Electricity & Magnetism – Lecture 11

Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Experiments
• A current appears only if there is relative motion between the
loop and the magnet; the current disappears when the
relative motion between them ceases.

• Faster motion produces a greater current.

• If moving the magnet’s north pole toward the loop causes,

say, clockwise current, then moving the north pole away
causes counterclockwise current. Moving the south pole
toward or away from the loop also causes currents, but in the
reversed directions.

An emf is induced in the loop when the number of magnetic field lines that pass
through the loop is changing

The emf is called induced emf and the current produced in the loop is called an induced current.
Flux of Magnetic Field
• The amount of magnetic field that passes through a loop area.
• Similar to the definition of electric flux, we define a
magnetic flux → →
Φ B =  B⋅ dA

• Magnetic flux is a scalar.

• In uniform magnetic field, the magnetic flux can be
expressed as
Φ B = BA cosθ
• SI unit is the weber (Wb): 1 weber = 1 Wb = 1 T m2
Faraday’s Law of Induction
• The magnitude of the emf induced in a conducting loop is equal to the rate at which the
magnetic flux through that loop changes with time，
dΦ B
ε =−
dt
dΦ
• If a coil consists of N loops with the same area, the total induced emf in the coil ε = − N B
dt

d
In uniform magnetic field, the induced emf can be expressed as ε =− ( BA cosθ )
dt

• Emf can be induced in several ways,

• The magnitude of B can change with time.
• The area enclosed by the loop can change with time.
• The angle between B and the normal to the loop can change with time.
• Any combination of the above can occur.
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law for determining the direction of an induced current in a loop. The induced
current in a loop is in the direction that creates a magnetic field that opposes the change
in magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the
induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.
The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop
constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it
is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

dΦ B
ε =−
dt
 Induction and Inductance
• When we try to run a current through a coil of
wire, the changing current induces a “back-
EMF” that opposes the current.
• That is because the changing current creates a
changing magnetic field, and the increasing
magnetic flux through the coils of wire induce
A changing current in a single loop
an opposing EMF. induces a back-EMF in itself. This is
• Flux produced is proportional to strength of called self-induction.
the current
)
∝ 
If N no. of turns )
∝ 
)
=  L = NΦ B
i
L= coefficient of self-Inductance units: henry (H), 1 H = 1 T-m2/A
Self-Induction
L=
NΦ B iL = NΦ B
The induced emf ε L = − N dΦ B = −L
di
i di dΦ B dt dt
L =N
dt dt
The self-induced EMF is opposite to the
direction of change of current

Inductance of a Solenoid
Consider a solenoid. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is
B = µ 0in Number of turns per unit length n = N/l.

The magnetic flux through the solenoid is then Φ B =  B ⋅ dA = µ 0inA

NΦ B Nµ 0inA
The inductance of the solenoid is then: L= = = nlµ 0 nA = µ0 n 2lA
i i

The inductance of the solenoid per unit length =

Inductance of a Solenoid
If the solenoid is wound on an iron core of relative permeability  , then the inductance is
=  

Inductance of a Toroid
    
= ln
 

Flux isn't constant for cross section. Rather depends on

Radius. BE CAREFUL
Mutual Inductance

Bof 1 through 2
I

1 2

The mutual inductance, M, tells us how much flux through the second coil, Φ2 ,
is caused by a current, I1, through the first:
M = Φ2/I1 which gives Φ2 = M I1
so: dΦ2 /dt = M dI1 /dt
But by Faraday’s law :

E2 = - dΦ2 /dt = - M dI1 /dt

LR Circuit

3 45 * 5

- 01,- . 01,.
6 /01-
=6
2

 !" # $ℎ!&& ' ( 2  *+ − = 
 /01- 01.
ln /
= 2
,-
 =  − 
,.  −  1.
02
= 4
,- ,. 
=
/01- 2 9:
/
i = 1 (1 − 4 0 ; )
01,- 0 1,.
= 9: /
/01- 2 i =  (1 − 4 0 ; )  =
1
LR Circuit Growth of current

9:
0;
i =  (1 − 4 )


O= =  =$>4 "4 $! (* 

?@A DEF.0G?H
O= = = Sec
BC CI.EC


3&  = i =  (1 − 4 0K )

- K
= 1- ? = 0.63
-

λ is the time during which the current rises to 2/3 of its final value. The rate of growth of
current depends on time constant. If λ is greater the rise in current is slow.
Decay of current

0− = 

,- 1
=- 
- 2
If λ is greater the more slowly the
- ,- .1
6- - =-6  current decreases to zero.
 2

- 1
ln =- 
- 2

9: :
0; 0
i= 4 = 4 O
Rate of growth in LR circuit:
:
0
i =  (1 − 4 O )
:
,- - 0 1
= 4 O ∝
,. O O

If λ small then current growth fast

If λ large then current growth slow

Rate of current decay in LR circuit:

:
0
i= 4 O
: 1
,- - 0
=− 4 O ∝
,. O O

If λ small then current decay fast

If λ large then current decay slow
 Applications:
1. Stabilizer to control surge
2. Traffic light sensor

Basically it works on the principle that when a car

moves over the inductor coil, the inductance of the coil
decreases. This decreased inductance causes the
resonant or oscillation frequency to increase and the
electronics unit accordingly sends electric pulses to
the control unit to control the switching of traffic lights.
Energy Stored in Magnetic Field
• By Kirchoff’s Loop Rule, we have ε = iR + L di
dt

• The power in the circuit by multiplying by i.

εi = i 2 R + Li di
dt power stored in
magnetic field
power provided power dissipated
by battery in resistor

dU B di
Power is rate that work is done, i.e. P= = Li
dt dt

So dU B = Li di , or after integration 1 2
UB = Li Energy in magnetic field
2
Energy Density
NO
M
=
PF

Q 

2-
M
=
PF

For solenoid = 
R= in R
=
n

K
K

T
=  ( U ) =  ( )
 

1 R
M
=
2
Magnetic Materials
Those materials which are attracted by a magnet are magnetic materials. Iron, Nickel,
and Cobalt are the magnetic substances as objects made up of these materials are
attracted by a magnet. Also, magnetic materials can be magnetized or we can say that
magnetic materials can be converted into magnets.

Non-Magnetic Materials
Those materials which are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic
materials. All the substances other than iron, nickel, and cobalt are non-magnetic
substances for example plastic, rubber, water, etc are nonmagnetic materials. Non-
magnetic substances cannot be magnetized.
Which Metals Are Magnetic?
There are various ways in which a metal may interact with a magnet. This depends on
the internal structure of the materials. Metals can be classified as:

 Ferromagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 Diamagnetic

while magnets strongly attract ferromagnetic metals, they only weakly attract
paramagnetic metals. Diamagnetic materials, on the other hand, show a weak
repulsion when placed near a magnet. Only ferromagnetic metals are considered truly
magnetic. Iron, nickel, or cobalt are called ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic properties of material involve concept based on the magnetic dipole moment.
 Domains, Unmagnetized Material
•The magnetic moments in the domains are randomly aligned.
•The net magnetic moment is zero.

Domains, External Field Applied

•A sample is placed in an external magnetic field.
•The size of the domains with magnetic moments aligned with the field
grows.
•The sample is magnetized.
•When the external field is removed, the material may retain a net
magnetization in the direction of the original field.
Hysteresis loop
Ferromagnetism can retain a memory of an applied field once it is removed. This behavior is called
hysteresis and a plot of the variation of magnetization with magnetic field is called a hysteresis loop.
1.The magnetic flux density (B) is increased
when the magnetic field strength(H) is or B
increased from 0 (zero).
a
2. With increasing the magnetic field there is b
an increase in the value of magnetism and
finally reaches point a which is called
saturation point where B is constant.
c
f
3. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux
density (or magnetization M )corresponding to
the saturation induction of a magnetic material. e
In other words, it is a material's ability to retain d
a certain amount of residual magnetic field
when the magnetizing force (H) is removed
after achieving saturation. (The value of B at
point b on the hysteresis curve.) 21
Hysteresis loop
4. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse
magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetic or B
flux return to zero. (The value of H at point
c on the hysteresis curve.) The force required
to remove the retentivity of the material is a
b
known as Coercive force (C).

5. In the opposite direction, the cycle is

continued where the saturation point is d, c
f
retentivity point is e and coercive force is f.

6. Due to the forward and opposite direction e

process, the cycle is complete and this cycle
d
is called the hysteresis loop.

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