animals in many ways although symptoms and lesions differ
depending on the amount of the plant consumed. The common symptoms however include death,
chronic illness and debilitation, decreased weight gain, abortion, abdominal discomfort,
salivation, congenital defects, photosensitization. These symptoms have been attributed to toxic
principle in such plants, which range from nitrates, oxalate, fluroacetate, selenium etc. Sokoto
state is one of the major livestock producing states in Nigeria and second largest in terms of
cattle production. Most of the livestock in the state are kept under semi-intensive or extensive
systems of management making them susceptible to poisoning by toxic plants. With increasing
human activities such as construction, farming, deforestation and other forms of environmental
degradation, which affects the fauna and the flora, it becomes very important to reassess
common poisonous plants found in the state. This study therefore was conducted to survey the
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2.2 Classification of Toxic Plants
Toxic plants are classified into groups based on their poisonous properties. Within a single genus
or family, these principles are chemically similar or identical, especially if the taxa are closely
related. Animals are often affected accidently by poisonous plants because of drought season and
over grazing in pastures, and lack familiarity of potential toxic plants by nomads and villagers
during hay feeding. Many factors determine plant toxicity in livestock, including amount and
Among livestock, intensity of plant toxicity can vary with species, age, sex, and general body
condition. The most important reason for livestock exposure to plant poisoning is shortage of
feed and nutrition and sudden exposure to plants. Shortage of food forces animals to browse
those plants which are well documented to have high level of toxic metabolic compounds,
causing loss in productivity, illness, and death in animals. The nature of the toxic secondary
metabolites varies with respect to place of origin and surrounding environmental conditions. The
key substances in plant which function against herbivores in plant defensive system are tannins
The key toxins present in plants may cause severe diseases in livestock resulting in huge
economic losses every year. For example, phytotoxin racin of Ricinus communis cause anorexia,
apathy, dyspnea, abdominal cramps, piloerection, abortion, acute purgation, and gastrointestinal
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responsible for muscle weakness, piloerection, bone lesions, aneurysms, and burning sensation,
scopolamine and hyoscyamine of Datura stramonium are responsible for dermatitis, polydipsia,
Poisonous plants that cause various maladies have been reported in previous studies, as well as
the numerous compounds present in them that cause toxicity. Anxiety, panic reactions, and
psychiatric symptoms are the most common clinical side effects, all of which are frequently
reported by novice users. The potent poisonous components, which may be delivered in very
small amounts into the body of animal, will have a detrimental effect and may be deadly at
times. These poisonous compounds cause damage to the cell’s protoplasm, with immediate or
progressive consequences, and their quantity fluctuates with seasonality and plant type
Plant toxicity science is developing day by day with emergence of new methodologies, with the
development of methods, ideas, and insight. A little attention has been paid so far on poisoning
caused by compounds present in plants, thus the mode of action of plant poisoning remains
largely unknown. Plant poisoning is more or less owing to unintentional consumption of seeds,
fruits, pollens, trichomes, and other plant parts. Toxic plants have the potential to harm every
organ system and endanger animal health and productivity. There are hundreds of plant species
in the field that might create animal toxicity problems. It is critical to become familiar with these
plants, their toxicity mechanisms, and consequences. By careful study of literature, it is quite
clear that up till now, there is no such study for identification and characterization of native
poisonous plants in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Moreover, the toxicity level of these plants has
also not yet been assessed through nomads and other livestock rearer. The present study thus has
been designed to fill the existing gaps of research by identification of poisonous plant and by
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2.2.1 Classification of the Poisonous Plants
Poisonous plants contain many alkaloids and glycosides, which are used as a medicine. There are
more than twenty groups of chemical constituents accumulated from the soil, which make a plant
or its part to be poisonous. According to their chemical constituents, plant poisons are broadly
(i) Alkaloids- These are nitrogenous compounds which are complex, physiologically
(ii) Glycosides- These compounds produce one or more sugars (glycones) and one or
more toxic aglycones they are usually colorless, bitter, crystalline solids.
(iii) Minerals- This category of poisoning is associated with high levels of particular
minerals in the soil or atmosphere and subsequent uptake by plants, levels of these
minerals are accumulated in the plants such that they become toxic, among the
minerals often associated with toxicity are lead, copper, and arsenic.
(iv) Oxalates- These consist of soluble oxalates and oxalic acid, poisonings are often
attributed to small crystals of insoluble calcium oxalate which cause oral irritation
when ingested.
(v) Photosensitizing Compounds- These compounds are psoralens which result in acute
sensitivity of skin to sun or other sources of light after exposure, psoralens are
furocoumarins.
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(vi) Phytotoxins (Toxalbumins)- These compounds are toxic protein molecules that are
(vii) Resins- these are compounds that are often chemically very different but which share
certain physical characteristics; these compounds melt or burn easily, are soluble in
(b) Classification of the Poisonous Plants on the basis of their effect on body
Poisonous plants cause allergic reactions, irritations, skin rashes or dermatitis, skin
photosensitization, and internal poisonings. In internal poisoning plant may be affect heart, liver,
nerves and brain. According to effects on the body the poisonous plants are of following types
(i) Plants that are irritant- Calotropis procera, Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus
(iii) Neurotoxic Plants- Papaver somniferum, Strychnos nux vomica, Conium maculatum.
(iv) Cerebral toxic Plants- Artemisia maritma, Erythroxylum coca, Hyoscyamus niger,
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Classification of the Poison
On the basis of their nature of poison, the plant based poisons are broadly classified in three
(a) Systemic
1. Cardiovascular System
2. Nervous System
3. Respiratory System
(b) Corrosive
1. Alkalis
2. Strong Acids
3. Organic Acids
(c) Irritant
1. Metallic irritant
2. Nonmetallic irritant
3. Inorganic irritant
Poisonous plants are a major cause of economic loss to the livestock industry. Many poisonous
plants can function as useful forage. Poisoning occurs when conditions develop that allow or
cause the animal to eat too much too fast. Most of these plants are safe for the average adult to
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eat in modest quantities. Notable major toxic plants of livestock importance are discussed as
Bracken fern (Pteridium aquiline var. pubescens) is poisonous to cattle, sheep and horses; sheep,
however, are more resistant. Bracken contains thiaminase inhibitors that lead to the development
of thiamine deficiency in horses that can be remedied by giving thiamine. Literature has
indicated that bracken fern is also carcinogenic. Milk from cows that graze bracken fern may be
hazardous to humans. All portions of the fern both green and in harvested hay are poisonous to
livestock (Panter et al., 2011). . Signs and lesions of bracken in cattle and sheep include: high
fever, loss of appétit, depression, difficulty in breathing, excessive salivation, nasal and rectal
hemorrhages on mucous membranes, plastic bone marrow and bladder tumors in cattle; in horses
the sign include: loss of weight and condition, emaciation, progressive in coordination, marked
depression, arched back with legs apart, twitching muscles, general body weakness, fast pulse,
inability to stand, convulsions or spasms, pericardial and epicedial hemorrhage (Davis et al.,
2011). Bracken fern is widely distributed in many places around the world. Bracken fern grows
on burned over areas, in woodlands and other shaded places , on hillsides, open pastures and
ranges in sandy or gravelly soils. The plant starts growth in the early spring and usually remains
green until the leaves are killed by frost (Stegelmeier et al.,2019). Poisoning often occurs during
late summer when other feed is scarce, or when animals are fed hay containing bracken fern. The
disease occurs after cows have consumed large amounts of the plant and is manifested in an
acute usually fatal form. The disease is more chronic in horses. Cattle are affected by a nor-
sesquiterpene glycoside called ptaquiloside, which causes bleeding and damage to the bone
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marrow. The disease has a delayed onset: Cattle may graze the plant for several weeks and then
get sick and die. Poisoned animals seldom recover. If consumed over time, ptaquiloside can also
cause cancer in the urinary bladder and gastro intestinal tract. These tumors often bleed, causing
red urine (enzootic hematuria or redwater disease). Bracken fern poisoning in horses can occur
when they are fed hay containing about twenty percent bracken fern over a period of 30 days.
Signs of poisoning include weight loss, incoordination and lethargy. Horses may stand with their
legs apart as so bracing themselves and may assume a crouching position with an arched back.
Muscle tremors develop and the animal is unable to stand despite violent attempts to do so.
The plant species Conium maculatum (poisonous hemlock) is one of the most toxic members of
the plant kingdom. There are numerous reports of deaths for a wide range of animal species
including humans. Conium maculatum has a worldwide distribution; it is a very common plant
species of a member of the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) and the carrot family. The
majority of the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) plants produce different volatile oils in clearly delimited
tissues of the fruits. It is known that Conium maculatum produces and contains piperidine
alkaloids but the synthesis and accumulation sites have not yet been unequivocally identified.
The location of secretory structures and the presence of essential oils and alkaloids were
investigated (Corsi and Biasci, 2018). The concentrations and the relative proportions of the
different Conium alkaloids appear to depend on different factors like temperature, moisture, time
and age of the plant. The consumption of varying parts of the plants (leaves, fruits) can cause
different degrees of clinical effects and there appears to be different susceptibility to toxicity
between species. The primary time of year for poison hemlock is spring; often when there is
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insufficient forage available. At this time the plant may also be more palatable. The toxicity
increases throughout the growing season and the roots become toxic only later in the year. Once
dried, the toxicity is considered to be reduced but not eliminated. The plant causes different signs
Hemlock is more poisonous to cows than to other animals. The general symptoms of poisoning
of cattle are: arthrogryposis, depression, diarrhea, gait incoordination, lateral rotation of limbs,
muscle spasms, salivation, teeth grinding, torticollis, trembling, coffee-coloured urine and
vomiting.Elimination of plant toxicants via milk by lactating animals is considered a minor route
of excretion; however, it may be important when the health of the neonate or food safety in
humans is considered. The alkaloids of Conium maculatum can be excreted via milk in cattle
The general symptoms of poisoning for sheep are ataxia, frequent urination and defecation,
salivation, kinked tail, trembling, weakness and death (Lopez et al., 1999). Conium seed induced
cleft palate and multiple congenital contractures in all kids born to pregnant, with hemlock
arthrogryposis, rib cage anomalies, over extension and flexure and rigidity of the joints. (Panter
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2.3.2.3 Nitrate-accumulating Plants
Many plants, both crops (oat hay, sorghum, corn, sudangrass, Johnson grass and beets) and
weeds (careless weed, kochia, pigweed, Russian thistle and nightshade) can accumulate nitrate.
Plants containing more than 1.5 percent nitrates (as KNO3) dry weight may be lethal to
livestock. Nitrate poisoning can also occur in animals that consume nitrate fertilizers, machine
oil and some natural well and pond waters. Plants differ in their ability to accumulate nitrate.
Often the type of soil present and the form of nitrogen there influences the amount of nitrate that
accumulator plants may contain. Drought conditions or cloudy weather may enhance nitrate
accumulation. Treatment of nitrate-accumulating plants with 2, 4-D may also cause plants to
accumulate excessive amounts of nitrate. Nitrate accumulates primarily in the vegetative tissue
There are several species of nightshades that are toxic to horses, cattle, swine, sheep and poultry.
The principal species that serve as examples of the genus are black nightshade (Solanum
nigrum), silver leaf nightshade (Solanum eleagnifolium), and buffalo burr (Solanum rostratum).
The toxins include a combination of a number of sugars and at least six different steroidal amines
combined to form a variety of glycoalkaloids. One example is the toxin solanine. Drying does
not destroy the toxin. Nightshade species are not very palatable to livestock. However, these
plants often grow as weeds in hay and silage crops and small grains where they can be harvested
with the crop and then fed to livestock (Panter et al., 2011). Black nightshade (both the native
and introduced varieties) is an annual six inches to three feet tall. Leaves are simple, ovate to
lanceolate, entire to sinuate-dentate. Flowers are white; berries are black when ripe. It grows
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peripherally in moist areas of fields and pastures of disturbed loamy or gravelly soils. Silver leaf
nightshade is a perennial that grows one to three feet tall with white, hairy leaves and stems.
Leaves are simple, thick, lanceolate to linear, entire to sinuate. Stems and ribs usually have short
stiff spines. Flowers are violet or blue; berries are yellow or orange (Stegelmeier et al., 1999).
Nightshades are generally unpalatable and are not grazed by livestock except under the stress of
overgrazing or in contaminated hay and grain. Poisoning by this group of plants does not always
end in death. In acute poisoning the nervous symptoms develop rapidly. Death or recovery
occurs within a few hours to one or two days. Death apparently is related to the paralysis.
Chronic poisoning is accompanied by emaciation, rough hair coat, anorexia, constipation and
ascitis. Signs and lesions of nightshade poisoning includes: labored breathing and expiratory
grunt, salivation and nasal discharge, body temperature may be slightly elevated, yellow
discoloration of the skin may occur in chronic poisoning, weakness, paralysis, and trembling,
increased heart rate, fat may be yellowed and gelatinous, gall bladder may be distended,
2011)
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is an annual plant that grows in dry lakebeds, river bottoms,
disturbed and flooded areas of fields, pastures and roadways after water disappears. Poisoning
occurs primarily in cattle, sheep, horses and swine when the plant is eaten in the cotyledon stage
(seedlings). Signs of poisoning include labored breathing, nausea, vomiting and spasmodic
contractions of the legs and neck muscles. Cockleburs are widely native annual plants that grow
about three feet tall. Leaves of common cocklebur are roughly triangular or heart shaped and is
covered with minute hairs on both sides. The brown or greenish brown fruit or burs are covered
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with stiff, hooked spines and contain two seeds. Cockleburs are found in moist waste place, flood
plain, old fields, overgrazed pasture and stock watering place are common habitats (Burrows and
Tyrl, 2001).
labriformis) is the most toxic milkweed poisoning occurring in chicken, turkeys, rabbits, horses,
cattle, sheep, and goats with avian species being less susceptible than mammals. Most livestock
losses are a result of hungry animals being concentrated around heavily infested milkweed areas
such as corrals, roadways and bedding grounds. However, poisoning may also occur when
animals are fed hay contaminated with milk weed. The narrow-leaf whorled milkweed species
appear to be more palatable than the broadleaf species. Milkweed may cause losses at any time,
but it is more dangerous during the active growing season. Leaves and other above ground parts
of the plant are the typical cause of poisonings but roots may also contain toxic constituents. The
whorled milkweeds contain a variety of glycosidic substances called cardenolides that are highly
toxic. All animals may be affected. Sheep are most at risk but cattle, goats, horses, poultry and
pets are also at risk. The primary toxicants are cardiac glycosides that cause gastrointestinal,
cardiac and respiratory problems and can cause death if enough is consumed. Resins especially
galitoxin in the milky sap may also contribute to the toxicity of milkweed (Dougall and Maureen,
2016)
White snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum) contains the same toxin as rayless golden rod (tremetol
compounds), and it is toxic to cattle, horses, sheep and goats. It affects all animals, including
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humans who consume milk from affected animals (“milk sickness”). It damages nearly all
muscle types including the heart muscle, disrupting cardiac function. Death may result especially
when an animal is stressed. White snake root is most commonly found in moist, shady, wooded
areas. The primary danger occurs in late summer throughout the fall especially in overgrazed
pastures or where there is insufficient food. All grazing animals can be affected by white
snakeroot and the toxin passes in the milk, so nursing animals and humans are also at risk.
Clinical signs include: depression, stiff gait, periods of sweating, normal or subnormal body
temperature, labored or shallow respiration, muscle tremors, trembling, partial throat paralysis,
jaundice, passage of hard feces, prostration, death (death may be sudden with no prior signs)
Ricinus communis is commonly known as castor oil plant or Palma Christi or “Gulo” in
Amharic. The seed contain ricin, an extremely toxic and water-soluble ribosome-inactivating
protein; it is also present in lower concentrations in other parts of the plant. According to the
2007 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records, the castor oil plant is the most poisonous
in the world though its cousin abrin found in the seeds of the jequirity plant is arguably more
lethal. Castor oil long used as a laxative, muscle rub and in cosmetics, is made from the seeds,
but the ricin protein is denatured during processing. Because ricin can quickly and repeatedly
inactivate hundreds of ribosomes in multiple cells, the LD50 in adults is only about 22 µm/kg
when injected or inhaled; ingested ricin is much less toxic due to the digestive activity of
peptidases, although a dose of 20 to 30 mg/kg or about 4 to 8 seeds can still cause death via this
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2.3.9 Kochia
Kochia (Kochia scoparia) or summer cypress is an annual weed. During drought years it has
been used both as forage and often as pasture. However, kochia can cause a variety of problems
in cattle and sheep. Although not common, it has been associated with oxalate and nitrate
poisoning. Diets having much kochia will result in decreased growth rates and death can occur.
apparently depends on the environmental conditions under which the plant is growing (Davis et
al., 2011)
Direct losses of livestock involve the economic impact of poisonous plants on the animal. These
losses include such things as: deaths of livestock, abortions, birth defects, weight loss (due to
illness or decreased feed intake), lengthened calving interval, decreased fertility, decreased
immune response, decreased function due to damage to organs such as the nervous system,
lungs, liver, etc., loss of breeding stock due to deaths, functional inefficiency, etc (Nielsen and
James, 2021). Indirect losses include those activities or costs that are incurred by a livestock
operation to prevent losses or costs incident to livestock poisonings by plants. Indirect losses
(cost) include fences built and maintained to manage livestock at risk due to poisonous plants,
grazing programs which may result in increased costs or grazing inefficiency, medical costs
incident to poisoning and forage lost because it could not harvested at the proper time or
intensity. These costs are difficult to quantify, yet are present (Nielsen and James , 2021).
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in Shagari is a Local Government Area in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Its
headquarters are in the town of Shagari on the A1 highway. The local government area (LGA)
shares a border with Zamfara State in the south. It has an area of 1,332 km2 and a population of
156,413 at the 2006 census, With temperatures ranging from 64°F to 103°F, the climate has two
distinct seasons: a scorching, oppressive wet season with mostly cloudy skies, and a scorching,
Five (5) districts were selected out of 18 districts of Sokoto North local government area, for the
study based on the effect of Humane and Ethical Handling of Livestock in in the study areas. The
districts selected are: Rijiyar Dorowa, Runjin Sambo, Tundun Wada,Magajin Gari and Magajin
Rafi. 10 farmers and or farmers were randomly selected from each of the districts given a size of
50 respondents
Primary and secondary data were used for this study. The primary data were collected with the
use of structured questionnaires designed in line with the objectives of the study. Data were
collected on Socio-economic variables such as, farmer’s age, gender, years of formal education,
household size, livelihood activities engage, effect of subsidy removal on their productive
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3.4 ANALYTICAL TOOLS
Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages).
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weeds. Int. Inst. Trop. Agric. Ibadan. p. 298.
Clarke ECG, Clarke ML (1977). Veterinary toxicology. Poisonous plants.Cassel and collier, Macmillian
publishers. London pp. 268 – 277.
Ebbo AA, Agaie BM, Adamu U, Daneji AI, Garba H (2003). Retrospective analysis of cases presented to
the Veterinary Teaching
research 2
nd
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