CHAPTER ONE Poisous

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 21

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Poisonous plants that affect animals are a major concern for the practicing veterinarian and

livestock producer over the world. This may be due to great effects it causes on animal health

and production loss as a result. The problem of such toxic plants may be greater in countries

possess higher plant biodiversity. This means if the biodiversity of plants on one area is high, the

probability to get greater number of poisonous plant and the risk of toxicity increased (Diaz,

2011). Our country, Nigeria also possesses diverse agro climatic zones, due to this and the like

reasons enjoy wide ranges of plant biodiversity. These conditions contribute their own impacts

on the country to being home for different toxic plants that cause adverse effects even life

treating hazards on livestock (Abdul et al., 2018). From the known poison around the world,

plants share third largest division. Since they cover the major parts of livestock feed, animals are

expected to be poisoned by consuming such poisonous plants. Poisoned animals especially

livestock are the first to get hazard and develop acute or chronic illness (Nwude and Parsons

2017). Ranges of toxic plants have caused broad losses to the livestock industry in many parts of

the world predominantly.

The most ancient poisons came from plants, it seems for that reason and others many members

of the plant kingdom have toxins that can be highly poisonous, even lethal if ingested still today.

It is true as there are all-embracing developments and implementation of toxicology surveillance

systems, but still poisoning through consuming poisonous plants continues being appreciable

cause of morbidity and mortality of animals (Akobundu and Agyakwa, 2017).. Poisonous plants

1
can harm entire organs of the body, while some plants having several toxic principles that affect

different systems. The main effect may depend on the condition like, maturity stage, part and

amount of the plant consumed, and the species and susceptibility of the animal. The active

principles and mode of action are known for many plants, while others are known to induce

poisoning, but the mechanism of intoxication has yet to be clarified. History and clinical

symptoms are important to diagnose and take action before animal die due to poisonous plants,

while postmortem findings and laboratory tests can be analyzed for farther evidence and

confirmation. Most of the time plant poisoning results from the toxic composition that found in

plant itself, on other hands poisoning can be result of contaminants found on or mixed with non-

toxic plants such as, mycotoxin synthesizing fungi, insects, helminths and microorganisms like

bacteria (Ogwang, 2015).. Under normal conditions, some poisonous plants consumed by

livestock as familiar diets without negative effects on the animals, poisoning occurs only when

these animals are hunger or under other stress conditions to eat too much and too fast

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Economic losses which caused by such poisonous plants can be grouped as direct and indirect.

Decrease in productivity and health problem of livestock considered as direct losses of poisonous

plants and while, the costs played for prevention, treatments, management of poisoned animals

and the like are indirect losses caused by poisonous plants. Additionally, poisonous plants affect

producers through increased death of animals, delayed weight gain, reproductive inefficiency

and poisonous plant contaminated pasture. Losses caused by inefficient reproduction may be

abortion, infertility, giving birth to weak or deformed offspring on female and permanent or

temporary infertility on male. The outcome of these reduces the number of animal in generally

and cause great impacts on producers (Nwude and Parsons, 2016).

2
The poisonous plants contain powerful toxic ingredients (phytochemicals) if introduced in to the

body of any animal, may be of relatively smaller quantity, will affect harmfully and may be fatal

at times. These toxic ingredients act by injuring the protoplasm of the cell and the harmful

effects produced may be immediate or accumulative. It is indisputable that animals poisoned

adversely by consuming poisonous plants purposefully, even though frequently animals poisoned

by toxic plants unintentional and following unfavorably conditions like pastures are poor due to

drought, wild fire, overstocking and trampling of the grazing and consumption of contaminated

feed with poisonous plant is also possible. So, such conditions that aggravated the exposure to

poisonous plants also need consideration among all responsible individuals (Ebbo et al., 2013).

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

This research was aimed to analyze common poisonous plants found around Shagari Local

Government Area of Sokoto.

Therefore, the objectives of this study were:

i. To investigate toxic plants and assess the knowledge of respondents on the toxic plant

and their toxicity effect.in study area,

ii. To provide scientific names of identified major toxic plants in study area,

iii. To explore the main impacts of toxic plants on livestock producers in the area,

iv. To provide control and prevention measures practiced among local people toward

intoxication caused by toxic plants.

1.4 Justification of the Study

As determined from the above, even though plants have vital nutritional values, provide the

normal atmospheric oxygen and have many other importance, without compromising they may

3
cause life threatening impacts on livestock if they are toxic. Furthermore, there is no habit among

veterinarians to write case reports; because of this, there is no documented literature in the area

that describes the occurrence of poisonous plants. Hence, the attention of all professionals is

needed to settle down effects of poisonous plants on animal health and productivity

4
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Related Literature

Plants comprise the third largest category of poisons known around the world. They form a

major part of livestock feed, thus toxicosis in animals consuming these plants can be expected. It

is also known that poisonous plants constitute a major cause of economic loss in livestock

industry since the days of early settlement (Clarke and Clarke, 2017). This loss may be in form

of mortalities, loss of production, veterinary service fees or a combination of two or more of

these losses. These plants affect animals in many ways although symptoms and lesions differ

depending on the amount of the plant consumed. The common symptoms however include death,

chronic illness and debilitation, decreased weight gain, abortion, abdominal discomfort,

salivation, congenital defects, photosensitization. These symptoms have been attributed to toxic

principle in such plants, which range from nitrates, oxalate, fluroacetate, selenium etc. Sokoto

state is one of the major livestock producing states in Nigeria and second largest in terms of

cattle production. Most of the livestock in the state are kept under semi-intensive or extensive

systems of management making them susceptible to poisoning by toxic plants. With increasing

human activities such as construction, farming, deforestation and other forms of environmental

degradation, which affects the fauna and the flora, it becomes very important to reassess

common poisonous plants found in the state. This study therefore was conducted to survey the

common toxic plants in the state (William et al., 2010)

5
2.2 Classification of Toxic Plants

Toxic plants are classified into groups based on their poisonous properties. Within a single genus

or family, these principles are chemically similar or identical, especially if the taxa are closely

related. Animals are often affected accidently by poisonous plants because of drought season and

over grazing in pastures, and lack familiarity of potential toxic plants by nomads and villagers

during hay feeding. Many factors determine plant toxicity in livestock, including amount and

number of plants eaten, plant growth conditions and flowering stage

Among livestock, intensity of plant toxicity can vary with species, age, sex, and general body

condition. The most important reason for livestock exposure to plant poisoning is shortage of

feed and nutrition and sudden exposure to plants. Shortage of food forces animals to browse

those plants which are well documented to have high level of toxic metabolic compounds,

causing loss in productivity, illness, and death in animals. The nature of the toxic secondary

metabolites varies with respect to place of origin and surrounding environmental conditions. The

key substances in plant which function against herbivores in plant defensive system are tannins

phenolics, alkaloids, phytohemagglutinins, terpenes, cyanogenic glycosides, and oxalates

The key toxins present in plants may cause severe diseases in livestock resulting in huge

economic losses every year. For example, phytotoxin racin of Ricinus communis cause anorexia,

apathy, dyspnea, abdominal cramps, piloerection, abortion, acute purgation, and gastrointestinal

irritation, lantadenes of Lantana camara trigger hepatotoxicity, chronic cholestasis, piloerection,

and photosensitization. Likewise, Oleandrin of Nerium oleander cause piloerection, abdominal

salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, irregular heartbeat, drowsiness, tremors, seizures, coma,

hepatotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity. The principal toxin cicutoxin of Leptopus cordifolius is

6
responsible for muscle weakness, piloerection, bone lesions, aneurysms, and burning sensation,

scopolamine and hyoscyamine of Datura stramonium are responsible for dermatitis, polydipsia,

mydriasis, anorexia, abdominal pain, stupefaction, restlessness

Poisonous plants that cause various maladies have been reported in previous studies, as well as

the numerous compounds present in them that cause toxicity. Anxiety, panic reactions, and

psychiatric symptoms are the most common clinical side effects, all of which are frequently

reported by novice users. The potent poisonous components, which may be delivered in very

small amounts into the body of animal, will have a detrimental effect and may be deadly at

times. These poisonous compounds cause damage to the cell’s protoplasm, with immediate or

progressive consequences, and their quantity fluctuates with seasonality and plant type

Plant toxicity science is developing day by day with emergence of new methodologies, with the

development of methods, ideas, and insight. A little attention has been paid so far on poisoning

caused by compounds present in plants, thus the mode of action of plant poisoning remains

largely unknown. Plant poisoning is more or less owing to unintentional consumption of seeds,

fruits, pollens, trichomes, and other plant parts. Toxic plants have the potential to harm every

organ system and endanger animal health and productivity. There are hundreds of plant species

in the field that might create animal toxicity problems. It is critical to become familiar with these

plants, their toxicity mechanisms, and consequences. By careful study of literature, it is quite

clear that up till now, there is no such study for identification and characterization of native

poisonous plants in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Moreover, the toxicity level of these plants has

also not yet been assessed through nomads and other livestock rearer. The present study thus has

been designed to fill the existing gaps of research by identification of poisonous plant and by

determining their toxicity level.

7
2.2.1 Classification of the Poisonous Plants

(a) Classification of the Poisonous Plants on the basis of Chemical Constituents.

Poisonous plants contain many alkaloids and glycosides, which are used as a medicine. There are

more than twenty groups of chemical constituents accumulated from the soil, which make a plant

or its part to be poisonous. According to their chemical constituents, plant poisons are broadly

classified in following groups

(i) Alkaloids- These are nitrogenous compounds which are complex, physiologically

active, typically taste bitter, and are usually insoluble in water.

(ii) Glycosides- These compounds produce one or more sugars (glycones) and one or

more toxic aglycones they are usually colorless, bitter, crystalline solids.

(iii) Minerals- This category of poisoning is associated with high levels of particular

minerals in the soil or atmosphere and subsequent uptake by plants, levels of these

minerals are accumulated in the plants such that they become toxic, among the

minerals often associated with toxicity are lead, copper, and arsenic.

(iv) Oxalates- These consist of soluble oxalates and oxalic acid, poisonings are often

attributed to small crystals of insoluble calcium oxalate which cause oral irritation

when ingested.

(v) Photosensitizing Compounds- These compounds are psoralens which result in acute

sensitivity of skin to sun or other sources of light after exposure, psoralens are

furocoumarins.

8
(vi) Phytotoxins (Toxalbumins)- These compounds are toxic protein molecules that are

similar to bacterial toxins in structure and reaction. (vii)Polypeptides and Amines-

these are nitrogenous compounds such as phenylethylamine and tyramine.

(vii) Resins- these are compounds that are often chemically very different but which share

certain physical characteristics; these compounds melt or burn easily, are soluble in

organic solvents, insoluble in water, and don’t contain nitrogen.

(b) Classification of the Poisonous Plants on the basis of their effect on body

Poisonous plants cause allergic reactions, irritations, skin rashes or dermatitis, skin

photosensitization, and internal poisonings. In internal poisoning plant may be affect heart, liver,

nerves and brain. According to effects on the body the poisonous plants are of following types

(i) Plants that are irritant- Calotropis procera, Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus

communis, Gloriosa superb, Anamitra cocculus, Ipomoea hederacea, Helleborus

niger, Colchicum luteum, Cleistanthus collinus, Jatropha curcas, Delphinium , Taxus

baccata, Crinum asiaticum, Semecarpus anacardium, Abrus precatorius, Garcinia

morella, Cytisus laburnum, Veratrum album, Croton tiglium.

(ii) Cardiotoxic Plants- Nerium oleander, Thevetia Peruvian, Digitalis purpurea,

Nicotiana tabaccum, Lobelia cardinalis, Aconitum napellus, Areca catechu,

Stropthanthus gratus, Cerbera odollam.

(iii) Neurotoxic Plants- Papaver somniferum, Strychnos nux vomica, Conium maculatum.

(iv) Hepatotoxic Plants- Melia azadirachta.

(iv) Cerebral toxic Plants- Artemisia maritma, Erythroxylum coca, Hyoscyamus niger,

Datura stramonium, Atropa belladonna Cannabis sativa.

9
Classification of the Poison

On the basis of their nature of poison, the plant based poisons are broadly classified in three

major groups such as

(a) Systemic

1. Cardiovascular System

2. Nervous System

3. Respiratory System

(b) Corrosive

1. Alkalis

2. Strong Acids

3. Organic Acids

(c) Irritant

1. Metallic irritant

2. Nonmetallic irritant

3. Inorganic irritant

2.3 Major Poisonous Plants That Affect Livestocks

Poisonous plants are a major cause of economic loss to the livestock industry. Many poisonous

plants can function as useful forage. Poisoning occurs when conditions develop that allow or

cause the animal to eat too much too fast. Most of these plants are safe for the average adult to

10
eat in modest quantities. Notable major toxic plants of livestock importance are discussed as

follows (Cook et al., 2009).

2.3.1 Bracken fern (western bracken)

Bracken fern (Pteridium aquiline var. pubescens) is poisonous to cattle, sheep and horses; sheep,

however, are more resistant. Bracken contains thiaminase inhibitors that lead to the development

of thiamine deficiency in horses that can be remedied by giving thiamine. Literature has

indicated that bracken fern is also carcinogenic. Milk from cows that graze bracken fern may be

hazardous to humans. All portions of the fern both green and in harvested hay are poisonous to

livestock (Panter et al., 2011). . Signs and lesions of bracken in cattle and sheep include: high

fever, loss of appétit, depression, difficulty in breathing, excessive salivation, nasal and rectal

bleeding, bloody urine, anemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, hemorrhagic syndrome,

hemorrhages on mucous membranes, plastic bone marrow and bladder tumors in cattle; in horses

the sign include: loss of weight and condition, emaciation, progressive in coordination, marked

depression, arched back with legs apart, twitching muscles, general body weakness, fast pulse,

inability to stand, convulsions or spasms, pericardial and epicedial hemorrhage (Davis et al.,

2011). Bracken fern is widely distributed in many places around the world. Bracken fern grows

on burned over areas, in woodlands and other shaded places , on hillsides, open pastures and

ranges in sandy or gravelly soils. The plant starts growth in the early spring and usually remains

green until the leaves are killed by frost (Stegelmeier et al.,2019). Poisoning often occurs during

late summer when other feed is scarce, or when animals are fed hay containing bracken fern. The

disease occurs after cows have consumed large amounts of the plant and is manifested in an

acute usually fatal form. The disease is more chronic in horses. Cattle are affected by a nor-

sesquiterpene glycoside called ptaquiloside, which causes bleeding and damage to the bone

11
marrow. The disease has a delayed onset: Cattle may graze the plant for several weeks and then

get sick and die. Poisoned animals seldom recover. If consumed over time, ptaquiloside can also

cause cancer in the urinary bladder and gastro intestinal tract. These tumors often bleed, causing

red urine (enzootic hematuria or redwater disease). Bracken fern poisoning in horses can occur

when they are fed hay containing about twenty percent bracken fern over a period of 30 days.

Signs of poisoning include weight loss, incoordination and lethargy. Horses may stand with their

legs apart as so bracing themselves and may assume a crouching position with an arched back.

Muscle tremors develop and the animal is unable to stand despite violent attempts to do so.

Death will occur in several days to a week (Gardner et al., 2011).

2.3.2 Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum)

The plant species Conium maculatum (poisonous hemlock) is one of the most toxic members of

the plant kingdom. There are numerous reports of deaths for a wide range of animal species

including humans. Conium maculatum has a worldwide distribution; it is a very common plant

species of a member of the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) and the carrot family. The

majority of the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) plants produce different volatile oils in clearly delimited

tissues of the fruits. It is known that Conium maculatum produces and contains piperidine

alkaloids but the synthesis and accumulation sites have not yet been unequivocally identified.

The location of secretory structures and the presence of essential oils and alkaloids were

investigated (Corsi and Biasci, 2018). The concentrations and the relative proportions of the

different Conium alkaloids appear to depend on different factors like temperature, moisture, time

and age of the plant. The consumption of varying parts of the plants (leaves, fruits) can cause

different degrees of clinical effects and there appears to be different susceptibility to toxicity

between species. The primary time of year for poison hemlock is spring; often when there is

12
insufficient forage available. At this time the plant may also be more palatable. The toxicity

increases throughout the growing season and the roots become toxic only later in the year. Once

dried, the toxicity is considered to be reduced but not eliminated. The plant causes different signs

and lesions in different species of animals (Dougall and Maureen, 2016).

2.3.2.1 Signs and lesions in cattle:

Hemlock is more poisonous to cows than to other animals. The general symptoms of poisoning

of cattle are: arthrogryposis, depression, diarrhea, gait incoordination, lateral rotation of limbs,

muscle spasms, salivation, teeth grinding, torticollis, trembling, coffee-coloured urine and

vomiting.Elimination of plant toxicants via milk by lactating animals is considered a minor route

of excretion; however, it may be important when the health of the neonate or food safety in

humans is considered. The alkaloids of Conium maculatum can be excreted via milk in cattle

(Panter and James, 2012).

2.3.2.2 Sheep and goat:

The general symptoms of poisoning for sheep are ataxia, frequent urination and defecation,

salivation, kinked tail, trembling, weakness and death (Lopez et al., 1999). Conium seed induced

cleft palate and multiple congenital contractures in all kids born to pregnant, with hemlock

treated goats. Multiple congenital contractures included torticollis, scoliosis, lordosis,

arthrogryposis, rib cage anomalies, over extension and flexure and rigidity of the joints. (Panter

and Jemes, 2012).

13
2.3.2.3 Nitrate-accumulating Plants

Many plants, both crops (oat hay, sorghum, corn, sudangrass, Johnson grass and beets) and

weeds (careless weed, kochia, pigweed, Russian thistle and nightshade) can accumulate nitrate.

Plants containing more than 1.5 percent nitrates (as KNO3) dry weight may be lethal to

livestock. Nitrate poisoning can also occur in animals that consume nitrate fertilizers, machine

oil and some natural well and pond waters. Plants differ in their ability to accumulate nitrate.

Often the type of soil present and the form of nitrogen there influences the amount of nitrate that

accumulator plants may contain. Drought conditions or cloudy weather may enhance nitrate

accumulation. Treatment of nitrate-accumulating plants with 2, 4-D may also cause plants to

accumulate excessive amounts of nitrate. Nitrate accumulates primarily in the vegetative tissue

of plants while the seed remains safe (Panter et al., 2011).

2.3.3 Nightshades (Solanum spps)

There are several species of nightshades that are toxic to horses, cattle, swine, sheep and poultry.

The principal species that serve as examples of the genus are black nightshade (Solanum

nigrum), silver leaf nightshade (Solanum eleagnifolium), and buffalo burr (Solanum rostratum).

The toxins include a combination of a number of sugars and at least six different steroidal amines

combined to form a variety of glycoalkaloids. One example is the toxin solanine. Drying does

not destroy the toxin. Nightshade species are not very palatable to livestock. However, these

plants often grow as weeds in hay and silage crops and small grains where they can be harvested

with the crop and then fed to livestock (Panter et al., 2011). Black nightshade (both the native

and introduced varieties) is an annual six inches to three feet tall. Leaves are simple, ovate to

lanceolate, entire to sinuate-dentate. Flowers are white; berries are black when ripe. It grows

14
peripherally in moist areas of fields and pastures of disturbed loamy or gravelly soils. Silver leaf

nightshade is a perennial that grows one to three feet tall with white, hairy leaves and stems.

Leaves are simple, thick, lanceolate to linear, entire to sinuate. Stems and ribs usually have short

stiff spines. Flowers are violet or blue; berries are yellow or orange (Stegelmeier et al., 1999).

Nightshades are generally unpalatable and are not grazed by livestock except under the stress of

overgrazing or in contaminated hay and grain. Poisoning by this group of plants does not always

end in death. In acute poisoning the nervous symptoms develop rapidly. Death or recovery

occurs within a few hours to one or two days. Death apparently is related to the paralysis.

Chronic poisoning is accompanied by emaciation, rough hair coat, anorexia, constipation and

ascitis. Signs and lesions of nightshade poisoning includes: labored breathing and expiratory

grunt, salivation and nasal discharge, body temperature may be slightly elevated, yellow

discoloration of the skin may occur in chronic poisoning, weakness, paralysis, and trembling,

increased heart rate, fat may be yellowed and gelatinous, gall bladder may be distended,

gastrointestinal irritation including inflammation, hemorrhage, and ulceration (Panter et al.,

2011)

2.3.5 Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium)

Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is an annual plant that grows in dry lakebeds, river bottoms,

disturbed and flooded areas of fields, pastures and roadways after water disappears. Poisoning

occurs primarily in cattle, sheep, horses and swine when the plant is eaten in the cotyledon stage

(seedlings). Signs of poisoning include labored breathing, nausea, vomiting and spasmodic

contractions of the legs and neck muscles. Cockleburs are widely native annual plants that grow

about three feet tall. Leaves of common cocklebur are roughly triangular or heart shaped and is

covered with minute hairs on both sides. The brown or greenish brown fruit or burs are covered

15
with stiff, hooked spines and contain two seeds. Cockleburs are found in moist waste place, flood

plain, old fields, overgrazed pasture and stock watering place are common habitats (Burrows and

Tyrl, 2001).

2.3.6 Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)

Several species of milkweed are poisonous to livestock. Labriform milkweed (Asclepias

labriformis) is the most toxic milkweed poisoning occurring in chicken, turkeys, rabbits, horses,

cattle, sheep, and goats with avian species being less susceptible than mammals. Most livestock

losses are a result of hungry animals being concentrated around heavily infested milkweed areas

such as corrals, roadways and bedding grounds. However, poisoning may also occur when

animals are fed hay contaminated with milk weed. The narrow-leaf whorled milkweed species

appear to be more palatable than the broadleaf species. Milkweed may cause losses at any time,

but it is more dangerous during the active growing season. Leaves and other above ground parts

of the plant are the typical cause of poisonings but roots may also contain toxic constituents. The

whorled milkweeds contain a variety of glycosidic substances called cardenolides that are highly

toxic. All animals may be affected. Sheep are most at risk but cattle, goats, horses, poultry and

pets are also at risk. The primary toxicants are cardiac glycosides that cause gastrointestinal,

cardiac and respiratory problems and can cause death if enough is consumed. Resins especially

galitoxin in the milky sap may also contribute to the toxicity of milkweed (Dougall and Maureen,

2016)

2.3.7 White Snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum)

White snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum) contains the same toxin as rayless golden rod (tremetol

compounds), and it is toxic to cattle, horses, sheep and goats. It affects all animals, including

16
humans who consume milk from affected animals (“milk sickness”). It damages nearly all

muscle types including the heart muscle, disrupting cardiac function. Death may result especially

when an animal is stressed. White snake root is most commonly found in moist, shady, wooded

areas. The primary danger occurs in late summer throughout the fall especially in overgrazed

pastures or where there is insufficient food. All grazing animals can be affected by white

snakeroot and the toxin passes in the milk, so nursing animals and humans are also at risk.

Clinical signs include: depression, stiff gait, periods of sweating, normal or subnormal body

temperature, labored or shallow respiration, muscle tremors, trembling, partial throat paralysis,

jaundice, passage of hard feces, prostration, death (death may be sudden with no prior signs)

(Hamilton and Mitchell, 1994).

2.3.8 Castor oil (Ricinus communis)

Ricinus communis is commonly known as castor oil plant or Palma Christi or “Gulo” in

Amharic. The seed contain ricin, an extremely toxic and water-soluble ribosome-inactivating

protein; it is also present in lower concentrations in other parts of the plant. According to the

2007 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records, the castor oil plant is the most poisonous

in the world though its cousin abrin found in the seeds of the jequirity plant is arguably more

lethal. Castor oil long used as a laxative, muscle rub and in cosmetics, is made from the seeds,

but the ricin protein is denatured during processing. Because ricin can quickly and repeatedly

inactivate hundreds of ribosomes in multiple cells, the LD50 in adults is only about 22 µm/kg

when injected or inhaled; ingested ricin is much less toxic due to the digestive activity of

peptidases, although a dose of 20 to 30 mg/kg or about 4 to 8 seeds can still cause death via this

route (Wedin et al., 2016).

17
2.3.9 Kochia

Kochia (Kochia scoparia) or summer cypress is an annual weed. During drought years it has

been used both as forage and often as pasture. However, kochia can cause a variety of problems

in cattle and sheep. Although not common, it has been associated with oxalate and nitrate

poisoning. Diets having much kochia will result in decreased growth rates and death can occur.

The principal manifestation of kochia poisoning is photosensitization. Poisoning due to kochia

apparently depends on the environmental conditions under which the plant is growing (Davis et

al., 2011)

2.4 Economic Impacts of Poisonous Plants on Livestock

Direct losses of livestock involve the economic impact of poisonous plants on the animal. These

losses include such things as: deaths of livestock, abortions, birth defects, weight loss (due to

illness or decreased feed intake), lengthened calving interval, decreased fertility, decreased

immune response, decreased function due to damage to organs such as the nervous system,

lungs, liver, etc., loss of breeding stock due to deaths, functional inefficiency, etc (Nielsen and

James, 2021). Indirect losses include those activities or costs that are incurred by a livestock

operation to prevent losses or costs incident to livestock poisonings by plants. Indirect losses

(cost) include fences built and maintained to manage livestock at risk due to poisonous plants,

herding livestock to prevent poisoning, supplemental feeding to prevent poisoning, altered

grazing programs which may result in increased costs or grazing inefficiency, medical costs

incident to poisoning and forage lost because it could not harvested at the proper time or

intensity. These costs are difficult to quantify, yet are present (Nielsen and James , 2021).

18
CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

The study was carried out in Shagari is a Local Government Area in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Its

headquarters are in the town of Shagari on the A1 highway. The local government area (LGA)

shares a border with Zamfara State in the south. It has an area of 1,332 km2 and a population of

156,413 at the 2006 census, With temperatures ranging from 64°F to 103°F, the climate has two

distinct seasons: a scorching, oppressive wet season with mostly cloudy skies, and a scorching,

partly cloudy dry season.[3][4] (Roger, 2006).

3.2 SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SAMPLE SIZE

Five (5) districts were selected out of 18 districts of Sokoto North local government area, for the

study based on the effect of Humane and Ethical Handling of Livestock in in the study areas. The

districts selected are: Rijiyar Dorowa, Runjin Sambo, Tundun Wada,Magajin Gari and Magajin

Rafi. 10 farmers and or farmers were randomly selected from each of the districts given a size of

50 respondents

3.3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary and secondary data were used for this study. The primary data were collected with the

use of structured questionnaires designed in line with the objectives of the study. Data were

collected on Socio-economic variables such as, farmer’s age, gender, years of formal education,

household size, livelihood activities engage, effect of subsidy removal on their productive

farming activities, effect of subsidy removal on the livelihood activities.

19
3.4 ANALYTICAL TOOLS

Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages).

Abdul PS, Bode J, Davids G, MacCarthy M, Swindell K (1982). Sokoto

State in map. An atlas of physical and human resources, Univ. press

Ltd. pp. 3-12

Akobundu IO, Agyakwa CW (1987). A hand book of West African

20
weeds. Int. Inst. Trop. Agric. Ibadan. p. 298.

Clarke ECG, Clarke ML (1977). Veterinary toxicology. Poisonous plants.Cassel and collier, Macmillian
publishers. London pp. 268 – 277.

Ebbo AA, Agaie BM, Adamu U, Daneji AI, Garba H (2003). Retrospective analysis of cases presented to
the Veterinary Teaching

Hospital, UDU, Sokoto. (1993-2002), Nig. Vet. J. 23(3).

Gomez KA, Gomez AA (1984). Statistical procedure for Agricultural

research 2

nd

edition Longman Singapore. p. 680.

Nwude N, Parsons LE (1977). Nigerian Plants that may cause

poisoning in Livestock. Vet. Bull. 47: 811-817

Onyeyili PA, Chibuzo GA, Brisaibe F, Egwu GO (1984). Accidental plant

poisoning of sheep in an acid zone of Nigeria.

Ogwang BH (1997). A survey of poisonous plants of livestock in

swaziland. Bull. Anim. Health. Prod. Afr. 45: 99-106.

Williams A, Bzugu PM, At Sanda NNA (2000). Retrospective study of

diseases of ruminants at Maiduguri, Nigeria. Trop. Vet. 18: 23-28

21

You might also like