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PAPER – I

ANCIENT INDIA, INDIAN

CULTURE AND MEDIEVAL
INDIA

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 A book on
INDIAN HISTORY
(Ancient India, Medieval India
and Indian Culture)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ANCIENT INDIA AND INDIAN CULTURE

History upto Indus Valley Civilization 6

Vedic and Later-Vedic Period 14
Jainism, Buddhism, Hindu Schools of Philosophy 19
Mahajanapadas, Mauryans & Post-Mauryans 36
Guptas and Harsha Times 52
Society in Eastern India, Deccan, South India 65
Travelers in India during Ancient Period 66
Indian Architecture including Art & Craft and Paint- 80
ings
Indian Music and Dances 105
Few Facts about Ancient India 121

MEDIEVAL INDIA

Turkish Invasions & Rajputs 130

Delhi Sultanate 132
Vijayanagar Empire, Regional Kingdoms & Surs 145
Mughals and Rise of Marathas 149
Rise of Marathas and Sultanates of Deccan 160
Bhakti Movement 163
Synopsis of Rulers of Medieval India 170

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History upto Indus Valley Civilization

THE STONE AGE– EARLY MAN

• The evolution of earth’s crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is
called Quaternary which is further divided into Pleistocene (last Ice age
- most recent) & Holocene (present). Man first appeared in Africa in early
Pleistocene.
• The earliest man used only tools and instruments made of stone.
Thus, this phase is known as the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (middle Stone Age), and Neolithic.

Paleolithic Age (500,000-10,000 BC) – hunting and food gathering

• Paleolithic age or culture in India developed in the Pleistocene time of the

ice age. In the earliest Paleolithic phase, man lived on hunting and food
gathering. He had no knowledge of cultivation. However, he knew the use
of fire. They wore leaves, tree barks, and animal skins.
• The early man in India used tools of stone, especially Quartzite. Hence
Paleolithic man in India is also called as Quartzite man. The Paleolithic
tools of stone are hand-axes, cleavers, choppers, scrapers, spear, bow &
arrow, harpoon, needle etc.
• People subsisted on ox, bison, Nilgai, chinkara, gazelle, black buck
antelope, sambar, spotted dear, wild bear, birds, tortoise, and fishes; and
honey, plant food like fruits, roots, seeds, and leaves.
• People worshipped thunder and lightning.
• Paleolithic tools of 100,000 BC have been found in Kurnool district. The
other Paleolithic sites are found in Soan valley (Pak), Belan valley, Nagaur,
and Didwana. Bhimbetka near Bhopal is most important Paleolithic site
where caves and rock shelters used by Paleolithic man are found. Here
hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit. The rivers – Tapti,
Godavari, Bhīma, and Krishna with black soil, and Narmada, Son, and Luni,
have yielded a large number of these sites.
• Robert Bruce Foot was the first to find Paleolithic stone in India in 1863.

Mesolithic Age (10,000-4,000 BC) – domestication of animals started

• During this age, climate became warmer and humid, and increase in flora
& fauna.
• Mesolithic man lived on hunting, fishing, and food gathering and at later
stages also domesticated animals – mainly cattle, sheep, and goat.
Adamgarh in MP and Bagor (largest site) & Tilwara in Rajasthan provide
us earliest evidence of domestication of animal (5000 BC).
• Bhimbetka in MP is a fine example of pre-historic art. Here rock paintings
existed from Paleolithic to Mesolithic period.
• On the Northern spurs of Vindhyas in Belan Valley, all the 3 phases of
Paleolithic followed by Mesolithic and then by Neolithic have been found

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 in sequence; similarly also in Sabarmati, Narmada Valley, and Godavari
Basin.
• The first human colonization of Ganga plains took place during
this period – sites found at Allahabad, Varanasi, Partapgarh, Mirzapur,
and Jaunpur. Also found in deltaic region of Bengal, around Bombay,
Chotanagpur, Orissa.
• Characteristic tools of Mesolithic Age are Microliths – smaller is size and
better finish. Blades, points, crescents, triangles, and trapezes were used.

Neolithic Age (4,000-1800 BC) – agriculture started

• This was the concluding phase of Stone Age. In the world context, the
New Stone Age began in 9000 BC. In India, Neolithic age began around 6th
millennium BC.
• The only Neolithic settlement in the Indian sub-continent attributed to
7000 BC lies in Mehrgarh (Baluchistan). In other parts such as South India,
Neolithic sites are found around 2500 BC.
• People of this age used tools and implements of polished stone, particularly
stone axes and sickles. They used heavy ground tools – pestles, mortars,
grinders, and pounders.
• Neolithic people led a settled life. Sedentism (living at one place for a
long time) started during this period. This gave rise to villages, towns, and
then cities.
• Pottery first appeared in Neolithic Phase. Invention of crafts like
spinning, weaving, and bead making leading to wheel-thrown pottery also
appeared.
• The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities. They
produced ragi and horse gram [Kulathi]. Neolithic people of Mehrgarh
(Pakistan) were more advanced; produced wheat, barley and lived
in mud-brick house. Some important crops, including rice, wheat, and
barley came to be cultivated in the subcontinent in this period. They could
not produce more than that needed for subsistence. Civilizations across
history have grown by cultivating one or more of just 6 crops – wheat,
barley, millet, rice, maize, and potatoes – called engines of civilizations.
• A few villages appeared in this part of the world. People appeared on the
threshold of civilization. But they suffered from one great limitation-
Depended entirely on tools and weapons of stone. Hence could not found
settlements far away from the hilly areas.
• 3 important areas of Neolithic settlements have been identified based on
types of axes used: North Western, North Eastern, and Southern.
• North West
 Kashmiri Neolithic Cultures distinguished by its – 1. Dwelling pits 2.
Variety of Stone and bone tools 3. Complete absence of Microlith.
 Important sites are Burzahom and Gufkral near Srinagar and
Kanishkapura.
 Neolithic people had hunting and fishing economy. But also seem to
have been acquainted with agriculture. Lived in lake-sides in pits.
 Dogs were buried with masters.
 Important sites in north-west are Mehrgarh, Kili Gul Muhammad, Rana
Ghundai, and Anjira. In Indus plains, the sites include – Gumla, Rehman
Dheri, Tarakai Qila, and Sarai Khola & Jalilpur in Punjab.
• South Indian Neolithic
 The important sites are Sangankallu, Maski, Pikhlihal, and Utnur.
 The Neolithic settlers in Pikhlihal were cattle-herders. They
collected dung in their camping grounds and put fire to them; hence,

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 ash mounds have been found at Pikhlihal.
 South Indian Neolithic people used stone axes, stone blade. They also
used rubbing stone querns, which implies that they produced cereals.
• North East India
 The Neolithic sites are found in Napchik in Manipur; Sarutaru, Daojali
Hading and Markadola in Assam and Pynthorlangtein in Meghalaya.
 In addition to these, no. of settlements on the Northern spurs of
the Vindhyas in – Sinduria in Mirzapur, and Koldihwa & Mahagara in
Allahabad districts of UP; Kunjan in MP.
 Neolithic sites in Allahabad district – Koldihwa - are noted for
the earliest cultivation of rice in the sixth millennium BC.
 Other sites include Kuchai & Golbai Sasan in Orissa; Pandu Rajar Dhibi,
Bharatpur & Mahisdal in West Bengal; and Burudih in Jharkhand.

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES IN INDIA (1800-1000 BC)

• Towards the end of Neolithic period, metals like Bronze & copper began
to be used. It was the phase of chalcolithic.
• Chalcolithic cultures extended from the Chotanagpur Plateau to the upper
Gangetic basin.
• Copper was the first metal used by man -

CULTURE AREA TIME PERIOD

Banās SE Rajasthan 2100 – 1500 BC
Malwa MP 1700-1200 BC
Jorwe Western Maharashtra 1400-700 BC
Eastern India Bihar, W. Bengal & UP

• Ahar shows impressive range of copper objects. Diamabad and

Inamgaon are among largest of chalcolithic sites. Diamabad is famous
for discovery of bronze goods influenced by Harappan culture.
In Western India and western MP, the end of chalcolithic settlements is
attributed to decrease in rainfall
• Importance of the Chalcolithic Phase -
 People mostly founded rural settlements on river banks near hills.
They used Microliths and other stone tools supplemented by some
copper tools.
 They were the first to use painted pottery.
 In south India, the Neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the chalcolithic
phase, and so these cultures are called Neolithic–chalcolithic. The
Chalcolithic communities founded the first large villages in peninsular
India.
 Chalcolithic people did not practice cultivation (neither plough nor
hoe has been found at chalcolithic sites).

COPPER HOARD CULTURE

• Many copper hoards consisting of rings, Celts, hatchets, swords, harpoons,

spearheads and anthromorphic figures have been found at many places.
• The largest copper hoard comes from Gungeria (MP).
• The copper hoards are found with Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP). The
period covered by OCP culture is 2000-1500 BC. Jodhpura shows the
thickest OCP deposits.

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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (3300-1300 BC)

• Indus valley civilization is also known as Harappan civilization as it was

discovered by DR Sahani at Harappa in 1921. Harappan culture was a
Bronze Age Civilization. It encompassed most of Pakistan, northwestern
India, Afghanistan, and Iran.
• In India, it extended from Manda (Jammu) in north to Diamabad
(Maharashtra) in South and from Alamgripur (UP) in east to Sutkagan Dor
(Baluchistan) in west. It flourished in the basins of Indus and now dried up
Saraswati Rivers. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor to
Lothal. At Manchhar, fishing settlements existed.
• In Makran, fortified sites of Sutkagendor and Sotka-koh were important
for sea trade with Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The northernmost
site of IVC was Shortughai on the Oxus River in Afghanistan.
• Kalibangan, Banawali, and Rakhigarhi (largest Harappan site) were
urban centres. Dholavira was a city in Rann with vast tidal mud flats.
Bhiranna was oldest Harappan Site.
• IVC was one of three early civilizations along with Egypt and Mesopotamia;
and was the largest of three covering 1.25 million sq. km.
• The time period is divided into 3 phases-
1. Pre–Harappan.
2. Mature–Harappan (2600-1900 BC) urban phase: The number of
sites belonging to the mature phase is limited. Focal point of mature
Harappan Phase was Punjab and Sindh, mainly in Indus Valley.
Two most important cities were Harappa in Punjab (Pakistan) and
Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh. The important cities where mature-Harappan
phase is found are given in the table.

City Region River Excavated By

Harappa Punjab (Pakistan) Ravi DR Sahani (1921)
Mohenjo-Daro Sindh Indus RD Banerjee (1922)
Chanhudaro Sindh Indus -
Lothal (port city) Gujarat (Gulf of Bhogava SR Rao
Cambay)
Banawali Haryana - -
Surkotada Gujarat - -
Dholavira Gujarat - -
Sutkagendar Makran coast - -
(Baluchistan)
Kalibangan Rajasthan Ghaggar

3. Late–Harappan (post-urban) phase: Most of the excavated sites

belong to Late-Harappan. Later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur
and Rojdi, both in Gujarat.
• Dholavira in Gujarat & Rakhigarhi in Haryana show all 3 phases of
Harappan culture.
• Before the Harappan phase, there existed few cultures-
 At the beginning of the fourth millennium BC, the Cholistan tract saw
a phase an occupation, known as ‘Hakra Ware culture’, named
after river around which its distinctive ceramic assemblage was first
discovered. Rakhigarhi has thick deposits of Hakra Ware. Largest
cluster of Indus settlements is found at Hakra. It connected Indus
plains with Rajasthan, which had large deposits of copper.

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  Towards the western fringes of Indus lowlands, there existed Amri
Culture in fourth millennium BC. It dominated Kirthar (in Baluchistan)
and Kohistan.
 The forerunner to IVC was Kot Diji Culture at around 3300 BC. Use of
mud bricks and drainage system found here. An interesting find was
the toy cart, which shows that the potter’s wheel lead to wheels for
bollock carts.

Features of Harappan Civilization

• Harappan developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products and

seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead and tin).
• Highly developed and efficient town was important feature of
civilization. Cities were built on grid system – roads cut across one
another at right angles and city was divided into numerous blocks. Most
remarkable feature of town planning was highly efficient water supply
and drainage system unparalleled in other ancient civilization. It points
to some kind of municipal organization. They were known for baked brick
houses and clusters of non-residential buildings.
• The cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were built according to unique
plan. Each one had its own citadel or acropolis containing structures of
religious and political significance and below lay a lower town for common
people.
 In the citadel area, the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro is the most
striking structure. It probably was meant for some elaborate ritual of
vital importance for the people.
 To the west of the Great Bath, there are the remains of a large granary
which is the largest building in Mohenjo-Daro.
 At Harappa, a remarkable no. of granaries has been found ranged in
two rows of six.
 The houses were equipped with private wells and toilets.
 Granaries were regular feature of Harappan cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-
Daro & Kalibangan.
• Polychrome pottery is rare.
• Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and face paint, lipstick, and colyrium
(eyeliner) were known to Indus people.

Major Cities during Harappa

Harappa Mohenjo-Daro
• Grid planning. • Grid-planning.
• Row of 6 granaries. • In Sindhi language, the world Mohenjo-
• Only place with evidence of Daro means “Mound of the dead.”
coffin burials. • Largest Indus Valley site.
• A red sandstone naked male • Large granary and Great bath found here.
for so has been here. • Remains of multi pillared assembly hall
found.
• Houses were built of kiln fired bricks.
• 33 feet wide streets.
• Evidence of horse and weaved cotton.
• A bronze dancing girl and steatite statue
of a priest and a seal bearing Pashupati
have been found here.
• Excavation reveals that the city was
flooded more than seven times.

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Surkotada Lothal
• Reveals a citadel and a lower • Only site with an artificial dockyard.
town. Both of which were • Evidence of earliest cultivation of rice
fortified. (1800 BC) found here. Rice husk found at
• Excavation reveals probably Rangpur.
the city was destroyed due • Terracotta figurine of a horse found here.
to fire. • Instrument for measuring angles/
• Five figurines of mother compass.
goddess were discovered.
• Bone of horses, bead making
shops.
Kalibangan Chanhudaro
• It has pre- Harappan cultural • Only Indus city without a citadel.
phases. • A small pot probably inkpot discovered.
• Evidence of mud brick • Bead industry evidenced.
fortification.
• Fire altars discovered.
• Evidence of ploughed field/
furrowed land/ wooden
furrow.
Banawali Ropar
• Found large quantity of • Evidence of dog buried with man.
barley, sesame, and mustard. • Five-fold cultures.
Dholavira
• Seven cultural stages

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Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization

• Agriculture
 The Harappan cultivated wheat and barley, peas and dates and also
seasame and mustard which were used for oil. Cattle were the most
preferred domesticated animal.
 Evidence of barley comes from Banawali.
 People cultivated rice as early as 1800 BC in Gujarat (Rangpur and
Lothal).
 Harappan were the earliest people to grow cotton. Hence Greeks call it
Sindon (from Sindh).
 There is evidence of cotton cloth from Mohenjo-Daro.
 Kalibangan gives evidence of ploughed field in pre-Harappa levels.
Hence Harappan may have used a wooden ploughshare.
• Trade
 There was extensive inland and foreign trade. The Mesopotamian
records show that Sargon of Akkad (2350 BC) boasted that ships of
Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha passed through his capital. Dilmun
is identified with island of Bahrain and Magan with Makran coast.
Meluhha was ancient name given to Indus region.
 Terracotta model of ship and large brick built dockyard was found at
Lothal.
 The system of weights and measures was excellent. For weighing
goods, cubes of agate were employed. The weights followed a binary
system.
 The regions of different metals have been as follows:

Imports Region
Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan
Gold South India, Afghanistan, Persia
Tin Afghanistan, Bihar
Lapis lazuli Afghanistan
Turquoise Persia
Amethyst Maharashtra
Agate Gujarat
Jade Central Asia
Silver Afghanistan, Iran
Chalcedony Saurashtra
Lead Rajasthan, S. India, Afghanistan, Iran
Arnethyst Maharashtra
Carnelian Saurashtra

• Arts And Crafts

 There is evidence of bead makers’ shops from Lothal and Chanhudaro.
 Many ornaments of gold and silver are found.
 The long barrel and etched beads of carnelian were popular.
 Seals were the greatest artistic creation of Harappan. They were
made of steatite and used to mark and identify merchandise or other
private objects.
 Dancing girl bronze statue from Mohenjo-Daro is most famous.
• Indus Script
 The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far. It is pictographic
not alphabetical.

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  Most of the script is on seals.
 The Harappan did not write long inscriptions.
 Overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibangan show that
the writing was boustrophedon, from right to left and from left to
right in alternate lines.
• Political Organization
 Due to un-deciphered nature of script, it is not clear as to what sort
of political organization Harappan had. However, the uniformity and
homogeneity over such a large area would not have been possible
without a central decision making authority.
 It has been suggested that rulers of Harappan culture were merchants.
• Religion
 Terracotta figurines of mother goddess are found in large number.
 A seal from Mohenjo-Daro shows Yogi like figure surrounded by a
tiger, a buffalo, an elephant, and rhinoceros and at his feet are 2 deer.
He has been identified with Pashupati Shiva.
 Numerous symbols of phallus and female sex organs made of stone
have been found.
 The trees and animals were also worshipped.
 The most important animal worshipped was one horned unicorn.
Next in importance is humped bull.
 They probably believed in ghost as many amulets have been found.
 They did not have temples like that of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Decline

• Around 1900 BC, the urban Harappan Culture disappeared. The great
cities fell into disuse losing their planned coherence. The uniformly in
planning, weights and measures, pottery, art of writing, tools was also lost
• Various causes such as Aryan invasion, tectonic movements, ecological
disasters, aridity etc. have been put forward. The most accepted is
Ecological reasons.
• Discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjo-Daro indicate
that it was probably invaded by foreigners. Earlier theory of Aryan
invasions was quite popular. Presence of cemetery ‘H’ at Harappa which
is considered as cemetery of alien type could have been that of Aryans.

LATE HARAPPAN CULTURE

• The late Harappan Cultures were primarily Chalcolithic in which tools

of stone and copper were used. Copper was the first metal to be used.
Technologically, chalcolithic stage applied to the pre-Harappans. But in
various parts of the country the chalcolithic cultures appear after end of
the bronze Harappa culture.
• Examples of Late Harappan (Chalcolithic) Culture are – Prabhas
Patan and Rangpur (both Gujarat), Ahar and Gilund (both Rajasthan),
Bhagwanpura (Haryana) and Diamabad (Maharashtra).
• It was a post-urban phase. They lived in villages subsisting on agriculture,
stock raising, hunting.
• Chalcolithic settlements are found in south-eastern Rajasthan, western
part of Madhya Pradesh, Western Maharashtra, and in southern and eastern
India.
• The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals.

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Vedic and Later-Vedic Period

• Vedic literature consists of 4 Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and

Upanishads. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads are also
called shruti. Vedic literature is believed to be a divine source; hence
called nitya (eternal). It is the chief source on Aryans.
• The 4 Vedas are - Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.
1. Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic text. Rig Veda is earliest text of Indo-
European language and is a collection of prayers offered to Agni,
Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and other Gods. Rig Veda consists of 10 Mandals
or books: 2-7 are oldest while 1 & 10 are latest. It has a lot of similarities
to Avesta, the oldest book in Iranian language.
2. Sam Veda is the oldest book on music. The prayers of Rig Veda are set
to tune in Sam Veda for singing.
3. Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but also rituals which have to
accompany their recitation.
4. Atharva Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases.
It throws light on the belief of non-Aryans.
• Rig Veda is supposed to have compiled between 1500-1000 BC. Hence, this
period is called the Early Vedic period. The later 3 Vedas are supposed
to have compiled between 1000-600 BC. Hence, this period is called as
Later-Vedic period.
• After Vedas, Brahmans were composed and were attached to each Veda.
They were full of ritualistic formulae and explain religious and social
meaning of rituals.
• Aranyakas are the concluding portions of Brahmans. They are
considered secret and dangerous, hence to be taught only in forest.
• Upanishads are commentaries attached to Aranyakas but of
philosophical nature. These are collectively called as Vedantas.

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD AND COMING OF ARYANS

• A little earlier than 1500 BC, Aryans appeared in India. Aryans first
appeared in central Asia and Iran (steppes in southern Russia to Central
Asia). From Rig Veda, we can construct the early life of Aryans. In Rig Veda
the term Arya occurs 36 times.
• Earlier Aryans lived in east Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fringes of
western UP. It was the Saptasindhava (land of seven rivers). Geographical
knowledge of early Aryans does not extend beyond Yamuna.
• It was a mainly pastoral society; agriculture was secondary. Horse played
the most significant role in their life. They had a male dominated society.
• Rashtra (Kingdom) had not come into existence during this period. It was
essentially tribal and egalitarian society. Aryan is linguistic category
and not a racial one. They are distinguished by their language. Earliest
inscription of Indo- European language of 2200 BC has been found from

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 Iraq.
• Some rivers of Afghanistan such as River Kubha and the River Indus and
its five tributaries are mentioned in Rig Veda. Sindhu or Indus is the most
frequently mentioned river in Rig Veda. Saraswati is identical with the
Ghaggar-Hakra but its Rig Vedic description resembles Avestan River
Harakhwati or present Helmand River in S. Afghanistan. Saraswati is
also called Naditarna.

Rig Vedic Name Modern Name

Satudri Satluj
Vipasa Beas
Parushni Ravi
Askini Chenab
Vitasta Jhelum

• Aryans came into conflict with indigenous inhabitants Dasas and

Dasyus etc. Dasas also mentioned in ancient Iranian literature may be a
branch of early Aryans. Possibly the Dasyus were the original inhabitants.
• Rig Veda mentions defeat of Sambara by a chief called Divodasa of
Bharata clan. Main reason for victory of Aryans: chariot driven by horses.
• The Aryans were divided into 5 tribes - Panchajanah. Often Aryan tribes
fought among themselves. One such famous battle is mentioned in Rig
Veda known as Dasrajanah (battle of Ten Kings) fought on River Parushni
(Ravi). It was fought between Bharata Tribe supported by Vaishista and
led by Sudas on one hand and 10 other tribes (5 Aryan and 5 non-Aryan)
on the other. It was won by Sudas of Bharata clan by defeating Purus.
Now Bharatas joined hands with Purus to form new ruling tribe Kurus.

Material Life

• Probably Aryans introduced the spoked wheel.

• Cow was the chief medium of exchange. Most wars were fought for
cows. Gavisthi (search for cows) is the term mentioned in Rig Veda. Few
words derived from cow are: wealthy person-Gomat; daughter-Duhitri;
guest–Goghana; Gotra-mentioned as clan in Atharva Veda. Cow is called
aghanya.
• Ploughshare is also mentioned in Rig Veda. They had better agriculture
knowledge than pre Aryans in these areas. But still predominantly remained
pastoral.
• There is mention of Ayas which was copper/bronze; but no evidence of
iron.

Gold Hiranya
Iron Shyama (Krishna) Ayas
Copper Ayas

Tribal Polity

• Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, and Gana were the tribal assemblies mentioned
in Rig Veda. Most important tribal assemblies were Sabha and Samiti.
Women attended Sabha and Vidhata.
• Tribal chief was called Rajan at centre. Rajan was a kind of chief but did
not exercise unlimited powers. Sometimes king was elected by Samiti.
• Most important functionary who assisted King was Purohita. Vaishista

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 and Vishwamitra were two Purohits of Rig Vedic times. Gayatri mantra
was composed by Vishwa Mitra, in the 3rd mandala of Rig Veda. It is devoted
to solar god Savitri.
• Next important functionary was Senani who used spears, axes, and
swords. There was no regular or standing army. During war, they used
to collect a militia from tribal groups such as Vrata, Gana, Grama, and
Sarda. Spies (Spasa) were employed for watch. Aryan had tribal system
of government with strong military element.
• There were no officers for collecting taxes and administering justice.
There was no civil or territorial administration due to wandering life.
• Vrajapati were the officers who enjoyed authority over large grounds or
pasture lands. Vrajapati led Kulapa (head of family) and Gramani (head
of fighting hordes) to battle. In beginning, Gramani was the head of small
tribal fighting unit, but when unit settled, Gramani became head of the
village and identical to Vrajapati.

Tribe and Family

• Kingship was the basis of social structure, man was identified by clan
to which he belonged. Primary loyalty was given to the tribe/ Jana. Jana
occurs 275 times in Rig Veda and Janapada is not mentioned. Vish tribe is
mentioned 170 times; Vish tribes were divided into smaller fighting units-
Gramas. Kula was the term used for family.
• It was a patriarchal joint family. Women could offer sacrifices along
with their husbands. We have 5 women composing hymns who were called
Brahmavadinis: Lopamudra, Apala, Shachi, Ghosa, and Poulomi. There
is indication of polyandry, e.g. Maruts enjoyed Rodasi, Asvin brothers
living with daughter of sun Surya. There was practice of levirate & widow
remarriage in Rig Veda. Marriageable age in Rig Veda was 16-17 years.
Women attended sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic time.

Social Divisions

• Though Varna is term for colour, the most important factor for creation of
social divisions was the conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by Aryans.
During Rig Veda, differentiation based on occupations had started but were
not sharp.
• Rig Veda mentions only Arya Varna and Das Varna. Gradually tribal
society was divided into 3 groups: warrior, priests, and people. Fourth
group Shudras appeared at end of Rig Veda, since it is mentioned in the
‘Purusha sukta’ hymn in 10th book, which was the latest addition. Slaves
were not used in agriculture or other producing activities.
• Aryans are equated with Vedic & Sanskrit culture of north and pre–
Aryans with Dravidian & Tamil culture of south.

Rig-Vedic Gods

• Early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Indra was most important god in
Rig Veda; called as Purandara perceived as warlord (destroyer of forts).
250 hymns, highest in number in Rig Veda are devoted to Indra. He was
rain god and thought to be responsible for causing rainfall.
• Agni was the 2nd most important god; 100 hymns in Rig Veda are attributed
to it. Agni was the intermediary between God and humans.
• Varuna was the 3rd most important god. He personified water. Varuna was
supposed to be upholder of natural order called Rta.

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• Soma was the god of plants. The complete 9th mandala is devoted to
Soma.
• Maruts personify the storm.
• Female divinities such as Aditi and Usha are not prominent.
• Prayers played an important part in Rig Vedic times; rituals had not
become popular.

LATER VEDIC PHASE (1000 BC – 500 BC)

• History of this period is based on Vedic texts compiled after Rig Veda. All
these later Vedic texts were compiled in upper Gangetic region. These later
Vedic texts are associated with PGW Iron phase (PGW i.e. Painted Grey
Ware is typical pottery of Vedic age). Copper was one of the first metals
to be used by Vedic people. Iron for the first time is mentioned as “shyam
ayas” in Yajur Veda.
• Kurus occupied Delhi and upper portion of doab called Kurukshetra.
Kurus joined Panchala. Kuru Panchala set up capital at Hastinapur (District
Meerut). After Mahabharata war, Hastinapur was flooded and the remnants
of Kuru clan moved to Kaushambhi near Allahabad. Panchala kingdom
was famous for its philosopher kings of Upanishads and Brahmana
theologians.
• Towards the end of later Vedic period (around 600 BC), the Vedic people
spread east to Koshala in eastern UP and Vidiha in north Bihar. The Vedic
people succeeded in the second phase of their expansion because of iron
weapons and horse drawn chariots.
• Agriculture was the chief means of livelihood in later Vedic period.
Ploughing by wooden ploughshare was there in later Vedic period. The
Shatpatha Brahmana speaks about ploughing rituals at length. For first
time Vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in doab. Rice is called
vrihi in Vedic text. Wheat was called Godhuma, and was chief crop.
• Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later Vedic people to live a
settled life, but the peasants could not produce surplus and thus could
not contribute much to the rise of the towns. People lived in mud brick
houses or in wattle & daub houses erected on wooden poles. Though word
Nagars is used in later Vedic texts, there was only faint beginning of towns
towards end of late Vedic period e.g. Hastinapur and Kaushambhi.
• Settlements in later Vedic times
 Kuru Panchala Area = West UP and Delhi
 Madra Area = Punjab and Haryana
 Matsya = Rajasthan

Political Organization

• The term Rashtra indicating territory first appeared in this period.

Popular assemblies lost their importance and royal power increased at
their cost. Vidhata completely disappeared in later Vedic times. Character
of sabha and Samiti also changed. Women were no longer allowed in
sabha (shows deterioration of condition of women).
• Tribal authority tended to become territorial. Raja received voluntary
presents called “bali.” Kings influence was strengthened by rituals
 Rajasuya : To confer supreme power on him
 Ashvamedha : Horse sacrifice
 Vajapeya : Chariot race in which king’s chariot was
made to win
• During this period, collection of taxes became common. Taxes and tributes

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 were deposited with officer called Sangrhitri. But even in later Vedic
times, the king did not possess a standing army.

Social Organization

• Society was divided into Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

The upper three Varna were known as ‘Dvijas’ or twice born. All the higher
3 Varnas were entitled to Upanayana or investiture with the sacred
thread. Shudras were not allowed Upanayana and recitation of Gayatri
mantra. However, sometimes public rituals connected with coronation of
king in which Shudras participated.
• Growing cult of sacrifice added to the power of Brahmanas. Brahmanas
were one of the 16 priestly classes but gradually emerged most dominant.
Vaishyas constituted the common people assigned producing functions
such as agriculture etc. They were the only tribute payer in later Vedic
period.
• Certain sections of artisans such as rathakara or chariot maker enjoyed a
high status and were entitled to sacred thread ceremony.
• Women were generally given lower position. However, Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad shows how Gargi confronted even the sage Yajnavalkya.
• Institution of Gotra which was exogamous, appeared in Later Vedic times.
• Ashrams as 4 stages of life were not well established in Vedic times. Only
first 3- Brahamachari, Grihastha, Vanprashtha mentioned in Chandogya
Upanishad.

Gods, Rituals, and Philosophy

• Indra and Agni lost their former importance. Prajapati Brahma (the
creator) came to occupy the supreme position.
• Minor gods of Rig Veda like Rudra (god of animals) also became important.
Some social orders had their specific gods e.g. Pushan (looked after cattle)
was regarded as god of Shudras.
• Signs of idolatry appear in Later Vedic period. Sacrifices and rituals
became important and assumed public and domestic character. Sacrificer
was known as Yajmana.

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Jainism, Buddhism, Hindu Schools of
Philosophy

• 6th century BC was the period of great intellectual and spiritual tumult and
gave rise to many sects, Jainism and Buddhism were the most important
of them. There were many causes of rise of heterodox sects -
 Varna divided society, Kshatriyas reacted strongly against the
ritualistic domination of the Brahmanas. Buddha and Mahavira both
were Kshatriyas.
 New Agricultural Economy, The iron ploughshare required the use
of bullocks. However, indiscriminate killing of cattle in Vedic sacrifices
created a hurdle in progress of agriculture.
 Coins facilitated the trade and commerce, which added to the
importance of Vaishyas. Vaishyas ranked third in Varna system, were
looking for some religion which would improve their position.

GAUTAMA BUDDHA (563 BC–483 BC) AND BUDDHISM

• Buddha was born as Siddhartha in 563 BC in Shakya Kshatriya family

in Lumbini in Nepal near Kapilavastu (identified with Piprahwa). He was a
contemporary of Mahavira.
• His father was Suddhodhan, an elected ruler of Kapilavastu; and his mother
was Mahamaya or Maya, a Devadaha (small town in Shakya) princess. He was
married to Yasodhara or Subhadraka or Bhadda Kachchana at the age of 16.
His son was Rahula. He passed away at age of 80 in 483 BC at Kusinagar in
eastern UP. This is known as Mahaparinirvana.
• Buddha left home at an age of 29. This departure is called ‘The Great
Renunciation’. Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramputa were his two teachers.
He attained the supreme knowledge at an age of 35 at Bodhgaya under a
Pipal tree, and became to be known as Buddha (enlightened one) or Tathagata
(attained truth) or Sakya-Muni (of Sakya clan).
• His first sermon was at the deer park (Isipatana) in Sarnath in Banaras. This
sermon is called ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartana’. Buddha set in motion the Wheel
of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with
whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha,
formed the first Sangha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first
formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) was completed.
• Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisara. The
emperor accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of
many Buddhist Vihāras.

Doctrines of Buddhism

• Buddha taught 4 ‘Noble Truths’ (Arya Satya) – 1. The world is full of

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 sorrows, 2. Cause of sorrows is desires, 3. If desires are conquered,
nirvana will be attained (free from cycle of birth and death), and 4. A
person should follow the middle path i.e. Madhya Marg (avoid excess of
both luxury and austerity).
• Buddha recommended 8-fold path (Ashtangika Marg) as the Madhya
Marg or madhyama pratipad -
(i) Right observation/ view (ii) Right determination/ intention
(iii) Right speech (iv) Right action
(v) Right livelihood (vi) Right exercise/ effort
(vii) Right memory/ mindfulness (viii) Right meditation
• Another doctrine is law of karma, its working, and transmigration of soul.
Like Jains, Buddha rejected the authority of Vedas. Buddha was agnostic
(neither accepts nor rejects existence of god).
• Monks were organised into Sangha, whose membership was open to all
– men or women – above 15 years of age with no caste restrictions. In
Sangha, election of President was done democratically by voting by means
of wooden sticks. Monasteries were opened for Monks to complete
their education and meditation. These developed into academic centres.
Davaraya or Posada was confession made by monk.
• Main items in social conduct are -
 Do not covet the property of others.
 Do not commit violence.
 Do not use intoxicants.
 Do not speak a lie.
 Do not indulge in corrupt practices.
• Three Ratnas of Buddhism -
1. Buddha
2. Sangha
3. Dharma
• Once enrolled, members of the Buddhist Church had to take vow of –
 Continence
 Poverty
 Faith

Buddhist President Significance

Council
I Mahakashypa Purpose was to compile a religious doctrine
483 BC (dhamma) and a monastic code (Vinaya).
During king Upali recited Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code
At Sattapanni Ajatasatru or rules of order) and Ananda recited Sutta
(Rajgriha) Pitaka (sermons on matters of doctrine &
ethics). Sutta Pitaka was divided into 5
parts- contains sayings of Buddha; Jataka
(551 stories of Buddha’s previous birth).
II Sabakami Division of Buddhism into Mahasanghikas &
383 BC orthodox Sthaviravadins (gave rise to many
During king schools incl. Theravada – became popular in
At Vaishali Kalasoka Sri Lanka). Theravada was believers in the
teaching of elders - an orthodox school.

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III M o g l i p u t t a Missionaries sent to different countries.
250 BC Tissa Third Pitaka Abhidhamma Pitaka added
(philosophical interpretation of earlier two
At Pataliputra D u r i n g Pitaka). Established Sthaviravada School.
Ashoka Sayings of Buddha now called Tripitaka (Pali-
canon).
IV Vasumitra Division into Mahayana (Sarvastivadins +
1st C AD Mahasanghikas) followers of Greater Vehicle,
D u r i n g and Hinayana followers of Lesser Vehicle.
At Kundalvana Kanishka Conducted in Sanskrit & not Pali. Codified
(Kashmir) Sarvastivadin doctrines into Mahavibhasa.

Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism

• For some time after Buddha, the Buddhists remained united but soon some
difference arose among them. These differences continued to become
wider and wider though every effort was made from time to time to patch
them up. During the reign of Kanishka these differences became so wide
that the Buddhist Sangha was divided into two separate sects—the
Hinayana and Mahayana. The Hinayana Buddhism was the old sect the
foundation of which was laid down by Buddha himself and the new sect
began to be known as the Mahayana Buddhism.
• There were many differences between these two sects; some of the most
important are the following:
 The people belonging to the Mahayana faith began to worship
Buddha as a God and they even made his idols for worship. However,
the people belonging to the Hinayana Buddhism still regarded Buddha
as a pious and great man and never indulged in idol-worship. They
believed in a religion without soul and God.
 Mahayana Buddhism began to lay much emphasis on faith while the
people of the Hinayana faith did not accept anything without testing it
on the touchstone of reason.
 The Mahayanists adopted Sanskrit and preached in it, while the
Hinayanists still preached in Pali, the local dialect of the common masses.
 In the Mahayana faith, much emphasis began to be laid on worship,
prayer, and ritualism while the people belonging to the older faith still
believed in the life of purity and self-denial.
 The ultimate goal of life for the “Neo-Buddhists” also changed. They
now began to strive for a place in “Swarga” or heaven in place of
getting “Nirvana” or freedom from the cycle of deaths and births. The
Hinayanists still clung to the older path shown by Buddha himself and
believed in the achievement of ‘Nirvana’ as the chief aim of their life.
 The followers of the Mahayana faith began to worship the “Bodhisattvas”
along with Buddha. The Bodhisattvas were those holy Buddhists who
had not as yet got Nirvana like Buddha but who were proceeding rapidly
towards it. In short they were Buddha in the making. The Hinayanists
worshipped neither Buddha nor his proto-types, i.e. Bodhisattvas.

• Mahayana Sect had two philosophical schools Madhyamika & Togachara.

The Sect arose out from erstwhile Mahasanghikas. In the sect, prominent
place given to the Bodhisattvas who were being of great kindness and
helped the humanity through their own suffering. They propounded salvation
for all (that’s why, called Greater Vehicle). Sukhavati is the Mahayana
heaven. They were associated with the concept of divine Buddhas
(Amitabh and Amitayus). Amitabh was Bodhisattva of infinite light. The

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 great Buddhist scholars like Aswaghosa, Asanga, and Vasuvandhu were
Mahayanists.
• Hinayana Sect believed in the original teachings of Buddha. It lost its
popularity in India. Its minor sects include Sautantrikas and Sammittiya. It
is associated with the concepts of Srvakayana, Arhatayana, and Pratyeka-
Budhay. It teaches the attainment of salvation for one-self alone (that’s
why, called Lesser Vehicle). It believed in salvation through self-discipline
and meditation.
• Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt) came into existence in 8th century in
eastern India under the patronage of the Palas. It was yogic and magical
in character. It believed in attaining salvation by acquiring the magical
power. The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras-wives of
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. There were also a lot of lesser divinities
called demons, such as Matangis, Yoginis, and Dakinis. Its ideals are 84
Siddhas: prominent among them are Padamsarnbhava of Padamakara
and Sarahapada.
• Other Schools of Buddhism include -
 Mahasanghikas (member of the great communities): Popular first in the
East then in the South.
 Sarvastivadin: Constituent of phenomenon is not completely short lived,
but exist forever in latest form.
 Avalokiteshwara: Who looks down, Bodhisats of kindness.
 Manjusri: Promotes understanding, bears a sword and a book,
Bodhisattvas of wisdom.
 Kasitigarbha: Deity of purification.
 Padampani: Lotus bearer.
 Maitreya: Future Buddha. Pot carrier.
 Prajnaparamita: Lord of mind.

Buddhist Expansion across Southern, Central & East Asia

• After division into Hinayana and Mahayana at 4th Buddhist council,

Mahayana spread to China, Japan etc. whereas Hinayana to Sri Lanka,
Burma, south-east Asia.
• During the time of Asoka’s reign, trade routes were opened through
southern India. Some of the merchants using these roads were Buddhists
who took their religion with them. Buddhism entered Sri Lanka during
this time. A Buddhist chronicle known as the Mahavamsa claims that
the ruler of Sri Lanka, Devanampiya Tissa, was converted to Buddhism
by Mahinda, Asoka’s son, who was a Buddhist missionary, and Buddhism
became associated with Sri Lanka’s kingship.
• After reaching Sri Lanka, Buddhism crossed the sea into Myanmar
(Burma). The records of a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim named Xuanzang
(Hsüan-Tsang, 602-664 CE) state that in the ancient city of Pyu (the
capital of the Kingdom of Sri Ksetra, present day Myanmar), a number of
early Buddhist schools were active.
• After Myanmar, Buddhism travelled into Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam,
and Laos, around 200 CE. The presence of Buddhism in Indonesia and the
Malay Peninsula is supported by archaeological records from about the 5th
century CE.
• Buddhism entered China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE): The
first Buddhist missionaries accompanied merchant caravans that travelled
using the Silk Road, probably during the 1st century BCE. The majority
of these missionaries belonged to the Mahayana school.
• From China, Buddhism entered Korea in 372 CE, during the reign of King

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 Sosurim, the ruler of the Kingdom of Koguryo, or so it is stated in official
records. There is archaeological evidence that suggests that Buddhism was
known in Korea from an earlier time.
• After 7th century, within Mahayana, Tantric practices called Tantrayana
or Vajrayana evolved to faster achieve Buddhahood. Vajrayana (based
on magic and mysticism) developed in East India and spread to Tibet,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Ladakh, Mongolia and Nepal.

Buddhist Scholars

• Emergence of Asoka was the turning point in the history of Buddhism.

Buddhism flourished not only in India, but in other countries also. Harsha
was the last Buddhist ruler, after whom, Buddhism declined rapidly. Palas
practiced Buddhism during medieval period. Between Asoka and Harsha,
there emerged a number of Buddhist scholars –
 Aswaghosa, a contemporary of Kanishka, wrote Buddhacharita, a
poetic biography of Buddha.
 Nagarjuna, a contemporary of Satavahana King Gautampiputra,
propounded Madhyamika School in 150 AD, popularly known as
Sunyavada.
 Asanga was an important teacher of Yogacara or Vijnanavada School.
 Vasubandhu wrote Abhidhammakosa, encyclopedia of Buddhism.
 Buddhaghosa wrote Visuddhimanga, a key to Tripitaka.
 Dinnaga founded Buddhist logic.
 Dharmakriti is known as Kant of India due to his genius.

Buddhist Scriptures

• Nagarjuna developed Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata (emptiness or

zero - what we perceive is illusion, associated with theory of relativity).
He proved that everything is void, in a small text called Madhyamika-
karika. Aryadeva, the disciple of Nagarjuna, was a great exponent of this
school.
• The Buddhist scriptures in Pali language, known as Tripitaka or
Threefold Basket or Pali-canon, consist of Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and
Abhidhamma Pitaka. In Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavagga or the Great Section
talks about rules for admission, while Chullavagga or Smaller Section talks
about duties of monks.
• Sutta Pitaka is the largest & most important, consisting of 5 groups
called Nikaya – Digha (long sermons & last speeches of Buddha),
Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka (15 essential books for
understanding Buddhism).
 Of the 15 books, important ones are – Khuddaka Path (for youngsters
when they join sangha), Dhammapada (Verses on Virtue garnered from
sayings from Buddha – one of the great religious texts), Suttanipata
(gives info about socio-religious conditions of Buddha’s time), Jataka
(500+ stories), Bhuddhavamsa (talks about 24 Buddhas who preceded
before Gautama), Theragatha (India’s greatest religious poetry), and
Therigatha (hymns of nuns).
• Abhidhamma Pitaka has 7 books on Buddhist philosophy, ethics,
psychology, & metaphysics. Dhammasangani is most important.
• Apart from these, there are other Pali Books, which are not part of Tripitaka.
Bulk of Buddhist literature in Pali belongs to Hinayana School, and the Pali
canon are spoken as Hinayana Canon. These include –
 Milindapanho (questions of Menander): An account of the discussion

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 between Greek-Bactrian king Menander or Milinda and the Buddhist
monk Nagasena.
 Lalitavistara: Mahayana text containing biography of Buddha in Gatha
language (Sanskritized Prakrit).
 Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle) written in Sri Lanka, has no literary
merit; but Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) written by monk Mahanama,
contains passages of beauty and vigour written in Sri Lanka in 500
AD. It tells about history of Buddhism in Ceylon. Culvamsa (lesser
chronicle) contains a succession of monks down to the kingdom of
Kandy in Sri Lanka to the British. These three are also called Ceylon
Chronicles, telling us about history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and the
island’s socio-political life.
• Apart from Pali language, there are texts in Sanskrit, which was adopted
by Mahayana Buddhists. A few Sanskrit texts belong to Hinayana also.
These include –
 Praja-Praramita is the most important Mahayana philosophical work
dealing with the notion of Sunya or nothingness.
 Sadharma-Pundarika: Mahayana text counting a long series of
dialogues of considerable literary merit – sermons delivered by a
transfigured and glorified Buddha.
 Sukhavati-Vyuha: Mahayana text describing the glories of Amitabh
and for paradise.
 Avatamsaka: teachings given by Buddha after enlightenment. Contains
doctrine of ‘interpenetration’.
 Vajrachhedika (diamond sutra): expounds the Mahayana doctrine of
Sunyata.

Buddhist Architecture

• Barhut Stupa, 200 BC.

• Sanchi, 300 BC.
• Amaravati.
• Sarnath.
• Nalanda.

Buddhist Caves

• Barbara caves-Oldest rock-cut caves.

• Bhoja caves-Oldest caves in Deccan.
• Karle Chaitya – Earliest ornate rock-cut caves.
• Nasik.
• Kanheri.

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Buddhist Terminology
• Pratyeka Buddhas: Beings who • Skandhakas: Monastic rules.
have attained enlightenment • Poshadha: Fortnightly meeting
without guidance but have not in Sanghas.
taught it to the world. • Siddha: Perfected being in
• Arhat: Who that has achieved Vajrayana.
Nirvana. • Sakra: Gold identical with Indra
• Bodhisattva: A being about to used by the monks.
become Buddha shows charity and • Sangha: Buddhist order.
helper of man. • Vihāras: Buddhist monastery.
• Sramanas/Bhikshu: Buddhist • Pravajya: Initial ordination for
monks. old and experienced monks.
• Upasakas: Lay followers. • Sramanas: Buddhist monks, in
• Astamahasthanas: Eight holy general.
places. • Upajjhaya: Spiritual leader.
• Prajne Praramita: Female deity of • Sanketas: Four noble truths.
perfection and insight associated • Upasotha/Roya: Days of fast on
with Mahayana. full moon, new moon, and two
• Anatta: Soullessness. quarter moon days in a month.
• Samnera: Buddhist monks before • Chaitya: Temples of Buddhists.
being introduced into sangha as • Pratimoksha: Rules of 150
full-fledged member. articles (a part of Vinay Pitaka).
• Praramita: Ten percepts (vows)
observed by monks.

Buddhist Philosophy

• Yegachara or Vijnanavada was founded by Maitreya Nath around 400

AD. The greatest exponents were Asanga and Vasuvandhu, besides Dinaga
and Dharmakriti. Important text is Sutralankara by Asanga. It looks
upon the world as illusion as is the product of mind or consciousness;
the entire world originates from a kind of cosmic consciousness. The only
reality is Tathata (suchness) or Dharmadhatu, equivalent to Sunyata of
Madhyamika School.
• Sautantrikas philosophy: Knowledge of the outside world is only a
feasible inference.
• Samitiyas philosophy rejected the doctrine of soulnessness. It postulated
the existence of a kind of soul in the Pudgala or person. The soul passes
from life to life.
• Lokottaravadin was one of the early Buddhist schools according to
Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and
others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahasanghikas.
It was based on the concept of Lokottara. Buddha in this school is
supernatural Buddha.
• Pudgalavadin was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group
of Nikaya Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vātsīputrīyas) that arose
from the Sthavira nikāya. The school is believed to have been founded by
the elder Vātsīputra in the third century BCE. They were a widely influential
school in India and became particularly popular during the reign of emperor
Harshavardhan (606 - 647 CE). Harsha’s sister Rajyasri was said to have
joined the school as a nun.
• Shahajnyana: School of tantric Buddhism.
• Anekantwada: The doctrine that an object of knowledge is of infinite

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 characteristics.
• Nayavada: The philosophy which suggestion postulates that an individual
understands an object of knowledge through a particular point of view.
• Saptabhangi Nyaya: According to it, there are seven points of view to
understand an object of knowledge.
• Syadvada: According to it understanding of an object of knowledge is
conditional and true in a way, so one should be cautious and use that
before any statement.
• Astasaharika Prajnaparamita: A work of Mahayana describing the
spiritual perfections of the Bodhisattvas.
• Madhyamika Karika: Basic text of the Madhyamika School written by
Nagarjuna.
• Sutralankara: Earliest text of the Yogacara School written by Asanga.
• Lankavatara Sutras: A legendary text of Yogacara.
• Valpulya Sutra: Text of Mahayana, contains expanded sermons of Buddha
written in Sanskrit.
• Abhidham Makossa: Commentary of Vibhasha by Vasuvandhu.
• Visudhimarga: Written by Buddhaghosa.
• Kathavastu: A work of the third century BC.
• Sutra Vibhanga: Commentary on Pratimoksha Sutra.
• Dhammasangani Pattana: The most important canon of Sarvastivadins.
• Jnana Prasthanal Kavya Sastra: The most important canon of
Sarvastivadins.
• Tantras: The religious book of Vajrayana.
• Prajnaparamita Karika: Written by Nagarjuna.
• Buddhacharita: Biography of Buddha, written by Ashvagosha.
• Sraddhotpada Sastra: Written by Ashvagosha.
• Vibhasha: Commentary on Jnan-Prasthana.

Five great Events of Buddha’s life and their symbols

Birth Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation Horse
Nirvana Bodhi Tree
First Sermon Dharmachakra or Wheel
Parinirvana or Death Stupa

Importance and Influence of Buddhism

• Buddhism made impact on society by keeping its doors open to women

and Shudras.
• Boosted cattle wealth of the country by preaching non-violence. Buddhist
text Suttanipata calls cattle as Annada, Vannada, and Sukhda (giver
of food, beauty, and joy).
• Buddhism developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture.
Place of superstition was taken by logic and promoted rationalism among
the people.
• In the first three centuries of AD by mixing Pali with Sanskrit, Buddhists
created a new long – Hybrid Sanskrit. In medieval ages, works in
Apabrahmsa.
• Buddhist monasteries developed as great centres of learning e.g. Nalanda
and Vikramshilla (Bihar) and Valabhi (Gujarat).
• The first human statues worshipped in India were probably those of
Buddha e.g. Barhut and Sanchi (MP), Gaya (Bihar).

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Causes of Rise of Buddhism

• Buddhism does not recognize the existence of soul. This was revolutionary
in the history of Indian religion.
• It was not enmeshed in the clap-trap of philosophical discussion; hence
appealed to common people.
• It won the support of lower orders as it attacked the Varna System.
• Use of Pali, the language of people, contributed to the spread of Buddhism.

Causes of Decline of Buddhism

• Buddhism was inspired by the spirit of reform but eventually it succumbed

to rituals and ceremonies it once denounced.
• It became victim of orthodox religion against which it had fought in the
beginning.
• Buddhist monks were cut off from the people’s life and the mainstream.
• Gave up Pali language and took the Sanskrit.
• Rich endowments and donations made monasteries wealthy e.g., Nalanda
collected revenue from 200 villages. Monasteries were occupied by ease
loving people and become centres of corrupt practices, which Buddha
had strictly prohibited. For their riches the monasteries were attacked by
Turkish invaders.
• Persecution by followers of other religions - Brahman ruler Pushyamitra
Sunga is said to have persecuted the Buddhist; Huna King Mihirkula,
worshipper of Shiva, killed hundreds of Buddhists; Shaivite Shashanka of
Gauda cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya.
• By Twelfth century AD, Buddhism practically disappeared from India.

VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA (540 BC – 468 BC) AND JAINISM

• Jainism, one of the oldest religions of the world, traces its history through
a succession of 24 propagators known as Tirthankaras, the first being
Rishab Nath (mentioned in Rig Veda, along with Arishtanemi - another
Tirthankara), and the last being Mahavira. Vishnu Purana and Bhagvat
Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. Not much is
known to us about first 22 Tirthankaras except Parshvanath from Banaras,
who was the 23rd Tirthankara. He was the son of king of Banaras Asvasena.
• Parshvanath propagated four great vows - Do not commit violence/
non-injury (Ahimsa – utmost importance), do not tell a lie/ truthfulness
(Satya), do not steal (Asateya), and do not acquire property/ non-
possession (Aparigraha). To these, Mahavira added the fifth one - Observe
continence (Brahamcharya). These are known as the Five Doctrines
of Jainism. These are five Mahavratas of Jainism; when followed by
lay worshipper they are called Anuvratas. While Parshvanath asked his
followers to cover upper and lower parts of the body, Mahavira discarded
clothes all together.
• Tirthankaras are also known by their symbols – Rishab (Bull), 2nd – Ajita
(elephant), 22nd – Arishtanemi (Conch shell), 23rd – Parshvanath (hooded
snake), and 24th – Mahavira (lion).
• Mahavira was born in 540 BC at Kundagram (north Bihar near Vaishali).
His father was Siddhartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan and mother
was Trishala (Trishala was sister of Lichchavi chief Chetaka, whose
daughter was married to Bimbisara). He passed away at an age of 72 years
in 468 BC by self-starvation (Sallekhana), at a place called Pavapuri
near modern Rajgir, Bihar. He was married to Yashoda and had a daughter

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 – Annoja.
• He abandoned the world at age of 30. After 12 Years, he attained
omniscience (Kaivalya) – state of knowing everything, under a Sal tree
near Jrimbhikagrama. Because of this conquest (he conquered misery and
happiness through Kaivalya), he is known as Jina i.e. the conqueror, and
his followers are known as Jainas; and Mahavira (the great hero). His
followers are also called Nirgranthas (free from fetters). He is also known
as Vira, Sanmati, and Nataputta (ancient texts refer him as son of Natta,
his clan of origin).

Teachings of Jainism

• Jainism recognized the existence of gods but placed them lower than
Jina. They rejected the authority of Vedas, Vedic rituals and Brahmin
supremacy.
• Mahavira regarded all objects possess life and feel pain. Jainism
prohibited war & even agriculture for its followers because both involves
killing of living beings. Hence, Jainas mainly confined themselves to trade
and mercantile activities.
• Jainism did not condemn the Varna system. According to Mahavira – Man
is born according to deeds (Karma) of his previous birth (transmigration
of soul). Through pure and meritorious life, members of the lower castes
can attain liberation.
• It advocated austere and simple life with the ultimate aim of Kaivalya
(nirvana or moksha). It mainly aims at the freedom from worldly bonds
through Right faith, Right action, and Right knowledge. These are called
Triratna of Jainism. However, no ritual is necessary for such liberation.
• The three jewels of Jainism or Triratna are also called Jain ethical code.
These include –
 Right faith/ perception (Samyak darshana): see, hear, feel things
properly, avoid preconceptions and superstitions.
 Right knowledge (Samyak jnana): it involves accurate & sufficient
knowledge of five substances and nine truths of universe. Right
knowledge includes sensory knowledge (Mati Gyan), study knowledge
(Srut Gyan), remote knowledge (Avadhi Gyan), mind reading knowledge
(Telepathy or Man Prayaya Gyan), and Omniscience (Kewalya Gyan).
 Right conduct (Samyak Charitra): live life according to Jain ethical
rules, avoiding harm to living beings, and freeing from attachment.

Jaina Philosophy

• There are two kinds of objects – Jivas (souls), and Ajivas (non-souls). The
world was never created. It is eternal.
• Instead of believing in God, they believe in existence of perfected souls
abiding in the highest region of the world with fully developed consciousness,
power, and bliss. This doctrine is called Anekantavada.
• Theory of Shyadvada is essential ingredient of Jaina philosophy. No
absolute denial or affirmation is possible because knowledge is relative.
Opposite statements and seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi) are
possible. Closely related to it is Nayavada (doctrine of viewpoints) which
shows seven ways of approaching an object.

Spread of Jainism

• Mahavira himself founded a Jaina Church with 11 disciples called

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 ganadharas (heads of schools). After Mahavira’s death, Arya Sudharman
became the first thera (pontiff of the church). Bhadrabahu was the
sixth thera who compiled Jaina Kalpasutra, and was a contemporary of
Chandragupta Maurya.
• Jainism admitted both men and women as followers. As Jainism did
not very clearly mark itself out of from the Brahmanical religion, it failed
to attract masses. Jainism spread into West and South India where
Brahmanism was weak.
• Further, there was a great famine after 200 years of death of Mahavira
in Magadha, which lasted for 12 years. Some Jainas under Bhadrabahu
migrated to south (Chandragupta Maurya also accompanied him and
spent last years of life as a Jaina ascetic), while others remained with
Sthulabahu in Magadha. After coming back, southerners criticized those
living in Magadha of violation of rules during famines.
• To sort out these differences, First Jaina council was called at Pataliputra.
But southerners boycotted it and refused to accept its decision, thus
dividing them into two:
1. Southerners under Bhadrabahu– Digambaras (sky-clad or naked).
2. Magadhan under Sthulabahu – Svetambaras (white-clad).
• In the later centuries, Samaiyas broke away from Digambaras, while
Terapantis from Svetambaras. Both the new groups renounced idol
worship.
• Svetambaras Jains believe that Tirthankaras can be men or women, and
say that Malli began her life as a princess; but Digambaras Jains believe
that women cannot be Tirthankaras and that Malli was a man.
• The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit language, instead adopted Prakrit of
common people to preach. Udayin, the successor of Ajatasatru was a
devout Jaina, and so were the Nanda rulers. It enjoyed the patronage
of king Kharavela of Kalinga. It flourished at Mathura during Kushana
period, and dominated the eastern India in the time of Harsha.
• Mathura and Sravana-Belagola in south became great centres of
Jaina activities. Royal dynasties of Gangas, Kadambas, Chalukyas, and
Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. Chalukyan king of Solanki, Siddharaja,
also known as Jayasimha professed Jainism.
• Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed their Mahapurana at the time of
Amoghvarsha, whose great Jaina work Ratnamalika became very popular.
• Epigraphic evidences for spread of Jainism in Karnataka is in 3rd Century
AD. Basadis were Jaina monastic establishment in Karnataka. Jainism
spread in Orissa in 4th century BC. In 1st & 2nd centuries BC, it also seemed
to have reached the Southern districts of Tamil Nadu.
• Jainism was revived in the 19th century by a number of
Svetambara reformers, most notably Atmaramji (1837-96). In the 20th
century, the Digambara movement was revitalized through the work of
Acharya Shantisagar.

Jaina Councils

• First Jaina council was called at Pataliputra under Sthulabahu in 3rd

Century BC. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas (sections) to replace
the lost 14 Purvas (old texts). Digambaras boycotted the council.
• Second Jaina Council was held at Valabhi in Gujarat in 5th Century AD
under Devardhi Kshamashraman (Svetambaras). It led to the final
compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

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Jaina Literature and Architecture

• Jaina Literature includes 14 Purvas (text of old Jain scriptures), 12

Angas (rules of conduct and history of Mahavira), 12 Upangas (associated
with each Angas myth, dogmas), 10 Prakirnas (doctrinal matters), 6
Chedasutras (rules for monks), 4 Mulasutras (valuable rules in the form
of maxims, dialogues), Niryuktis (commentaries on Angas), Kalpasutra
(History of Jainism from its birth written by Bhadrabahu), and Acharang
Sutras (oldest Jaina text containing monastic rules).
• Jaina literature was written in Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit, finally
compiled in 6th Century AD at Valabhi. Many regional languages developed
out of Prakrit, particularly Shauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi
language. They composed works in Apabrahmsa and prepared first
grammar.
• Important Jaina commentators were Haribhadra (9th Century AD),
Santisuri, Devendragani, and Abhayadeva who lived in 11th Century AD.
• Kathakosa is a rich mine of stories containing Jaina version of Nala-
Damayanti episode of Mahabharata. Prabandhas and Charitras are
extensive poetic literature. Trisastisalaka Purushacharita by Hemachandra
ranks Mahakavya among the Jainas. Digambaras styled Charitas as
Puranas.
• The most common sculptures were statues of Tirthankaras. Practically,
all images are of one class, and there are no distinguished styles in
different parts of the country. Jaina cave temples were smaller than those
of Buddhist.
• Hathigumpha caves of Kharavela and Udaigiri cave, both of Orissa,
belong to Jaina. Ellora caves of Maharashtra are excellent example of
Jaina architecture.
• The gigantic statues of Bahubali (called Gomatesvara) at Sravana
Belagola and Karkal in Mysore are among the wonders in the world.
Former is 56 feet high carved out of granite mass, erected in 982 AD
by Chamundaraya, minister of Ganga ruler, Rachamalla. Lohanipura
(Patna) image of Tirthankara belongs to Mauryan period.
• Jaina temples at Ranakpur, and Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, both in
Rajasthan are superb Jaina craftsmanship.
• Jaina possesses an extensive treasure of manuscript paintings drawn in
early western Indian style, sometimes called Gujarat Style or Jaina Style.
• Rock-cut caves at Badami and Rock-cut caves at Aihole have the image
of Jain Tirthankaras, which belong to early Chalukyan Period.
• Jain tower in the fort of Chittor, Moddbitri Temple at South India, and
Palithana Temple at Gujarat.

Contribution of Jainism

• Jainas made first serious attempt to mitigate evils of Varna order &

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 ritualistic Vedic religion.
• Use of people’s language to preach their doctrines (Prakrit) was very
effective. Adoption of Prakrit to teach helped growth of this language
and its literature. Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit e.g.
Shauraseni–Marathi grew out of this.
• Jainas composed earliest important works in Apabrahmsa & composed its
first grammar.
• They contributed to the growth of Kannada.
• Initially Jainas were not image worshipers, but later began to worship
Mahavira and 23rd Tirthankara.
• They contributed substantially to the art and architecture in medieval
times.

Jain Terminology

• Basadis: Jaina Monastery • Karma Pudgala: Karmik forces

• Kaivalya: Enlightenment • Asarva: Entry of Karma to soul
• Jaina: Conqueror • Bandha: Infiltration of karma into soul
• Jainism: Religion of conqueror • Bhava-Bandha: Ideal bondage
• Nirgranthas: Free from all • Dravya-Bandha: Material bondage
bonds (actual influx of Karma)
• Karma: Accumulated effect of • Samvara: Cessation of influx of Karma
the actions done in past • Nirjara: Exhausting of existing karma
• Ganadharas: 11 close disciples/ • Kaivalya: Ultimate knowledge
heads of schools • Siddha-Shila: Top of the world, where
• Siddhas: Devotees the soul resides in bliss
• Tirthankara: One who is about • Kasaya: Four passions-Krodha (anger);
to attain enlightenment lobha (greed), mana (pride) (false)
• Acharya: Head of ascetic group • Sallekhana - Voluntary death, also
• Upadhya: Teacher/saint known as Samlehna, Santhara, Samadhi
• Sadhu: General term for the Marana. It is the religions practice
followers of Jainism (ethical code of conduct) in Jainism of
• Pajjusana: Jaina festival voluntarily fasting to death by gradually
• Anupreksha: 12 religious topics reducing the intake of food and liquid.
• Gunasthanas: 14 stages of soul • The moving Jain Monks are called
• Utsarpini: Period of decline/ ‘Sharmanas’.
deterioration

HINDU SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

• Hinduism has six different schools of philosophy: Samkhya, Nyaya,

Vaisheshika, Yoga, Purva-mimamsa, and Uttara-mimamsa (also called
Vedanta).

Samkhya

• Samkhya is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical

systems in Hinduism founded by Kapila Muni. Its philosophy regards the
universe as consisting of two eternal realities: Purusha and Prakriti.
• The Purushas (souls or self or mind) are many, conscious, and devoid of
all qualities. They are the silent spectators of Prakriti (matter or nature
or energy), which is composed of three Gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas
and tamas (steadiness, activity, and dullness).
• When the equilibrium of the Gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves.
This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and Prakriti.
• Liberation (Kaivalya), then, consists of the realization of the difference

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 between the two. This was a dualistic philosophy. However, there are
differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In
the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In
Samkhya, however, it is between the self (Purusha) and matter, and the
latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as “mind.”

Nyaya

• The Nyaya School of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the

Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Gautama Muni (not to be confused with
the founder of Buddhism), also known as Akshapada, in 2nd century BC.
• The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology.
This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted
by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same
way that Western science, religion and philosophy can be said to be largely
based on Aristotelian logic.
• However, Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers
believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release
from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of
knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions.
• According to the Nyaya School, there are exactly four sources of
knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison, and testimony
(PICT). Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be
either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to
identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process
coming up with a number of explanatory schemes.
• Nyaya School shares some of its principles with Buddhism; however,
Buddhism believes that there is neither a soul nor self, while Nyaya
considers that both exist with liberation (moksha) as a state of removal of
ignorance.
• In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary
Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is
the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

Vaisheshika

• The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada in 6th
Century BC, postulates an atomic pluralism. It says that all objects in the
physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms (paramanu).
Brahma is the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these
atoms.
• Kanada taught that there are 7 padarathas (ontological entities) and
understanding of these leads to self-realization – Dravya (substance),
Gunas (quality), Karma (movement), Samanya (generality), Vishesha
(specialty), Samavaya (inherence), and Abhava (non-existence). This
marked the beginning of physics in India.
• Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya,
the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical
theories.
• In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika School differed from the
Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid
knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only perception and inference
elements.

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Yoga

• The Yoga system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya
philosophy. Its primary text is the Bhagavad Gita, which explores the
four primary systems.
• This system was founded by Hiranyagarbha and later systematized &
propagated by Patanjali. The sage Patanjali wrote an extremely influential
text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the Yoga Sutra. He gives
eight steps – called astanga (eight limbed) yoga – yama, niyama, asana,
pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi.
• The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school
not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its
metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds
Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara
is the only aspect of Purusha that has not become entangled with Prakriti.
• It also utilizes the Brahman/ Atman terminology and concepts that are
found in depth in the Upanishads, thus breaking from the Samkhya school
by adopting Vedantic monist concepts.
• The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining
physical and mental control and mastery over the personal, body and
mind, self, until one’s consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow
awareness of one’s real Self (the soul, or Atman) (as distinct from one’s
feelings, thoughts and actions).
• Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, nirvana, and
Samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing
other than the infinite Brahman.

Purva Mimamsa

• Its main text is sutras of sage Jaimini, a disciple of Veda Vyasa. Sabar
Swami and Kumarila Bhatta are also associated with this philosophy.
• The main objective of the Purva (“earlier”) Mimamsa School was to
establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school’s most
valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic
interpretation.
• Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that
it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief,
they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the
performance of Vedic rituals.
• The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other
schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action.
They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued moksha
(release, liberation) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from
desire and selfishness. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for
liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in
accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation
(rather than liberation).
• At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa School changed its views in this
regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and Mukti (freedom).
Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its
constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity).
• While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its
influence can be felt in the life of the practicing Hindu. All Hindu ritual,
ceremony, and religious law are influenced by it.

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Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta

• The Uttara (“later”) Mimamsa School, more commonly known as

the Vedanta, concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within Vedas) rather than
on the ritualistic & sacrifice injunctions of the Brahmanas. It focuses on
meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than rituals and
rites.
• Vedanta is accepted as the apex of all six schools of Hindu philosophy as
it deals with absolute truth and explains realty more consistently. It is the
only school which has maintained its relevance in modern era along with
Yoga.
• While the traditional Vedic ‘karma kanda’ (ritualistic components of
religion) continued to be practiced through the Brahmins to Self-knowledge,
more knowledge (jnaan) centered understandings began to emerge.
• The most influential Vedantic thought, based on the Upanishads, considers
the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and
indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman –
Paramatma.
• The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as 1500
BCE. While 13 or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over one hundred
exist and they do not form a unified system. Their systematization into one
coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarayana, in a work called the
Vedanta Sutra, also known as Brahma Sutra.
• The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers
from both East and West, from Schrödinger, Thoreau and Emerson
to Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh, to be
superlatively beautiful in poetry and rich in philosophy.
• This Mimamsa School is further sub-grouped into 6 sub-schools, each
interpreting the texts in its own way.

Advaita (monism)
• It is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. It literally means
‘not two’ or non-dualistic. It emphasizes on the indivisibility of the
self (atman) from the Whole (Brahman). Its followers seek liberation
by acquiring knowledge of atman and Brahman. Knowledge of Brahman
destroys Maya (illusion) that covers the Real (Brahman).
• Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankara (788-820 AD) who
systematized the works of preceding philosophers including his own
teacher Gaudapada. His masterpiece commentary on Brahma Sutra is
Brahmasutrabhasya, a fundamental text of Vedanta School of Hinduism.
• Shankara organised Hindu monks under four Mathas (monasteries) with
headquarters at Dvaraka in west, Jagannath Puri in east, Shringeri in
south, and Badrikashrama in north.
• Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was
Saguna (with attributes) or Nirguna (without attributes). Belief in the
concept of Saguna Brahman gave rise to a proliferation of devotional
attitudes and more widespread worship of Vishnu and Shiva. Advaita
Vedanta is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is Nirguna
Brahman. The Vishistadvaita and Dvaita schools believed in an ultimately
Saguna Brahman.

Vishistadvaita (qualified monism)

• Ramanuja (1040 – 1137 AD) was the foremost proponent of the concept
of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate

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 reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter).
• He contends that the three courses (Prasthana Traya), namely, Bhagavad
Gita, Upanishads, and Brahma Sutras are to be interpreted in a way that
shows this unity in diversity.
• Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are
dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of
Ultimate reality, Ramanuja’s system is known as qualified non-dualism or
attributive monism – Brahman alone exists, but is characterized by
multiplicity. It believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity.

Dvaita (dualism)
• Dvaita or Bhedavada or Tattvavada School was founded by Madhvacharya
(1238 - 1317). Like Ramanuja, he identified god with Vishnu, but his
view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic)
Vedanta. He established Krishna temple at Udupi.
• Dvaita stresses strict distinction between God (Brahman) and the
individual souls (jivatman). The individual souls are not created by God,
but depend on God for their existence.

Dvaitadvaita (dualistic monism)

• Founded by Nimbarka, a Vaishnava Philosopher, who hailed from Andhra
region. It is also known as Bhedabheda vada.
• According to him, there are three categories of existence – Chit
(individual soul or jiva), Achit (Jagat), and Ishvara.
• According to it, God transformed himself into world and soul. This world
and soul are different from God. But they could survive with the support
of God only. God exists by himself while other two dependent on him for
their existence.

Shuddadvaita (purely non-dualism)

• Founded by Vallabhacharya (1479 – 1531 AD). For him God was Sri
Krishna. God and soul are not distinct, but one. The stress was on pure
non–dualism.
• His philosophy came to be known as Pushtimarga and school was
Rudrasampradaya. Souls and Nature are not illusion but real.

Acintya Bhedabheda (inconceivable oneness and difference)

• Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 AD), a devotee of Krishna.
He proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by
stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda)
from god, and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable
in devotion.

Charvaka School

• Charvaka, originally known as Lokāyata and Brhaspatya, is the ancient

school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception,
empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge,
embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism,
and supernaturalism.
• Brihaspati is the founder of this school of thought. It deals with materialistic
philosophy. According to it, death is the end of human and pleasure is the
ultimate object in life.

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Mahajanapadas, Mauryans & Post-
Mauryans

AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

• During early Vedic period, there existed several Jana (ethnic groups) or
tribes of Indo-Aryans or non-Aryans which kept fighting among themselves
for cows, sheep, and green pastures. Towards the end of Vedic period,
they coalesced to become Janapadas.
• The 6th century BC was the period of state formation in eastern UP and
Bihar. Iron weapons and surplus created by new iron agricultural
economy greatly strengthened the position of princes.
• In age of Buddha (6th century), as per Anguttara Nikaya, there were
16 Mahajanapadas (kingdoms or oligarchic republics). Another Buddhist
text, Digha Nikaya mentions only 12, instead of 16. There were 4 major
Monarchies – Magadha, Avanti, Koshala, and Vatsa.

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Mahajanapadas Capital Govt. Type Significance
They covered Bihar and some
Anga Champa Monarchy parts of Bengal. Captured by
Bimbisara – his only conquest.
Kusinagar & Buddha died at Kusinagar. Lord
Mallas Republican
Pavapuri Mahavira died at Pavapuri.
Confederacy of 8 clans- Lichhavis
Vajji Vaishali Republican
most powerful.
Earlier most powerful, but
Kashi Varanasi Monarchy conquered by Koshala. Leading
textile centre.
First mentioned in Atharva Veda in
Rajgriha, later
Magadha Monarchy derogatory terms for not following
Pataliputra
Varna system.
Koshala conquered tribal republic
of the Shakya of Kapilavastu
(home of Buddha). Lord Rama
was king in this dynasty. Later, it
Koshala Shravasti Monarchy
was ruled by King Prasenjit, a
contemporary of Buddha. His
sister was married to Bindusara
and Kashi was given in dowry.
Ruled by branch of Kuru who
Vatsa Kaushambhi Monarchy had shifted from Hastinapur and
settled down at Kaushambhi.
Main rival of Magadha.
Corresponds to modern day Malwa
and Madhya Pradesh. Its Capitals
stood on southern high road called
Mahisamati &
Avanti Monarchy Dakshinapatha from Rajgriha to
Ujjaini
Pratishthana. Pradyota of Avanti
was contemporary of Buddha.
Ajatasatru fortified Rajgriha to
protect from Pradyota.
According to Herodotus, it was
20th province of Achamaenid
Empire of Darius. Taxila was
Gandhara Taxila Monarchy renowned centre of learning
– Panini and Kautiliya were
students from here. It was part of
Uttarapath.
Avantipura, king of the Surasena
Surasena Mathura Republic was one of the chief disciples of
the Buddha.
Matsya at one time formed a part
of the Chedi kingdom, before its
Matsya Viratnagar Tribal polity
final absorption into the Magadhan
Empire.
It is considered as one of the most
ancient tribes of India. Sisupala, a
Chedi Shuktimati -
famous enemy of Krishna, was a
Chedi ruler.
Located in Maharashtra on banks
Potana or Podana
Assaka of Godavari. Only Mahajanapada
or Potali
in south.

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 Part of Uttarapath. It was 20th
Kamboja Rajpur Republic province of Achamaenid Empire of
Darius along with Gandhara.
Corresponds to modern Thanesar,
Kurus Indraprastha Monarchy Delhi, & Meerut. During Buddha,
ruled by titular chieftain Korayvya.
Adhichhatra or
Panchalas Chhatravati, and Republic Kanauj lies here.
Kampil

• In administration, most important feature was the rise of class of officials

called Mahamattras. Others included Ganaka (chief accountant),
Grama-bhojaka (revenue collecting authority), Shaulikika (Toll-officer),
Vyavaharika (Justice), Sena nayaka (Army), and Sarvarthaka (General
affairs). Bhaga was the most important source of state revenue.

MAGADHAN EMPIRE – THE MOST IMPORTANT MAHAJANAPADA

• The Mahajanapada of Magadha was ruled by Haryanka Dynasty (600-413

BC), followed by Shishunaga Dynasty, and Nandas (345-321 BC).
• Magadha came into prominence during the rule of Bimbisara of Haryanka
dynasty. Bimbisara (544-492 BC) was a contemporary of Buddha.
He was also called Seniya in Jain texts who describe him a disciple of
Mahavira. He captured the Mahajanapada of Anga and placed it under his
son Ajatasatru at its Capital Champa.
• Bimbisara strengthened his position by marriage alliances. His first wife
was the Princes of Koshala (Sister of Prasenjit), and second wife was
Chellana, a Lichchavi princes. His third wife was the daughter of chief of
Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations gave him enormous diplomatic
prestige.
• Magadha’s most serious rival Avanti fought Bimbisara but both became
friends. It happened when Chanda Pradyot Mahasena was ailing with
jaundice, Bimbisara sent him his royal physician Jivak to Ujjain.
• King of Gandhara, whom Pradyot fought unsuccessfully, sent an embassy
and a letter to Bimbisara. Thus through his conquests and diplomacy,
Bimbisara made Magadha the paramount power in 6th century.
• The capital of Magadha was at Rajgir or Girvaraja surrounded by five hills
and the openings were closed by stone walls was founded by Bimbisara.
• Bimbisara was killed and succeeded by his son Ajatasatru. He pursued
an aggressive policy of conquest and expansion. He used two new
weapons – War engine, which throw stones like catapult; and Chariot
fitted with mace for mass killing. He fought two wars -
 First war was against alliance of Koshala & Kashi. After a long war,
Ajatasatru won by manipulating king Prasenjit’s minister Dirghacharayan.
Thus, Ajatasatru added Kashi & Vaishali.
 Second war was fought against Vajjis led by Lichhavis of Vaishali.
 He faced strong rival from King Pradyota of Avanti. Avanti defeated
Vatsas and threatened Magadha.

• Ajatasatru was a contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira, both call

him as a close follower. He was succeeded by Udayin. Udayin built fort
on confluence of Ganga and Son at Pataliputra (Patna) and made it the
capital of Magadhan Empire.
• Udayin was succeeded by Shishunaga dynasty at Magadha. They
shifted, temporarily, their capital to Vaishali. Greatest achievement of

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 Shishunagas was the defeat of Avanti.
• Shishunagas succeeded by Nandas. Nandas’ greatest ruler was
Mahapadma Nanda. He was the first Nanda ruler, who acquired the names
Mahapadmapati (sovereign of an infinite host or of immense wealth)
according to the Puranas, and Ugrasena according to the Mahabodhivamsa.
Puranas describe him as Ekarat (sole sovereign) and sarva-kshatrantaka
(destroyer of all the Kshatriyas).
• He was the most powerful of all rulers of Magadha. He added Kalinga to
Magadha and brought image of Jina as trophy. Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharvela (Kalinga) mentions the conquest of Kalinga. It seems he also
added Koshala.
• Nandas are sometimes described as first empire builders of India.
Diodorus (Greek historian) and Quintus Curtius Rufus (Roman historian)
describe about their large army. Even Alexander was conscious of the
strength of Dhana Nanda.

Causes of Magadhan Success

• Enterprising and ambitious rulers e.g. Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma

Nanda.
• Advantageous geographical position – near iron deposits of Rajgir.
• Two capitals Rajgir and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic points.
• Rajgir was surrounded by group of 5 hills hence rendered impregnable.
Pataliputra occupied a pivotal position commanding communications on all
sides.
• Pataliputra at confluence of Ganga, Gandak, Son, and fourth river Ghagra
joins Ganga nearby. It was a true water-fort (Caldara).
• Magadha lay at the center of the middle Gangetic basin and had fertile soil.
• Princes of Magadha benefited from rise of towns and use of metal money.
• First time, elephants were used on large scale in wars by Magadha.
• Unorthodox Character of Magadhan People.

Society in 6th Century BC

• Buddhist texts and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi - a book on Sanskrit grammar

is an important source for 6th century State and social life. The 6th century
BC marks the beginning of second urbanization in India after Harappan
Civilization.
• The period saw the use of metal money. Nishka and Shatmana are
mentioned as coins in Vedic text but not used as coins. The coins were
punch-marked, mostly of silver but sometimes of copper.
• Archaeologically 6th century marks the beginning of distinctive type of
pottery called as Northern Black Polished Ware phase (NBPW).
• Probably nucleated village settlement having houses in one place and
farms in other started from 6th century. The transplantation of Paddy also
started. Use of iron led to development of agriculture. We see rise of new
class of rich peasants called Gahapatis. A rich Gahapati Anathapindika
gifted Buddha the Jetvana plot.

State in 6th Century BC

• The Buddhist text Digha Nikaya gives theory of origin of state similar to
social contract theory.
• Sabha and Samiti disappeared as it was not feasible in large territorial
kingdoms to hold regular meetings. In addition, they could not find place

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 for non-Vedic people living in large kingdoms. Their place was taken by
Parisha- small body of Brahmanas.
• There were tribal republics in the Indus basin and foothills of Himalaya.
They were in reality tribal oligarchies. The members of ruling clan belonged
to same Varna e.g. Kshatriya in Lichchavi. The members of ruling assembly
were called Raja. Unlike monarchy where there was standing army, in
republics, each raja had his own militia.
• Republics slowly disappeared in east due to rise of strong monarchies like
Magadha.

MAURYANS – THE FIRST EMPIRE (322-185 BCE)

• The important sources of Mauryan history are-

 The book Arthashastra, written by Kautiliya (or Chanakya or
Vishnugupta), a minister of Chandragupta. It seems to be compiled
over centuries, but Books II, III, and IV are considered to be relevant
to Mauryan age.
 Greek book Indica, written by Megasthenes. Though complete book
is not available, Indica is a collection of quotations of Megasthenes
taken from Greek authors.
 Mudra rakshasa, a drama written by Visakhadatta, also deals with
the machinations of Chanakya against Chandragupta’s enemies. It calls
Chandragupta as Nandanvaya (descendant of Nanda).
 But the most authentic Mauryan records are the decipherable inscriptions
issued by Ashoka.
• Its capital was Pataliputra. This was an extensive Iron Age historical
power. Archeologically, Mauryan Empire falls under Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was followed by Sunga dynasty at
Magadha.

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Chandragupta (320-298 BC)

• Chandragupta (or Sandracottos or Andracottus) overthrew the last Nanda

ruler Dhana Nanda, and established Mauryan Dynasty with the help of
Chanakya (a Brahmin teacher at Taxila).
• He moved to Northwest India and subdued the Greek Governor of
Alexander, Seleucus Nikator. He signed a treaty with him and entered
into marriage alliance. Chandragupta got in return 500 elephants, territory
consisting of eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and area west of the Indus.
Thus his Empire extended northwest beyond what was established by
Nandas.
• Megasthenes was sent as an ambassador to the Mauryan court. According
to Greek writers Plutarch and Justin – Chandragupta Mauryan overran the

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 country with 6 lakh men. Greeks influenced Mauryan art.
• Sohagaura copper plate inscription and Mahasthan inscription of his
time show provisions made at the time of famine.
• He embraced Jainism and accompanied Bhadrabahu, migrating to
Sravana Belagola near Mysore and died by fasting (Sallekhana) there.
He was the first to take title of Devampriya and Priyadarshi.

Sources Origin Of Chandragupta Maurya

Brahmanical sources (Puranas) Shudra (Chandragupta was born of Shudra
woman Mura).
Buddhist (Mahavamsa/ Kshatriya clan/ Shakya clan of Buddha.
Mahavamshatika)
Greek Lowly origin.

Bindusara (298-272 BC)

• Bindusara (or Simhasena) was a son of Chandragupta. He is also called as

Amitrochates by Greeks. He conquered the land between two seas i.e.
peninsular region. Only Kalinga remained hostile which was captured
by Asoka.
• He had good relations with Greek world. Greek ambassador Deimachus
Strabo was in his court.
• He made a request to Antiochus-I of Syria for (i) Sweet Wine (ii) Dry Fig
and (iii) Sophist. While first two were sent, sophist was not sent.
• He patronized Ajivikas in Buddhism (Chandragupta followed Jainism).

Ashoka (269-232 BC)

• Asoka served as the viceroy at Ujjain and suppressed a revolt at

Taxila (as per Buddhist text Divyavadana). There was war of succession
after Bindusara’s death. Asoka killed his 99 brothers, sparing only one
Vitashoka or Tissa, with the help of minister Radhagupta (as per Sri
Lankan Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa). Buddhist
literature state that Asoka was bad tempered and of a wicked nature.
• After coming to power, he expanded the boundaries of his empire, leaving
small portion in south. In extreme south, Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras,
and Keralaputras mentioned in Ashokan Inscription along with people of
Tamraparni or Sri Lanka (Rock edict II and XIII) as friendly neighbours.
He had friendly relation with Ceylon. Asoka’s daughter Sanghmitra and
son Mahendra, were sent as missionary to Ceylon.
• The conquest of Kalinga (lakhs of people were killed) was a pivotal event
in his life. As per 13th Rock Edict (Dhauli/ Tosali), Asoka foreswore
conquest by war (Bherighosa) and replaced it with conquest by Dharma
(Dhammaghosha). A 5-year old Buddhist monk – Nigrodha – changed
Asoka. Upagupta converted him to Buddhism.
• His 13th Major Rock Edict describes his conversion to Buddhism after
the Kalinga war. Ashoka captured Kalinga as it controlled land and sea
route to South. He did not convert immediately but only after more than 2
years, he became an enthusiastic supporter.
• Asoka’s Dhamma or Dharma was not a particular religious faith, but
an ethic of social conduct. It related to norms of social behaviour and
activities, created out of different religious faiths. It included various social
and animal welfare measures.
• Asoka used Dhamma Lippi (Prakrit in the Brahmi script) to describe his

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 own Edicts (an official proclamation issued by a person in authority).
The edicts describe in detail Asoka’s view about dhamma, an earnest
attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced.
These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and provide the
first tangible evidence of Buddhism. According to the edicts, the
extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the
Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
• There are more than thirty rock and pillar inscriptions as well as
boulders and cave walls spread all over sub-continent particularly on
important highways so that people could read them. These edicts were
first deciphered by British archaeologist and historian James Princep in
1837 in Brahmi referring to Devanama Piñatas.

• Although Buddhism as well as Gautama Buddha is mentioned, the edicts

focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious
practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism. These were located
in public places and were meant for people to read.
• In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved of the Gods”
(Devanampiya). The identification of Devanampiya with Ashoka was
confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915 by C. Beadon, a British
gold-mining engineer, at Maski, a village in Raichur district of Karnataka.
Another minor rock edict, found at the village Gujjara in Datia district of
Madhya Pradesh, also used the name of Ashoka together with his titles:
“Devanampiya Priyadarshi Asokaraja.”
• Languages used in edicts -
o In eastern part of the empire, Magadhi language in Brahmi script is
used. (Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
o In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in Kharoshti script is
used.
o Major Rock Edict XIII contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well.
• Asoka’s 14 major rock edicts -

Edict Talks about

Major Rock Edict
Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering.
I
Major Rock Edict Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas,
II Satyaputras and Keralaputras of South India.
Generosity to Brahmins. About Yukatas, Pradeshikas and
Major Rock Edict
Rajukas who would go every five years to different parts of
III
his empire to spread Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over
IV Bherighosa (sound of war).
Major Rock Edict About Dhamma Mahamattras. Talks about treating slave
V right.
Major Rock Edict King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About
VI welfare measures.

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Major Rock Edict
Tolerance for all religions.
VII
Major Rock Edict Asoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first
VIII Dhamma Yatra).
Major Rock Edict
Condemns popular ceremonies.
IX
Major Rock Edict Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and
X stresses on Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict
Elaborates on Dhamma.
XI
Major Rock Edict
Tolerance for all religions and sects.
XII
Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Asoka’s Dhamma
victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko),
Major Rock Edict Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka),
XIII Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus
(Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc. Sent
missions to 5 Hellenic (Greek) kings of west Asia.
Major Rock Edict
Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of country.
XIV

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• Minor Rock Edicts: Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the
country and in Afghanistan also. Ashoka uses his name only in four of
these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP), and
Nettur (AP).
• Pillar Edicts: There are seven pillar edicts.

Edict Talks about

Pillar Edict I Asoka’s principle of protecting his people.
Pillar Edict II Dhamma.
Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger
Pillar Edict III
among his subjects.
Pillar Edict IV Responsibilities of the Rajukas.
List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain
Pillar Edict V days. Another list which mentions animals that should never
be killed.
Pillar Edict VI Dhamma policy of the State.
Pillar Edict VII Asoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.

• The pillars of Asoka are dispersed throughout the subcontinent erected

and at least inscribed with edicts. Only 19 pillars with inscriptions and 6
with animal capitals (topmost member of the pillar) survive now.
• Two types of stones are used: spotted red & white sandstone (from
Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Chunar near
Varanasi). All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone). Many
pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons. The
pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions, and wheels and lotuses
which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.
• They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan),
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar),
Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). The following table gives the Edict number and
what it talks about.
o Sarnath, near Varanasi – polished sandstone with four Asiatic lions
back to back with an elephant, a horse, a bull, and a lion separated
by 24-spoked chariot wheels (Dharmachakra). It is India’s national
emblem with horse on left and bull on right. Asoka Chakra is on India’s
national flag. It has Schism edict.
o Others include Sanchi near Bhopal (four lions with Schism edict),
Rampurva in Bihar (2 pillars – bull with edict, and single lion without
inscription), Vaishali in Bihar (single lion without inscription), Lauriya-
Nandangarth & Lauriya-Araraj in Bihar (single lion with edicts), Sankissa
in UP (elephant capital), Khandhar in Afghanistan, Ranigat in Pakistan,
Delhi-Meerut & Delhi-Topra (both with edict, moved by Firuz Shah
Tughlaq from Meerut & Topra to Delhi), Allahabad in UP (with 6 edicts,
moved by Jahangir from Kaushambhi), Amravati in Andhra.
o Minor Pillar Inscriptions include – Lumbini in Nepal (original horse
capital as mentioned by Hsüan Tsang broke off by lighting) mentions
Asoka’s visit to this Buddha’s birthplace, and Nigali-Sagar in Nepal.

Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan Empire was divided into 5 provinces each under a prince.
The northern province-called Uttarapath had Taxila as its capital.

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 The western province-known as Avantipath had its capital in Ujjain.
Prachyapatha with its capital Tosali (Kalinga) formed the Eastern province
while Dakshinapatha with its capital Suvarnagiri was the southernmost
province. Central province, Magadha, with its capital at Pataliputra, was
the headquarters of the entire kingdom.
• The Mauryan government was a centralized vast bureaucracy in which
the nucleus was the King. The King was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose
members included-(i) The Yuvaraj, the crown prince (ii) The Purohita, the
chief priest (iii) The Senapati, the commander-in-chief of the army (iv) a
few other ministers. There were 18 Tirthas called Mahamattras or high
functionaries and 27 superintendents or Adhyakshas – concerned mostly
with economic function & some military duties also.
• Maintaining huge bureaucracy and large standing army involved heavy
expenditure. Hence, they undertook and regulated numerous economic
activities which brought profit. Mauryan state itself engaged in trade and
commodity production. State good (Rajapanya) were normally to be sold
by state servants but also sometimes by private. Bhaga– land tax was
the chief item of revenue. According to Indian sources, rate was 1/6th of
produce. As per Greek sources, rate was 1/4th of produce. In addition to it,
water cess was levied. Megasthenes mentions that Mauryans measured
land like in Egypt and inspected water channels.
• New settlements founded and decaying ones were rejuvenated by transfer
of population. Shudras for the first time were aided by the state to settle
as farmers. According to Arthashastra, a striking social development of
Mauryan period was employment of slaves in agricultural operations.
• According to Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman, Pushyagupta Vaishya,
Governor of Chandragupta, is said to have built a dam & irrigation work
across a river near Junagarh. Megasthenes mentions road connecting
Northwest India with Pataliputra. Mauryan punch-marked silver coins
(Pana) carry symbols of Peacock, hill and crescent.
• According to Megasthenes, the administration of Army was carried by
a board of 30 officers, divided into 6 committees each consisting of five
member. They are Army, Cavalry, Elephants, Navy, and Transport.

Amatyas The Secretaries

Sannidhata Chief treasury officer
Samaharta The collector general of revenue
Durgapala Governor of fort
Antapala Governor of the frontier
Akshapatala Accountant general
A new post created by Asoka, empowered with the dual
Dhamma
functions of propagating Dhamma and taking care of
Mahamattras
the common folk for their material well-being.
Kumaras The viceroys-in-charge of a province.
They were the modern district magistrates and in
Pradeshikas
charge of district.
They were the later day Patwari. They were responsible
Rajukas
for surveying and assessing the land.
A subordinate revenue officer of the district level. He
Yukta
was responsible for the secretarial work of accounting.
Gopa Responsible for accounts
The tax collecting officer directly under the control of
Sthanika
the Pradeshikas.

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 Head of a village. He was generally elected by the
Gramika
people. He was not a paid servant.
Village elders (to assist the Gramika in his work). Every
Gramvriddhas
village had its own panchayat to settle the disputes.
Nagaraka The officer-in-charge of the city administration.
Sitadhyaksha Supervised agriculture.
Panyaadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce.
Samsthadhyaksha Superintendent of market.
Pauthavadhyaksha Superintendent of weight and measures.
Navadhyaksha Superintendent of ships.
Sulkadhyaksha Collector of tolls.
Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines.
Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of iron.

• Kara – probably, part of produce from fruit and flower garden.

• Hiranya – tax paid in cash
• Cultivators forced to raise two crops in emergency and pranaya was
emergency tax.
• Samaharta: officer-in charge of assessment and Sannidhata - chief
treasurer.
• Rajuka, important rural official.
• Patanjali (2nd Century BC) – Mauryan practice of establishing cults for
sake of money.

Mauryan Society

• Megasthenes in his Indica mentions about caste; mistaking caste for

occupation, he mentions 7 castes. Kautiliya talks about 15 mixed castes
called (Antyavasin).
• Forced labour (Vishti) was imposed. Officer who looked after forced labour
– Vishtivandhaka. Hired laborers were called Karmakara.
• Megasthenes says there are no slaves in Ancient India. He did not
notice because it was not in harsh form and slaves were used for domestic
purpose.
• Shiva and Samkhrashana mentioned by Megasthenes as Dionysus.
• Ashoka expounded his policy of Dhamma to eliminate social tension &
sectarian conflicts- such as between Brahmanism & heterodox sects like
Buddhism and Jainism. His main purpose was not propagating Buddhism
but to promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse
elements of the large empire.
• He banned private festivities – as they may give rise to conflicts arising
out of different of opinion. Popular meeting might be used to criticize and
attack king’s new idea.
• Denounced all ‘useless ceremonies and sacrifices’ held under influence of
superstition.
• He did not abjure violence wholly. In dealing with the troublesome forest
tribes, he clearly recognized the possibility of the use of violence.
• After 10 years of reign, when he visited Bodh Gaya, he started the system
of royal tours (Dhammayatras) probably a mass contact programme
and to keep check on bureaucracy. Every high administration officer was
ordered to take tour once in 5 years.

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Mauryan Art

• Best specimen of art - tall, free standing, monolithic, highly polished

columns often crowned with animal figures. At least 14 such pillars are
known. Chiseled out of buff-coloured sandstone from Chunar. Specialty
was lustrous polish perhaps because of siliceous varnish on stone.
• A Mauryan place with a pillared hall is compared with Hall of 1000 columns
built by Darius is excavated at Kumrahar (Patna).
• According to dominant view, the main inspiration for Mauryan art is
Persian imperial art.
• Practice of Cave architecture for monks started e.g. excavated halls of
the Barbara and Nagarjuni caves belong to the time of Ashoka and his
successor Dasharatha.
• Most sophisticated stone sculpture – statue of voluptuous female Chauri -
bearer from Didarganj near Patna.
• At the end of Asoka’s reign, Taxila was first to revolt, due to ministerial
exploitation. After emperor’s death, Empire was divided in 2– Western
half ruled by Kunala and Samprati, and Eastern Half by Dasharatha (also
took the title of Devanama piyadasi).
• Brihadratha, last Mauryan emperor, killed in 181-180 BC by his General
Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the founder of new dynasty- Sunga.

Reasons for Disintegration

• It is alleged that Asoka’s anti-Brahman and pro-Buddhist policy and

non-violent policy weakened Mauryan army.
• Financial crisis - Enormous expenditure on army and bureaucracy.
• Oppressive rule of officers.
• Neglected north-west frontier.

POST-MAURYANS

Sungas or Shungas

• The last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha was killed in 181 BC by his General
Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the founder of new dynasty- Sunga. At the
time of his coming, Kabul and most of Punjab had gone into the hands of
Indo-Greeks, and Deccan into the hands of Satavahanas.
• He is said to persecutor of Buddhism. He withdrew royal patronage to
Buddhist institutions, damaged Buddhist establishments, and patronized
Brahmanism. Sanchi stupa, Deokothar Stupas, and Ghositarama
monastery was destroyed by Pushyamitra Sunga. Later, Sungas became
amenable to Buddhism, and Barhut stupa seems to belong to this period.
• His son Agnimitra was hero of Kalidasa’s drama Malvikaagnimitra.
Patanjali wrote his commentary Mahabhasya & Yoga Sutras, and Panini’s
grammar Ashtadhyayi were composed during Sunga period. Art, education,
philosophy flourished during this period.
• Shunga dynasty was followed by Kanava by Vasudeva Kanava. The dynasty
was brought to an end by Satavahana Dynasty or ‘Andhra Bhritya’
dynasty in Amravati, Andhra Pradesh. But in 2nd century India faced many
invasions from west.

Indo-Greeks

• Period beginning with 200 BC had no large empire like Mauryans but is

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 important for central Asian contacts.
• Greeks who were ruling Bactria (northern Afghanistan) were the first
to attack India. One important reason for their attack was their weakness
in facing Scythians and hence they turned towards India. Their capital in
India was Sakal (modern Sialkot).
• Menander or Mahinda was their most famous ruler among Indo-Greeks.
The episode of conversion of Mahinda to Buddhism by Buddhist monk
Nagasena is immortalized in famous book ‘Milindapanho’ in Pali.
• Their greatest contribution was in the field of numismatics. They were
the first to mint coins, which can be definitely ascribed to the specific
kings often carrying their names etc. They were the first to issue gold
coins in India. The Greeks introduced the features of Hellenistic Art.

Shakas or Scythians

• Greeks were followed by Shakas or Scythians (as in Patanjali’s

Mahabhasya). Shakas in India were divided into 5 branches- Afghanistan,
Punjab (capital Taxila), Mathura, western India, and Upper Deccan.
• The only Shakas in Western India ruled long, four centuries nearly. They
benefited from seaborne trade in Gujarat and issued large number of
silver coins.
• The most famous Shaka Ruler was Rudradaman – I (130-150 AD) who
ruled over Gujarat, Sindh, Konkan, Narmada, Malwa, and Kathiawar. He
repaired Sudarshana Lake in semi-arid zone of Kathiawar. He was a lover
of Sanskrit, and issued first ever-long inscription in chaste Sanskrit
which talks about the repair of Sudarshana Lake. Before this, all earlier
long inscriptions were in Prakrit.
• In about 57 BC, king of Ujjain Vikramaditya is said to have defeated
Shakas. King Vikramaditya is said to have started Vikrama Era (57 BC)
– Vikrama Samwat.

Parthian/ Pahlavas

• After Shakas come Parthians. They ruled at parallel times with Shakas
(Shaka-Pahlavas). They were originally from Iran. They ruled only small
portion in first century. Their most famous ruler was Gondophernes in
whose court St. Thomas came.

Kushanas

• The Parthian power was broken up by Kushanas (also Yeuchis or Tocharian).

Yeuchis, nomads from the steppes of Central Asia, were divided into five
tribes. Kushanas was one of them.
• In the 1st century AD, Kujula Kadphises united the five tribes of Yeuchis,
crossed Hindukush, and established himself in Kashmir and Kabul. Almost
nine modern countries brought under one rule by the Kushanas and gave
rise to new type of composite culture. Their empire extended from (Oxus
to Ganga) from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in UP.
• Kujula Kadphises – I minted copper coins in imitation of Roman coins.
Vima Kadphises – II issued large number of gold coins.
• Kadphises were followed by Kanishka. Kanishka’s rule extended over
Mathura, Shravasti, Kaushambhi, and Varanasi. First capital of Kushanas
was Purushpura (Peshawar). At Purushpura, Kanishka erected a
monastery, huge stupa which excited foreigners. Mathura was probably
second capital of Kushanas.

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• Kanishka patronized Mahayana Buddhism and held 4th Buddhist Council
presided over by Vasumitra in Kashmir at Kundagram, where Buddhism was
divided into Hinayana and Mahayana. Kashmir got these commentaries
engraved on sheets of red copper, enclosed them in the stone receptacle
and raised a stupa over it.
• Kanishka started an era in AD 78 (Shaka Era).
• Chinese general Pan-Chao is said to have defeated Kanishka. Later
Sassanian power of Iran ended the Kushanas.

IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS

• Shakas-Kushanas introduced better cavalry and use of ridding horse on

large scale. The use of reins and saddles became common. They introduced
turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat Sherwani. The Central
Asians also brought in cap, helmet, and boots used by warriors. Because
of these, they could defeat their opponents in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
and India.
• The Kushans controlled the silk route, starting from China to Central
Asia, Afghanistan to Iran, and West Asia to Roman Empire in east
Mediterranean zone. Silk route was a source of great income to Kushans.
The most important factor in post-Mauryan period was Trade.
• Kushans were first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.
First traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and West
Central Asia belong to Kushana Period. India received a good deal of gold
from the Altai Mountains and from trade with Roman Empire.
• Equestrian figures – Kushana times in Begram (Afghanistan).

Polity

• Strengthened idea of the divine origin of kingship e.g. Kushana title

Devaputra Shahanushahi “Son of Gods” which they adopted from Chinese.
• The Kushans introduced the Satrap System. Empire was divided into
numerous satrapies and each satrapy under a Satrap.
• Kushanas also had hereditary dual role; father, and son ruling at the same time.
• Greeks introduced military governorship. Military governors were called
Strategos.

Indian Society

• Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushans were soon Indianized. As most of

them were conquerors, hence they were absorbed as Kshatriya. Manu calls
Shakas and Parthians as Vrata Kshatriya (fallen in status). In no other
period of ancient history were foreigners assimilated into India Society on
such a large scale as in post-Mauryan times.
• Many of foreigners adopted Buddhism, as it was easier to assimilate
due to absence of Varna rigidities. However, some like Greek ambassador
Heliodorus, embraced Brahmanical sects like Bhagavatism. Kushana
rulers worshipped Shiva and Buddha. Both appear on their coins.
• Indian religions underwent changes in Post-Mauryan times due to increase
in trade and artisanal activity, and large influx of foreigners. The new form
of Buddhism was known as Mahayana Buddhism. But under Mahayana,
images of Buddha were worshipped. Earliest specimen of Buddhist image
comes from Mathura around 1st century BC. Hallmark of Mahayana was
Bodhisattva doctrine, according to which bodhisattva (regarded as previous
incarnation of Buddha) is one who has worked selflessly for good of mankind.

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