SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING and DIGITAL SCIENCES

Circuits Theory

Chapter 4 Transients

1
 What is Transient - 1
• Transients are the time-varying currents and voltages resulting from
sudden circuit changes (commutation)
• Example 1 – switch is closed (turned-on). Initial condition may be given
explicitly or found from the previous steady state

• Example 2 – switch is opened

(turned-off)

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 What is Transient - 2
• Example 3 – supply voltage change

• DC voltage source may be given by formula or graphically

vs (t ) = 1V , t < 0;
vs (t ) = 2V , t > 0

• V(t=0-)=1V; V(t=0+)=2V

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 Transients
Commutation Laws
• Capacitor charge cannot change instantaneously (otherwise the current
becomes infinitely large)

q C = C VC ( ) ( )
VC 0 + = VC 0 − continuous
dVC
iC = C
dt
• Inductor flux cannot change instantaneously (otherwise the voltage
becomes infinitely large)

ΦL = L iL ( ) ( )
iL 0 + = iL 0 − continuous

di L
vL = L
dt

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuits
• Capacitance charging (discharging) through a resistance from a source
• The switch closes at t = 0, connecting the voltage source Vs to the circuit.

• Current equation (KCL) at the node connecting resistor and capacitor

dvC (t ) vC (t ) − vs (t )
C + = 0; vC (0) = vC 0
dt R
dvC (t ) vC (t ) vs (t )
+ = ; vC (0) = vC 0
dt CR CR
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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuits – Natural Response
• A general solution
vC (t ) = vCf (t ) + vCn (t );
vCn (t ) = K exp(−αt ) = K exp(−t / τ );
α = 1 / RC ;
τ = RC
• Time constant τ = RC has the units of
time as the name implies
• The unknown constant K is found based
on initial condition –
vC (t ) = vCf (t ) + K exp(−t / τ );
t = 0 : vC (0) = vC 0 = vcf (0) + K ;
K = vC 0 − vcf (0);
[ ]
vC (t ) = vCf (t ) + vC 0 − vcf (0) exp(−t / τ )

• All we need now is to find forced response

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuits – Forced Response
• Forced response is about finding a particular
solution of a differential equation
• If there is a DC source, the forced solution will
be DC – v (t ) = const
Cf
• If there is an AC source,
vs (t ) = A sin(ωt + ϕ )
the forced solution will be AC (same frequency) –
vCf (t ) = B sin(ωt + θ )
• If a source voltage is an arbitrary time-varying function, there are special
methods to find a solution using step / pulse response (Duhamel’s integral,
Green’s function) and Laplace transform (Signals and Systems course)

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuits – DC Source 1
• If there is a DC source vs = const , the forced
solution will be DC –
vCf (t ) = const
• From the equation
dvC (t ) vC (t ) vs
+ =
dt CR CR

vCf (t ) = vs

• Then the solution becomes

vC (t ) = vCf (t ) + [vC 0 − vcf (0)] exp(−t / τ );

vC (t ) = vs + (vC 0 − vs ) exp(−t / τ );

• Capacitor current
dvC (v − v ) (v − v )
iC (t ) = C = − C 0 s exp(−t / τ ) = s C 0 exp(−t / τ )
dt R R
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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuits – DC Source 2
• If there are DC sources, the forced solution
will be DC –
vCf (t ) = const
• It means that in steady state for DC sources
a capacitor is open – zero current

• Capacitor steady state DC voltage is found

by a resistive circuit analysis

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Source – Example 1
• Zero DC source – capacitor discharge

vC (t ) = vC 0 exp(−t / τ )

• When the switch is closed at t = 0, the capacitor discharges through the

resistor and the voltage across the capacitor decays exponentially to zero
• At one time constant τ, the voltage is equal to 36.8 % of its initial value
• Voltage becomes 5% after 3τ and almost negligible (<1%) in about 5τ

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Source – Example 1
• Zero DC source – capacitor discharge ( vs = 0 )
vC (t ) = vC 0 exp(−t / τ ) iC (t ) = −
vC 0
exp(−t / τ )
R

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Source – Example 2
• Non-zero DC source – capacitor charging for zero initial condition

vC (t ) = vs [1 − exp(−t / τ )]

• When the switch is closed at t = 0, the capacitor is charged through the

resistor and the voltage across the capacitor rises
• At one time constant τ, the voltage is equal to 63.2 % of its final value
• Voltage becomes 5% below supply after 3τ and almost equal to supply
voltage in about 5τ

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Source – Example 2
• Non-zero DC source – capacitor charging

vC (t ) = vs + [vC 0 − vs ]exp(−t / τ ) iC (t ) =
vs − vC 0
exp(−t / τ )
R

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 Transients
A General First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Sources - 1
• 1st order developed RC-circuit example

• A general 1st order RC-circuit

representation

• Do you have an idea how to address

the problem? Any suggestions?

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 Transients
A General First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Sources - 2
• Apply Thevenin equivalent (after commutation) !

• The solution

vC (t ) = vt + [vC 0 − vt ]exp(−t / τ )
vt − vC 0
iC (t ) = exp(−t / τ ) τ = Rt C
R
• To find initial condition vC 0, solve original resistive circuit before commutation
with capacitor replaced by open

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 Transients
A General First-Order RC-Circuit with DC Sources - 3
• To finish the job, we have to find resistors’ currents
• Two options – replace a capacitor by voltage source or by current source
• KVL / KCL; mesh currents; node voltages
• Use superposition principle

vC (t ) = vt + [vC 0 − vt ]exp(−t / τ )

τ = Rt C

vt − vC 0
iC (t ) = exp(−t / τ )
Rt

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 1

• The circuit to analyze

• Consider first Thevenin

equivalent from capacitor
perspective (switch closed)

vt = 2V ;
Rt = 0.6Ω;
τ = Rt C = 0.6s

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 2
• Next, calculate capacitor
initial voltage by analyzing
the circuit for capacitor open
and switch open (before
commutation t=t(0-)

• It is trivial and the result is

vC (0−) = vC 0 = 5V ;
i1 = i2 = 5 A; vt = 2V ;
i3 = i4 = 0 A Rt = 0.6Ω;
• Once we have capacitor τ = Rt C = 0.6s
initial condition and Thevenin
equivalent parameters, we
can find capacitor voltage vC (t ) = vt + [vC 0 − vt ]exp(−t / τ ) = 2 + 3 exp(−t / 0.6)
and current (2 ways)
v −v
iC (t ) = t C 0 exp(−t / τ ) = −5 exp(−t / 0.6)
Rt 18
 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 3
• Compare with PSIM simulation

vC (t ) = 2 + 3 exp(−t / τ ) iC (t ) = −5 exp(−t / τ )

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 4
• To finish, we have to
find resistor currents

• Replace the capacitor

by voltage source and
make resistive circuit
analysis using
superposition principle

20 10 1 1 2
i11 = A; i21 = i31 = A; i41 = 0 i12 = − vC (t ); i22 = vC (t ); i32 = − vC (t ); i42 = vC (t )
3 3 3 3 3

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 5
• Bringing it all together

i1 (t ) = i11 + i12 = 6 − 1 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );

i2 (t ) = i21 + i22 = 4 + 1 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );
i3 (t ) = i31 + i32 = 2 − 2 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );
i4 (t ) = i41 + i42 = 2 + 3 ⋅ exp(−t / τ ) vC (t ) = 2 + 3 exp(−t / τ )
iC (t ) = −5 exp(−t / τ )

• Note resistor 4 current discontinuity

i1 (t = 0−) = 5 A; i1 (t = 0+) = 5 A;
i2 (t = 0−) = 5 A; i2 (t = 0+) = 5 A;
i3 (t = 0−) = 0 A; i3 (t = 0+) = 0 A;
i4 (t = 0−) = 0 A i4 (t = 0+) = 5 A

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 6
• Compare with PSIM simulation

i1 (t )
i2 (t )
i4 (t )
i3 (t )

i1 (t ) = 6 − 1 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );
i2 (t ) = 4 + 1 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );
i3 (t ) = 2 − 2 ⋅ exp(−t / τ );
i4 (t ) = 2 + 3 ⋅ exp(−t / τ ) 22
 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 7
• It is also possible to
calculate resistor currents
by replacing the capacitor
by current source and
making resistive circuit
analysis using
superposition principle

1 1 2 3
i11 = 6 A; i21 = 4 A; i31 = 2 A; i41 = 2 A i12 = iC (t ); i22 = − iC (t ); i32 = iC (t ); i42 = − iC (t )
5 5 5 5

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 Transients
First-Order RC-Circuit Example - 8
• Bringing it all together
gives the same result as
replacing the capacitor by
voltage source
• In this case, two
calculations due to
superposition principle
give distinct DC and
exponential terms - vC (t ) = 2 + 3 exp(−t / 0.6)

i1 (t ) = i11 + i12 = 6 − 1 ⋅ exp(−t / 0.6); iC (t ) = −5 exp(−t / 0.6)

i2 (t ) = i21 + i22 = 4 + 1 ⋅ exp(−t / 0.6);
i3 (t ) = i31 + i32 = 2 − 2 ⋅ exp(−t / 0.6);
i4 (t ) = i41 + i42 = 2 + 3 ⋅ exp(−t / 0.6)

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuits
• Inductance “charging” (“discharging”) through a resistance from a source
• The switch closes at t = 0, connecting the voltage source Vs to the circuit

• Voltage equation (KVL)

diL (t )
L + RiL (t ) = vs (t ); iL (0) = iL 0
dt
diL (t ) R 1
+ iL (t ) = vs (t )
dt L L
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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuits – Natural Response
• A general solution
iL (t ) = iLf (t ) + iLn (t );
iLn (t ) = K exp(−αt ) = K exp(−t / τ );
α = R / L;
τ = L/R
• Time constant τ = L / R has the units of time as the name implies
• The unknown constant K is found based on initial condition –

iL (t ) = iLf (t ) + K exp(−t / τ );
t = 0 : iL (0) = iL 0 = iLf (0) + K ;
K = iL 0 − iCf (0);
[ ]
iL (t ) = iLf (t ) + iL 0 − iLf (0) exp(−t / τ )

• All we need now is to find forced response

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuits – Forced Response
• Forced response is about finding a particular
solution of a differential equation
• If there is a DC source, the forced solution will
be DC – iLf (t ) = const
• If there is an AC source,
vs (t ) = A sin(ωt + ϕ )
the forced solution will be AC (same frequency) –
iLf (t ) = B sin(ωt + θ )
• If a source voltage is an arbitrary time-varying function, there are special
methods to find a solution using step / pulse response (Duhamel’s integral),
Laplace transform

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuits – DC Source 1
• If there is a DC source vs = const , the forced
solution will be DC –
iLf (t ) = const
• From the equation
diL R 1
+ iL = vs
dt L L

iLf (t ) = vs / R

• Then the solution becomes

iL (t ) = iLf (t ) + [iL 0 − iLf (0)] exp(−t / τ );

vs  v 
iL (t ) = + iL 0 − s  exp(−t / τ ) iL (t ) = iL (∞) + [iL (0) − iL (∞)]exp(−t / τ )
R  R

= (vs − iL 0 R ) exp(−t / τ );
diL
• Inductor voltage vL (t ) = L
dt
vL (t ) = R[iL (∞) − iL (0)]exp(−t / τ )
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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuits – DC Source 2
• If there are DC sources, the forced solution will
be DC –
iLf (t ) = const
• It means that in steady state for DC sources an
inductor is short – zero voltage
• Inductor steady state DC current is found by a
resistive circuit analysis

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuit with DC Source – Example 1
• For zero inductor current initial condition
vs  v 
iL (t ) = + iL 0 − s  exp(−t / τ )
R  R
the general solution becomes

iL (t ) = s [1 − exp(−t / τ )];
v
R
τ = L/R
At one time constant τ, the
current is equal to 63.2 %
of its final value (steady
state)
It becomes 5% below
steady state after 3τ and
almost equal to steady
state in about 5τ

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuit with DC Source – Example 2
Example 4.3, page 189

Vs
Initial Condition: i L (0-) =
R1

-t / τ Vs - t / τ
i L (t) = i L (0) e = e τ = L / R2
R1
diL vR
vL (t ) = L = −iL 0 R2 exp(−t / τ ) = − s 2 exp(−t / τ )
dt R1 τ = L / R2

τ = L / R2
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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuit Example - 1

• The circuit to analyze

vs = 10V ;
R1 = R2 = R3 = 1Ω;
L = 1mH
• Initial condition

vs R2 10
iL (0 −) = iL 0 = = A
R1 + 2 3 R2 + R3 3
RR
R2 + R3

• Steady-state (forced) current

vs
iLf = iL (∞) = = 5A
R1 + R3

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuit Example - 2

• For elementary circuit

vs  v 
iL (t ) = + iL 0 − s  exp(−t / τ ) τ = L/R
R  R

• For more developed circuit (Thevenin)

vt  v 
iL (t ) = + iL 0 − t  exp(−t / τ ) τ = L / Rt
Rt  Rt 

• However, we have already calculated

short circuit current – therefore
iL (t ) = iL (∞) + [iL 0 − iL (∞)]exp(−t / τ )
• Equivalent resistance
Rt = R1 + R3 = 2Ω; iL (t ) = iL (∞) + [iL 0 − iL (∞)]exp(−t / τ ) =
τ=
L
= 0.5ms = 5 − (5 / 3) exp(−t / 0.5ms )
Rt

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 Transients
First-Order RL-Circuit Example - 3

• Inductor current and voltage

iL (t ) = 5 − (5 / 3) exp(−t / 0.5ms )
vL (t ) = Rt [iL (∞) − iL 0 ]exp(−t / τ ) =
= (10 / 3) exp(−t / 0.5ms )

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Thanks for your attention and
Good Luck!