Journal of Sustainable Tourism and Entrepreneurship (JoSTE)

ISSN: 2714-6480, Vol 4, No 1, 2022, 1-17 https://doi.org/10.35912/joste.v4i1.1499

Sustainable resort-related tourism growth:

Identifying challenges and opportunities in
Montalban, Rizal
Theresa Anne Nadine B. Lichauco
De La Salle University - Dasmari˜nas, Philippines
[email protected]
Abstract
Purpose: This study aims to identify the challenges and
opportunities related to sustainable resort-related tourism growth in
Montalban, Rizal, and the Philippines.
Research Methodology: This study collected data from resort
managers/operators and employees in Montalban using thematic
analysis. The data were analyzed using systems theory to identify
the interconnection of the economic, social, and environmental
components of sustainable resort development.
Results: The study found that resorts in Montalban are
commercially viable, but environmental and social sustainability
has been compromised since their founding and throughout the
Article History COVID-19 pandemic. The overexploitation of natural resources by
Received on 16 May 2023 resorts has led to concerns about groundwater level and water
1st Revision on 31 May 2023 quality, while employees are subjected to precarious work and low
2nd Revision on 5 June 2023 income.
3rd Revision on 21 July 2023 Limitations: This study was limited by the sample size of the
Accepted on 11 August 2023 resorts in Montalban.
Contributions: This study contributes to the current knowledge of
sustainable resort-related tourism growth in rural destinations,
particularly tourism destinations in the Philippines. This research
seeks to educate policymakers, other tourism stakeholders, and local
tourism communities on the need to shift their focus to more
sustainable development.
Novelty: This study pioneers the investigation of sustainability in
resort-related tourism growth in the Philippines using the case of
Montalban Rizal and the use of the system model in the qualitative
study of sustainability in tourism destinations.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, Resort-related tourism, Rural
tourism, Tourism growth
How to cite: Lichauco, T. A. N. B. (2022). Sustainable resort-
related tourism growth: Identifying challenges and opportunities in
Montalban, Rizal. Journal of Sustainable Tourism and
Entrepreneurship, 4(1), 1-17.
1. Introduction
Sustainable tourism involves minimizing the negative impacts and maximizing the positive effects of
tourism to maintain long-term viability. The integration of sustainability into rural tourism creates a
potential for "developing economic opportunities, increasing local prosperity, conservation, and
maintenance of the environment, celebrating cultural assets and generally ensuring a greater spread
in terms of who can benefit (economically, socially, and culturally)" (McAreavey & McDonagh, 2011).
Despite the benefits of sustainability, its pursuit is not without obstacles. Differences in the concept of
sustainability and conflict over the equitable distribution of scarce resources make tensions
commonplace in the pursuit of sustainability.
Montalban (also called Rodriguez) is the largest municipality in Rizal in terms of land area. It is also
declared a "first-class" municipality. Since the 1990s, it has also served as a relocation site for informal
settlers from the National Capital Region ("NCR"). This caused a positive effect on the growth of the
population, and the area eventually became a "satellite" town of Metro Manila through its low-cost
housing opportunities. In addition to the continuous improvement in economic activity in nearby
municipalities, these factors provided a jumpstart to the municipality's otherwise declining population.
The increase in population also coincided with an increase in demand for the development of rural
tourism in the form of resort-related tourism growth. Resort-related tourism in Montalban has grown so
exponentially that a quick search of resorts in the area on Google Maps will yield no less than fifty (50)
results. Considering that this result represents only a partial number of operational public and private
resorts in the area with registered business accounts on Google, it may be concluded that there has been
extensive resort-related development in the municipality. The resorts in Montalban are privately owned
and grouped in clusters that mimic resort towns or urban areas, where tourism is a significant part of
the local scene. There are many risks associated with the rapid growth of resorts that involve substantial
changes in the developing area's environment and residents' socioeconomic landscapes. Most project
developers comply with growth-related policies without planning sustainable development. The social
exchange between growth-oriented and sustainable development resorts operators and other
stakeholders. Unfortunately, the trajectory of tourism over the years has been chiefly profit-driven
(Khalid, Okafor, & Burzynska, 2021).

Between March 2020 and January 2022, several restrictions at different levels were implemented across
the country to curb the spread of the Coronavirus Disease of 2019 (COVID-19). Although the COVID-
19 pandemic brought even first-world countries to the brink of recession (Nasir & Ahsan, 2020), its
most affected industry was tourism. In the Philippines, tourism activities are only allowed during the
Modified General Community Quarantine at decreased capacities (Bautista, 2021). Additional
minimum public health standards to curb the spread of the virus were also necessary and required for
all establishments, including tourism destinations (DOT, n.d.). The DOT reported an 82.3% drop in
tourism expenditure in 2020, which translates to only 556.89 billion from the previous year's 3.14
trillion. This drop directly translated into a decrease in the tourism sector's share of the national GDP
from 12.7% in 2019 to 5.4% (PSA, 2020). While necessary, the travel restrictions imposed have
disproportionately impacted the tourism sector. Restrictions in land, air, and sea travel to mitigate the
spread of the virus have caused stagnation in domestic and international tourism (Khalid et al., 2021),
and this experience rings true for other Southeast Asia. Pathiraja, Karunarathne, Hewage, and
Jayawardena (2021) reported that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted Sri Lankan wildlife
tourism, with operators facing challenges such as reduced demand, increased costs, and disruptions to
operations. Although the tourism industry in Southeast Asian countries, such as Indonesia, has been
forecasted and shows a positive prognosis (Sawitri, Eltivia, & Riwajanti, 2021), these losses have
caused even more fear that the investment trajectory in growth-led rather than sustainable tourism may
continue if stakeholders are allowed to compensate for the losses incurred throughout the pandemic
(Khalid et al., 2021). Additionally, it has been argued that once the worst of the pandemic has passed,
societies will return to business as usual in terms of future management and planning. Considering that
the tourism sector will also incur a significant amount of damage once sustainability issues are not
addressed, this prognosis is worrying (Romagosa, 2020).

It is necessary to investigate the level of sustainability in Montalban, not only to prevent the degradation
of the natural environment but also to ensure that local resort businesses can thrive sustainably after the
pandemic is over. To achieve this, Lebe and Milfelner (2006) proposed a model that combines
destination management with network management as the key to simplifying and promoting tourism in
rural destinations. This model involves establishing a destination management company or organization
responsible for creating a sustainable development strategy for the community. Consequently, several
research works including Idziak, Majewski, and Zmyślony (2015) suggest a bottom-up approach that
involves community participation in developing tourism destinations. Therefore, there is no single
model that can be deemed the correct way of promoting sustainable tourism because the approach is
highly dependent on the needs of the destination. The different models used in the areas further
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highlighted the importance of adaptability in sustainability models. Each destination and community
has different goals and standards for measuring sustainability. As sustainability models must be
adaptable to localized areas, there is a need to conduct a qualitative exploration of the area before any
quantitative measurement of sustainability can be performed.

This study envisioned to fill the gap in the existing research and (a) identify the challenges to sustainable
resort-related tourism growth in Montalban and Rizal throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of
economic, social, and economic sustainability; (b) identify the challenges to sustainable development
that the resorts have faced throughout the pandemic and long after, and (c) look for measures that can
be suggested to promote sustainable resort-related tourism growth after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Filling these gaps in the existing research can further strengthen the local government's efforts and
enable future researchers to evaluate the sustainability of resort-related tourism growth and operations.

The scope of this study was limited to resorts in San Jose, Montalban, and Rizal. It did not include
resorts located in other areas of Montalban or other areas of Rizal, such as Antipolo and San Mateo. It
also specifically identified only the economic, environmental, and social challenges faced by the resorts
and their employees throughout the height of the COVID-19 restrictions implemented between March
2020 and January 2022 and the foreseen problems that the resorts may face after this period. The study
did not include the challenges faced by resorts through lockdowns and quarantines imposed after this
period.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Montalban: a brief history
Montalban is located in the northernmost part of Rizal Province at the foot of the Sierra Madre
Mountains. It is strategically positioned at the periphery of Metropolitan Manila, sharing a boundary
with Quezon City and Caloocan City in the west. 62% of the land area of Montalban is part of the
Marikina Watershed Reserve. Montalban is a town of cultural and historical significance. Under the
Board Resolution No. Two S.1996, the Pamitinan Cave in Sitio Wawa, San Rafael, Montalban, and
Rizal was declared a National Historic Site. In 1895, members of the Katipunan with the Supremo
himself, Andres Bonifacio, took their oath and declared independence from Spain in this cave. The
words 'Viva la Independencia Filipinas were still written on the cave wall. (National Historical
Commission of the Philippines [NHCP], 1996; Bayan & Rodriguez [Historical Marker], 2016; Layag,
2018). Aside from its relevance in the beginnings of the Katipunan, then General Emilio Aguinaldo
retreated to Montalban in 1897 while the troop led by General Licerio Geronimo chased the Spanish
forces away. A statue was erected in his honor, bearing a marker from the NHCP (Licerio I. Geronimo
[Historical Marker], 1993). The town itself is named after a national figure, Eulogio Rodriguez, whose
house is also considered a historic site (Eulogio Rodriguez Y Adona [Historical Marker], 1983).
"Amang" was born into a low-income family but worked his way to becoming Senate President by 1953
(Senate of the Philippines, n.d.). In addition to its historical significance, Montalban is considered home
to the great legend of Bernardo Carpio. Several versions of the story exist, from its origins as a Spanish
legend (Franklin III, 1937) to the more localized versions that depict Bernardo as either a giant or a
demigod of remarkable strength (NHCP, 1996); Yungib ng Pamitinan [Historical Marker], 1996). Most
versions of the local legend point to Bernardo pushing apart Mt. Pamitinan and Mt. Binacayan as the
origin of the Montalban Gorge and the Marikina River, where the Wawa dam was constructed. There
are different versions of the legend, but most end with Bernardo trapped and chained inside the
mountains. Locals attribute earthquakes from the west and east valley fault lines to Bernardo and his
attempts to free himself from them.

Since the 1990s, it has also served as a relocation site for informal settlers from the National Capital
Region ("NCR"). Data from the Philippine Statistics Authority [PSA] show that this has a positive
effect on population growth after years of consistent decline (PSA, 2015). The last publication on the
municipality of Montalban, "History and Cultural Life of Montalban and its Barrios" was published in
1954. Unfortunately, no known books or academic journals chronicling developments in the
municipality have followed. Hence, a straightforward timeline of when demand for tourism increases
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is unavailable. Still, population trends can be traced by following the rapid increase in population from
the forced resettlement of informal settlers and slum-dwellers of Metro Manila. In 1998, President
Joseph Estrada established a resettlement area in Montalban. The first housing projects were created
as a model resettlement site for the "slum dwellers" and informal settlers in Metro Manila. This project
was part of the government's attempts to re-urbanize Metro Manila through the demolition of poverty
districts, redistribution of the poor urban population, and expansion of the urban area into new territories
(Terminski, 2013). After the jumpstart provided by the development-induced displacement, Montalban
eventually became a "satellite" town of Metro Manila through its low-cost housing opportunities. At
present, it has a positive growth rate of 5.34%, with 97.01% of the population comprising citizens aged
< 65 years.

Montalban and Rizal have only begun to reap the economic benefits from the increased population
caused by the development-induced displacement of slum dwellers in 1998 and the counter-
urbanization of city dwellers looking for permanent residence away from the city. Periods of
urbanization bring about significant social and economic changes in the areas it takes hold, including
job creation and poverty reduction. In addition to its economic benefits, it also brings many cultural
changes by redefining the lifestyle of the people experiencing it (Noja, Cristea, Yüksel, Pânzaru, &
Drăcea, 2018). The case of Montalban includes demand for the development of rural tourism in the
form of resort-related tourism growth.

2.2. Sustainable tourism in other local and international destinations

In more popular coastal destinations, such as Boracay Island and Puerto Princesa City, Palawan,
sustainability plays an even more significant role in maintaining tourism spaces. Coastal tourism
destinations largely depend on the aesthetic quality of the natural environment. However, these areas
are also at greater risk of environmental degradation due to congestion. In a study conducted in
Batangas, it was identified that beach resorts and dive resorts are visited significantly more frequently
than other tourism destinations in the province (Vizconde & Felicen, 2012); however, even coastal
tourism destinations, no matter how famous, have been marred by periods of unsustainability (Ong et
al., 2011). For example, in Boracay, continued concerns over the carrying capacity of the destination
have been raised owing to the consistent development of infrastructure in the area. According to the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources [DENR] in 2017 was 6,405 per day. However, the
average daily arrival recorded in 2019 was 7,774. (Cruz & Legaspi, 2019). One instance that furthers
the importance of sustainable development is the coliform crisis of 1997. Trousdale (2001), as cited by
Ong et al. (2011)) reported that high levels of coliforms caused by inadequate sewage treatment on the
island were found to contaminate the beach. This incident caused a 70% decline in the number of
tourists in the months following the announcement. At the same time, the image of Boracay and the
Philippines as tourism destinations was damaged. There have been plans to lead the island to the path
of sustainability as early as 1984, but the focus of sustainability efforts in Boracay has been almost
exclusively on the physical environment and aesthetic quality of the location. Little attention has been
paid to social sustainability. In 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Proclamation 475, declaring a
state of calamity on the island and temporarily closing it as a tourist destination. In addition to the long-
term adverse effects of the closure of local businesses and national revenues, over 5,000 workers have
also lost their jobs. Employment adjustment measures at minimum wage standards had to be provided
to displaced workers, costing the government P400 million or USD 7.4 Million. Local businesses had
to take loans to cover operational costs throughout the closure period (Cruz & Legaspi, 2019). Closely
followed by the economic downturn from the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the long-term effects of
misplaced sustainability efforts will be felt by locals for years to come.

This is in stark contrast to Puerto Princesa, Palawan, where sustainability has remained at the forefront
of tourism development for the last 20 years (Manalo, 2017). Tourism remains the dominant player in
the local economy of Palawan, and the local government is consistent in its efforts to increase the
carrying capacity of the province. These profit-forward efforts have been balanced by focusing on green
technologies and community-based sustainable tourism practices (Manalo 2017). Their promotion of

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sustainability has even afforded them the honor of having the Underground River of Puerto Princesa
declared one of the Seven Wonders of the World in 2012.

In Malaysia, research has shown that sustainable tourism positively affects the resilience of rural
tourism communities. It was also established that several factors such as (a) the lifestyle and culture of
tourism operators, (b) the relationship with government authorities, (c) the flexibility of the community,
and (d) environmental conditions are vital to ensuring that rural tourism destinations can recover quickly
from difficult experiences. The same study also mentioned that managers and other tourism
stakeholders play a vital role in conceptualizing the sustainability concept of the rural tourism
community (Amir et al., 2015). Many organizations that are making headway in promoting
sustainability do not realize that there is a need to educate the community on the value of investing in
rural capital as an essential component in ensuring sustainability. This is in line with the research of
Sulistiowati, Adisa, and Caturiani (2021), who highlighted that stakeholder synergy in key areas such
as policymaking, business practices, community involvement, and tourist behavior is essential to ensure
that tourism is sustainable, and therefore beneficial to everyone involved.

Rural destinations face many significant challenges. Rural tourism destinations cater to fewer tourists
than their urban and coastal counterparts (Lebe & Milfelner, 2006), but rural tourism remains a viable
source of livelihood for local communities. Thus, there is an ever-present desire to develop tourism
destinations further. In the case of Antipolo, Rizal, and Pansol, Laguna, research has identified that
resorts pay more attention to profit-driven development instead of their economic, legal, ethical, and
philanthropic responsibilities (Hangdaan, Bustillo, Villamor, & Mandigma Jr, 2019). Lebe and
Milfelner (2006) suggest that one of the main weaknesses of rural tourism destinations is the relative
lack of knowledge about the tourism market, tourism offers, and destination marketing. The researchers
proposed a model that combines destination management with network management as the key to
simplifying and promoting tourism in rural destinations. This model involves establishing a destination
management company or organization responsible for creating a sustainable development strategy for
the community. On the other hand, several studies, including Idziak et al. (2015), suggest that using a
bottom-up approach, which involves community participation, is the best way to develop sustainable
tourism destinations. However, no single model can be applied to all destinations, as the best approach
will vary depending on the specific needs of the community. Different models used in these areas further
highlight the importance of adaptability in sustainability models. Each destination and community has
different goals and standards for measuring sustainability. Adverse impacts on the environmental and
social spheres, especially in rural tourism destinations, are expected. When development is focused on
sustainability, these effects can be mitigated while meeting the needs of communities and the demands
of the tourism market.

2.3. Theoretical and empirical models of sustainability

The two most prominent approaches to corporate sustainability are the Systemic and Triple Bottom
Line (TBL) approaches. Elkington (2007) uses the TBL framework to shed light on the importance of
balancing the economic, environmental, and social aspects of sustainability and the importance of
stakeholders' interpretation of the sustainability of their behaviors. Unfortunately, the TBL approach
has been criticized by multiple authors for failing to move forward with the sustainability agenda,
despite the pervasiveness of its ideas in the last few decades. Criticisms of the TBL, especially in the
research of Sridhar and Jones (2013), outlined its weaknesses as the complexity of its measurement,
lack of integration between its three dimensions, and use as a mere compliance mechanism. Despite its
prevalence in companies’ environmental accounting systems in the past few decades, it remains an
unreliable tool for measuring sustainability.

While both theories offer holistic views of sustainability, the systemic perspective adopts a more
integrated approach. The three sustainability zones in the TBL approach are separate and distinct.
According to de Campos Jr. (2017), this is where the TBL approach fails. The systemic approach more
accurately illustrates the dynamism of the three. de Campos Jr (2017) further explains that the economic
subsystem cannot exist outside the social dimension, and the social dimension in the same way cannot
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exist outside the realm of the economic system. de Campos Jr (2017) also adds that because each system
is dynamic and all three are interrelated, the systemic approach can better illustrate the constant positive
and negative feedback loops that run between the three.

The core concept behind these 'systems' is a body with integrated parts that interact with one another to
form a whole (Watson & Watson, 2011). The systemic approach is an idea that is familiar in the realm
of social sciences, as the same concept is present in the works of many sociologists, including Emile
Durkheim and his theory of Structural Functionalism. Over the last few decades, systems theory has
evolved from a General Systems Theory to the development of a distinction between hard and soft
systems. The hard-systems approach is more objective and reflects positivist epistemology. This
approach has been criticized for representing an inaccurate view because it cannot acknowledge the
discord in social systems, resulting in inaccurate and often inappropriate solutions to problems in social
systems. On the other hand, the soft systems approach is aimed at understanding different kinds of
systems ranging from the environment to humans (Watson & Watson, 2013). This is a more
interpretative approach that aims to understand the viewpoints of individuals within the system instead
of attempting to interpret their reality from an outsider's perspective. Therefore, soft systems thinking
facilitates dialogue between stakeholders to reach an agreement instead of suggesting an optimal
solution (Watson & Watson, 2011). Eventually, systems theory evolved to become a more critical
approach to thinking which Watson and Watson (2011) summarizes as follows: "Ultimately, systems
thinking entails identifying the components that make up a system, understanding relations between
them, and how these components impact the larger system, external systems, and supra-systems,
and vice versa." (p.64) Sustainability itself is a system-based concept. Although systems theory has
been used for decades in management sciences, it has had little impact on qualitative research outside
this realm. To address the pressing issues of sustainability and sustainable development, an
understanding of the dynamism and interconnectedness of interactions between and within systems is
necessary. In the context of this study, understanding can only be attained by acknowledging the
interconnectedness between the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable resort
development. This framework recognizes that institutional growth is systemically limited to the
availability of finite resources in the environment, economy, and society (Martin et al., 2005). Paradigm
shifts in the environment directly affect social and economic dimensions through systemic feedback
loops. Correctly organizing the three spheres by hierarchy acknowledges how social and economic
spheres are based on environmental sustainability (de Campos Jr., 2017).

3. Research Methodology
The province of Rizal is composed of thirteen (13) municipalities with zero (0) independent cities, with
a total area of 1,191.94 square kilometers and a population of 2.88 million as of August 1, 2015 (PSA,
2015). Montalban is the largest municipality in the province of Rizal in terms of land area. It is declared
a "first-class" municipality despite its agricultural character, lack of infrastructure, and economic
dynamism. Its annual revenue income has been steadily increasing from PhP 486.18 million to PhP
532.9 million in 2016, and PhP 875.69 million in 2019, the third-highest in the entire province of Rizal
after Cainta and Taytay (Bureau of Local Government Finance, 2016). According to the latest
population data from the PSA, Montalban is home to 369,222 people, making it the largest municipality
in terms of size in the country (PSA 2015). The research design necessitates the use of a purposive
sampling method for respondents who meet the following criteria.
1. The place or establishment is privately owned and officially registered with Rodriguez’s local
government as either a public or private resort or a venue for gatherings and/or special events.
2. The place or establishment is up-to-date in the local registration of their businesses.
3. The place or establishment is entirely devoted as a place for leisure, amusement, or social gatherings;
and (d) offers some form of accommodation for rent, whether in the form of private rooms for private
resorts/venues or tables, bungalows, huts, and other small areas for public venues.
4. The place or establishment features at least one (1) pool that may comfortably fit at least three (3)
people; and
5. The place or establishment has been in continuous operation for at least one (1) year.

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Using Google Earth Pro satellite data from April 2021, the researcher initially identified forty-four (44)
resorts that fulfilled the criteria. These resorts were further divided into five clusters based on
differences in their topography and geographic location. Clustering was necessary because each group
featured different social, economic, and topographical characteristics.
1. Cluster 1: Resort developments close to the Sierra Madre mountains
2. Cluster 2: Resort developments located deep in the mountains of Rodriguez, relatively far from
any residential or agricultural zones
3. Cluster 3: Resort developments with a close view of the Sierra Madre mountains and located
close to the Marikina River
4. Cluster 4: Resort developments located in relatively secluded high-elevation residential zones
5. Cluster 5: Resort developments located in the rural, metropolitan zone

This method allowed the respondent to classify the resorts with others who shared similar
characteristics, ensuring that the sample to be chosen was homogenous. Considering the homogeneity
of the population, the criteria, and the external limitations to the data collection process due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, the researcher decided to focus on data collection in Cluster 5. Twenty-eight (28)
resorts are located in Brgy. San Jose is grouped into this cluster. Resorts in this group are located in
low-elevation residential and commercial areas. Although some are located close to the Marikina River,
these establishments do not make as much use of Rodriguez’s natural topography. The previous clusters
were highly dependent on the attractive offers of nearby commercial establishments and proximity to
the main road that leads to Quezon City. The proximity between resorts in this town, as earned by Brgy.
San Jose has a reputation as a "Resort Baranggay.”

An interview approach was used as the primary data collection instrument. A semi-structured interview
can gather a significant amount of information while remaining ripe for contextualization, as this format
allows the interviewer to improvise questions depending on the participant’s responses (Galletta, 2013).
The questions asked focused on prior knowledge of sustainability and resort-related tourism growth in
Montalban, as well as economic conditions, use of natural resources, community support, and measures
implemented to ensure sustainability before and throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. The initial data
gathering plan was to interview fifteen (15) respondents from five (5) resorts in San Jose. Each resort
was envisioned to have at least three (3) respondents each, composed of one (1) manager/owner and
two (2) employees. The resorts interviewed were either open private rentals for events or exclusive
gatherings, or for public rentals where they would share the use of pools with other clients. The prices
for rental of the public resorts ranged from PhP 75.00 to PhP 200.00 per head, while private rentals
ranged between PhP 7,000.00, and PhP 14,000.00.

Table 1. Public Resort

Resort Available Number of Price range
Facilities Pools
B Pavilions 3 PHP 200.00/head
C Pavilions 6 Php 75.00-150.00 / head
E Pavilions 4 PHP 150.00/head

Table 2. Private Resorts

Available Number of
Resort Price range
Rooms Pools

A 10 1 PHP 10,000.00 to 22,000.00

C 3 5 PHP 7,000.00

D 2 4 PHP 10,000.00 to 14,000.00

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 E 6 4 PHP 8,500.00 to PHP 10,000.00

There were ten (10) male and seven (7) female respondents, representing 58% and 42% of the total
sample, respectively. The average length of employment in the resort is 4.28 years, with the shortest
being one (one) year and the longest at thirty (30) years. The youngest and oldest respondents were
found at Resort E, with Respondent 14 being only eighteen (18) years old, and Respondent 15 at
seventy-three (73) years of age. Three (3) respondents achieved only a grade in school-level education,
four (4) finished high school, two (2) finished two years in college, and five (5) held a college degree.

Table 3. Respondent demographics

Code Resort Age G Job Title Years Education
1 55 M Lifeguard / Caretaker 1 Grade School
2 B 44 F Owner 10 College
3 30 M Lifeguard / Caretaker 3 High School
7 35 M Manager 3 College
8 A 30 F Manager 3 College UG
9 29 M Caretaker 1 Vocational
10 43 M Caretaker 1 Vocational
11 E 41 M Manager 4 College
12 35 F Caretaker 2 Grade School
13 31 F Caretaker 3 High School
14 D 18 F Caretaker 3 College UG
15 73 M Owner 30 College
16 27 F All-around helper 1.5 High School
17 C 25 M Caretaker 1 Vocational
18 46 M Manager / Owner 6 High School
19 40 F Caretaker 4 Grade School
E
20 38 M Caretaker 2 N/A

4. Results and Discussions

In the case of Montalban and Rizal, a systems approach was used to qualitatively assess the
sustainability of resort-related tourism growth. This was achieved by considering all three dimensions
of sustainability and identifying the problems faced throughout the height of the COVID-19 pandemic
between 2020 and 2022. The following challenges were identified.

Table 4. Challenges to sustainability throughout and after the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions
Dimension of Opportunities for development after
Challenges during the pandemic
effect the pandemic
 Decrease in bookings
 Operations and maintenance costs
Economic  Continuous tax payments  N/A
 Economic recovery after Typhoon
Ulysses
Social  Job insecurity  Precarious employment
 Depleting groundwater levels
Environmental  N/A
 Water quality

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4.1. Challenges in the economic dimension
The COVID-19 pandemic and the closure of resorts as a result of the lockdowns resulted in
unprecedented economic challenges. The implementation of lockdowns in the Philippines as a measure
to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus significantly affected resorts in Montalban. Effectively,
resorts had to close down for almost two (2) years as they were only allowed to reopen for two (2)
months in 2020 and three (3) months in 2021.

These closures caused a significant decline in bookings for resorts. Respondent 7 narrated that before
the pandemic, they would receive between twelve (12) to twenty (20) private bookings a month.
Respondents estimated the decrease to be about seventy percent (70%). The same was true for all resorts
except for one. Resort D continued to operate throughout the pandemic period. The owner explained
that he did not stop operations throughout the lockdowns because he believed that the restrictions
imposed by the lockdown were even good for his business. Their clients were limited to those who
could afford to rent for smaller groups, so maintenance was easier. Because few resorts were operating
in secret, they hosted customers regularly. On most resorts, however, the decline in bookings caused
them to change their maintenance habits and employ measures to decrease maintenance costs. Regular
costs of maintenance before the pandemic ranged from ten thousand (PhP 10,000.00) to one hundred
thousand pesos (PhP 100,000.00) monthly. These include chemicals such as chlorine, antibacterial
treatments, and pool filter powders such as dicalite, utility bills, electricity and water bills, employee
wages, and business permits and taxes. Resorts are required to reduce the use of treatment chemicals.
While Resort E continued to treat its pool daily, it cut down on the use of chlorine. In addition to
decreasing the use of chemical treatments, Resort C had to render some of its pools inoperative to
decrease maintenance costs. According to the owner of Resort C, not only did they have to reduce the
treatment of the pool to two (2) to three (3) times a week from the daily treatments, but they also had to
drain five (5) out of the six (6) pools. In addition to the costs of regular maintenance, taxes and other
government fees have remained consistent throughout the pandemic. According to Respondent 11, taxes
not only remained consistent, but the local government also did not allow them to pay fewer taxes than
they did in the previous year. Respondent 15 expressed how he, as president of the resort associations,
requested to impose a moratorium on the taxes to be paid by the resorts but that his request was declined.

Resorts also had to reduce operational costs, including labor. Resort C explained that they had to dismiss
many of their staff members and that they were able to retain only two members (2). Respondent 2
explained that though Resort B did not dismiss any employees, they reduced their work days. During
the interview, Respondent 16 recounted how insecurity in employment also affected her children’s
education, as she needed to have a stable income to purchase a mobile device and pay for utilities so
they could keep up with the online classes. On the other hand, job security was not an issue with two of
the resorts interviewed. At Resorts D and E, employees are provided with free housing and utilities on-
site. Additionally, the owners of Resort E did not dismiss any employees and continued to pay their
existing employees the same wage without delay throughout the pandemic. In addition to their regular
wages, they were also given Christmas bonuses and 13th Month Payments. Respondents 12 and 19
narrated how the owners took care of them and their families throughout the pandemic and how they
even assisted them in applying for government grants to receive extra cash. In the case of Resort D, the
employees were housed on-site. Although the respondents refused to disclose their wages, it can be
assumed that wages remained consistent because they continued to accept regular customers throughout
the pandemic.

To add more to the challenge of keeping businesses afloat throughout the pandemic, the town of
Montalban was declared to be under a state of calamity after the devastation brought by Typhoon
Ulysses in November 2020. The typhoon caused severe flooding, and it was reported that approximately
fourteen thousand families had to evacuate their own homes to seek temporary shelter (Staff, 2020);
Sangguniang Bayan ng Rodriguez, 2020). It was one of the areas hardest hit by the typhoon, and its
effects in Montalban were mostly felt in the plains and lowlands of the town, including San Jose, where
the respondents were located. According to Respondent 18, Resort C was engulfed by the flood that he
was unable to save anything aside from a few clothes. Because most of the pumps and filters were
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submerged in thick flood waters, they also had to spend additional money to repair the broken pumps
and purchase new ones. Resorts D and E suffered a similar fate, being located a few meters from the
river itself. The employees of Resort E narrated how they lost all their belongings and had to buy new
clothes because everything they owned was buried in muddy water. According to Respondent 11, the
expenses incurred due to the flood did not help the financial instability they experienced throughout the
pandemic. According to him, they spent between five hundred thousand (PhP 500,000.00) to one
million (PhP 1,000,000.00) just to get the mud out of the resort. They were initially assisted by the Red
Cross by lending them bulldozers, but they also had to rent additional bulldozers from the local
government and employed ninety-six (96) people to dig the entire resort out of the mud. After all the
digging, they also had to repair the pavilions, including damaged roofing.

Despite these challenges, the resorts remained afloat and were able to reopen as soon as the restrictions
eased. The economic challenges brought about by the pandemic seemed to be temporary, as respondents
have expressed how bookings have returned close to pre-pandemic levels in short periods that they were
allowed to open between 2020 and 2022. Respondent 11 even remarked that the short periods that they
were able to open allowed them to pay their employees regularly and to even distribute Christmas
bonuses. Sustainability, in its simplest definition, involves meeting the needs of the present while also
ensuring that the ability of people to meet their own needs in the future is not compromised. Economical
sustainability represents a business’s physical, financial, and human capital investments and the
sustainability of the management and operation of these investments in the long term. Using this
definition and gathering information from respondents, it can be deduced that the resorts in Montalban
are economically sustainable. As additional evidence of economic sustainability, none of the
respondents accepted financial assistance from the government in the form of loans. The managers even
expressed that taking out loans was unnecessary to maintain their businesses. The issues experienced
in this dimension throughout the pandemic can be easily remedied by allowing resorts in Montalban to
reopen. Although slow, the growth of resorts in Montalban remains consistent, as more resorts have
opened in Montalban since 2020. New resorts such as Hillside Resort, Merlita’s Venue and Private
Resort, Villa Jalapa Private Pool, and Id and Che’s Resort have only recently opened.

Economic sustainability is the final step in establishing sustainable development. Prioritizing economic
sustainability without first establishing environmental and social dimensions creates an imbalance in
the system that puts the entire system at risk. Establishing economic sustainability has been a priority
in resort-related tourism growth in Montalban since its inception and throughout the pandemic period.
Development aimed at economic sustainability may have been seen as necessary to keep the resorts
operational after the lockdowns were imposed, as growth remained mostly stagnant mainly because of
the imposed lockdowns.

4.2. Challenges in the social dimension

The resorts in Montalban have focused their development on promoting economic sustainability, but
this has effectively sacrificed the social and environmental dimensions for the sake of money. In the
social dimension, precarious employment remains an ever-present challenge for social sustainability.
The social domain involves important elements such as "community, education, health, housing, human
rights, and liveability" (Robinson et al., 2019). Sustainability means not only conserving and using
natural resources responsibly but also respecting the rights of human beings to live fulfilled lives. The
‘people’ or social dimension is largely neglected especially in the tourism industry (Vallance, Perkins,
& Dixon, 2011) as cited in Robinson et al. (2019), and this remains true in the case of our respondents.
According to Robinson et al. (2019), tourism employment is defined as “precarious work” that is
“characterized by employment that is irregular and insecure; part-time/casual, quasi-self-employment,
project or fixed-term work, temporary work (often via agencies), work on commission, on-call work,
and increasingly a rise in home-based employment, and so-called ‘telecommuting’”.

Before the pandemic, employment stability in the resort-related tourism industry was highly dependent
on seasonal tourist activities in Montalban. According to Respondent 16, her previous employers in the
resort industry regularly dismissed employees during rainy seasons, when customers were scarce. Four
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10
(4) of the seven (7) respondents who discussed their salary with the researcher were part-time/on-call
employees who only earned daily rates when the resort hosted customers or when the resorts needed
maintenance of the facilities. Assuming the respondents work five (5) regular days a week, the highest
daily rate was 400 pesos (PhP 400.00) and the lowest was 100 pesos (PhP 190.00). According to the
PSA (2018), the minimum wage rate in Montalban for establishments that do not employ more than ten
(10) workers is only three pesos (PHP 283.00). This means that most of the respondents were earning
a minimum wage.

Table 5. Respondents’ daily/monthly salaries and other benefits

Respondent Daily Salary Monthly Salary Other benefits
1 PHP 400.00 PHP 8,000.00** n/a
3 PHP 400.00 PHP 8,000.00** n/a
9 PHP 250.00* PHP 5,000.00 n/a
12 PHP 190.00* PHP 3,800.00 Free lodging and
utilities; allowance and
bonuses

16 PHP 250.00 PHP 5,000.00** n/a

17 PHP 300.00 PHP 6,000.00** Free lodging and utilities

19 PHP 250.00* PHP 5,000.00 Free lodging and

utilities; allowance and
bonuses

* full-time employee; only the monthly rate was provided by the respondent and the daily rate was
computed assuming the respondents worked five regular days a week
** part-time / on-call employee; only the daily rate was provided by the respondent and the monthly
rate was computed assuming the respondents worked five regular days a week

According to PSA (2018), a family of five members needs at least seven thousand three-hundred thirty-
seven pesos (PhP 7,337.00) to meet the food threshold. To meet basic food and non-food needs, a family
of five will need at least ten thousand four hundred eighty-one pesos (PhP 10,481.00) per month.
Although there are differences in the additional benefits provided by each resort and those on the lower
end of the wage spectrum also provided free lodging and utilities, the total earnings of the respondents
remained well below the livable wage. Only two (2) of the respondents earn enough to meet the food
threshold, and all of them do not earn enough to meet both food and non-food needs. Employment
instability is not a surprise given that the pandemic has caused challenges in employment, especially
among Persons of Concern in developing countries such as Nigeria (Muhammed, Adenike, &
Salahudeen, 2020), as socio-economic activities ceased throughout the pandemic. However, concerns
about Montalban were present even before the restrictions began. Additionally, employers need to
ensure that they pay their employees enough to meet both food and non-food needs. Failure to address
political, ethical, and social issues related to the sustainability of development causes a domino effect
that effectively undermines any success in the economic dimension. Achieving social sustainability did
not solely mean paying wages or providing benefits; it involved an equitable “distribution of resources,
services, and opportunities” (Campbell 1996, as cited in Opp (2017)) to improve quality of life.
Therefore, although most of the respondents were paid above the minimum wage in Montalban,
sustainability cannot be achieved if they are unable to meet their own and their families basic needs.

4.3. Challenges in the economic dimension

Unlike the economic dimension of sustainability, which can be computed by auditing the assets and
liabilities of a business, the sustainability of the environmental dimension cannot be easily computed.
In addition to balancing the needs of the present with the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs, this also involved considering the people who may be disadvantaged by development and asking
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11
questions such as "What forms of natural capital are affected by our operations?", "Will the natural
capital be affected by the planned developments of the business?" and "Are the natural capitals
sustainable?" (Elkington 2007). In this section, the perceived extent of the sustainability challenges
faced by the resorts was determined.

Groundwater in the Philippines currently supplies less than 50% of the potable water supply and 85%
of the piped water supply in the Philippines” (BGS, n.d.). In the case of resorts, the groundwater
reservoir of Montalban provides water for all of them. In three (3) of the resorts, a dagdag-bath system
was employed, which involved emptying half of the pool water, replacing it with fresh water from the
deep well, and then treating the water with chemicals to kill the remaining bacteria. With the remaining
two (2) resorts, the entire pool was emptied and replaced with fresh water from the deep wells.
Subsequently, the resorts used a minimal amount of chemicals to disinfect the remaining bacteria in
what they perceived to be already clean water. The dagdag-bawas practice of the resorts may be
economically sustainable because the respondents did not pay water for utilities and used minimal
chemicals to treat the water. However, this also raises the question of the allowable extent of the use of
natural resources for these purposes and the limited use of groundwater for replenishment.

Unlike arid and semi-arid areas of the world, the tropical climate of the Philippines allows for a quick
recharge of groundwater aquifers. This was especially true in the areas where the resorts were located,
as water is readily available through the Marikina River Basin. The groundwater reservoir in Montalban
is capable of providing 175.58 liters per second (lps) of water (Berkman, 2015). Several factories in
Montalban, particularly those located near Wawa Dam, have been using high-capacity pumps, resulting
in overdrafts in the water source (Berkman, 2015). The DENR is aware of diminishing groundwater
levels and has already issued a ban on water extraction from deep wells in Rizal as early as 2008
(Philstar, 2008). The use of deep wells to fill the resort pools was therefore not only illegal but also
unsustainable, as it may lead to groundwater over-drafting if not controlled and monitored properly.

In addition to the threats to the water supply posed by overdrafts, excessive pumping of groundwater
has been proven to contribute to abrupt sea level rise, causing flooding. According to the National Water
Resources Board [NWRB], excessive groundwater pumping has led to an abrupt rise in sea levels,
particularly in the northern parts of Metro Manila “at a rate of two to nine millimeters per year”
(philstar, 2008). In addition to increasing the risk of flooding, overdrafts are also known to cause land
subsidence (lowering of the ground), formation of earth fissures, activation of pre-existing shallow
faults, and triggering of microseismic and seismic events (Gambolati & Teatini, 2015). These link
groundwater over-extraction to causing human-induced earthquakes (Tiwari, Jha, Kundu, Gahalaut, &
Vissa, 2021; Wetzler et al., 2019). Not only does this pose a significant hazard to Montalban, but,
according to Wetzler et al. (2019), stress changes extend beyond the aquifer itself making it a possibility
for overdrafts to “induce seismic events at larger distances with magnitudes that are not constrained
by the size of the aquifer.” The threat that this poses to Montalban is significant, as it is largely unknown
how the seismic events that occur from over-drafting can affect the East and West Valley Faults of the
Marikina Valley Fault System in Montalban. Despite the known threats associated with over-drafting
from the reservoir, the ban on deep-water drilling, and the illegal use of deep wells, there have been no
recent groundwater assessments done to measure the level and quality of the groundwater in Montalban.
To date, the DENR through the Mines and Geosciences Bureau [MGB] has only assessed the provinces
of Batangas and Laguna since 2019 (MGB Region IV Calabarzon, 2019a; 2019b; 2021). The
uninterrupted use of groundwater in pools called into question how this practice may be exhausting the
natural capital that the residents of Montalban, as well as nearby provinces and cities, all depend on.
Not only did over-drafting endanger the ability of people to continuously access water from the aquifer
reservoir, but the associated environmental risks also challenged the ability of residents to live safely
and securely, thus making this a significant challenge to sustainability.

Furthermore, adding to the already significant environmental concerns over the use of groundwater is
the quality of the water itself and the public health concerns associated with its use. The Marikina River
was declared dead in 2004 (Philstar 2004). It was also classified as Class C, which is considered safe
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only for the propagation of fish, recreational boating, and industrial water supplies (DENR, 1990).
According to Berkman (2015), in the project “Formulation of an Integrated River Basin Management
and Development Master Plan for Marikina River Basin,” the groundwater supply remains safe for use
as “the water from the river itself could be partially filtered as it percolates to the groundwater aquifer.”
However, the DENR did not consider the groundwater reservoir in Montalban to be a reliable source of
water for domestic purposes (Berkman, 2015), which included using water for leisure and recreational
purposes. An additional threat to the safety of groundwater resources is the Montalban Solid Waste
Disposal Facility, located in Brgy. San Isidro, Montalban. Regardless of the ideal site selection,
monitoring systems, and use of the best landfill and leachate collection systems, the danger of leachate
infiltration in groundwater reservoirs remains high (Luo et al., 2020; Mukherjee et al., 2015). According
to a study conducted in 2012 that investigated the transport of leachate contaminants into the surface
and groundwater in Montalban, there were definite indications of leachate contamination from a nearby
sanitary landfill. The study "unequivocally identifies[d] leachate as a source of contamination in the
surface water and groundwater” ’(Castaneda & David, 2012). The same study explained that leachate
contamination into the groundwater reservoir occurs during periods of excessive rainfall, such as the
flood that the resorts experienced in 2020. This further explains that ingestion and dermal contact are
the primary means by which leachate can reach human beings, and both of these are highly likely if not
inevitable when customers swim in pools. Exposure to pollutants in leachate leads to public health
concerns including carcinogenic effects, acute toxicity, and genotoxicity (Luo et al., 2020).

In addition to the threats posed by groundwater use to the safety and security of residents in Montalban,
associated public health concerns also threaten the social and economic dimensions of sustainability.
Any health and safety issues related to water quality not only have the potential to harm customers but
can also tarnish the reputation that the resorts have spent the last few years building. This happened
when sewage contaminated the waters in Boracay in 1997, causing a 70% decline in tourism in the
months that followed (Ong et al., 2011). With all of this information in the table, it was in the best
interest of the local government, the resort owners, and the local community to assess the quality of the
groundwater in Montalban.

5. Conclusion
5.1. Conclusion
Using the systems approach, it is evident that each dimension is interconnected through constant
feedback loops that run through them. Owing to the hierarchical nature of the three dimensions,
economic issues are effectively isolated. The identified issues in the social dimension were also
independent of the pandemic, as these are the result of long-established standards of employment in the
tourism industry. On the environmental front, the effect of the pandemic was limited. While problems
in the environmental dimension are bound to affect the social and economic dimensions, problems in
the economic dimension do not necessarily carry the same breadth of effects. Unfortunately, resort-
related tourism growth in Montalban has been dominated by economic factors. However, the focus has
been unequal. Instead of establishing an environmental dimension, decisions in the social and
environmental sectors are dependent on the economic dimension. Thus, business decisions are made
keeping only the short-term return on investment in mind, sacrificing the long-term sustainability of the
environmental and social dimensions. This has resulted in issues regarding the groundwater supply level
and water quality. The precarious nature of employment in the local tourism sector in Montalban must
also be addressed. Resort workers must receive living wages and enjoy the right to secure tenure and
humane working conditions. This study recommends the immediate conduct of a formal groundwater
level assessment of the reservoir and addressing concerns over the quality and classification of the water
that permeates from the Marikina River into the aquifer reservoir. Local government interventions must
be undertaken to address the problem of leachate contamination and sealing of illegal deep wells.

When the social and environmental dimensions were prioritized, the tourism-carrying capacity of the
environment, as well as the well-being of residents, employees, and the community in general, was
given more weight than the return on investment. Thus, tourism growth is sustainable because it
maximizes the use of natural resources instead of using them until they are depleted. The promotion of
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13
sustainability in social and environmental dimensions is necessary to ensure the long-term viability of
tourism growth in Montalban.

5.2. Limitation
This study focuses only on the sustainability of resort-related tourism in Montalban during the
pandemic. Therefore, the results may not fully reflect the sustainability challenges faced by other rural
tourism destinations in the Philippines. Mixed method studies using this research as a baseline for
evaluating sustainability may be necessary to accurately measure the level of sustainability in rural
tourism destinations in the Philippines.

5.3. Suggestion
Based on the findings and limitations of this study, the following recommendations were made. First,
there is an immediate need to conduct a formal groundwater level assessment of the reservoir to address
environmental and public health concerns related to over-drafting from the reservoir. Local government
interventions must be undertaken to address the problem of leachate contamination and sealing of illegal
deep wells. Second, the precarious nature of employment in the local tourism sector in Montalban must
be addressed. Resort workers must receive living wages and enjoy the right to secure tenure and humane
working conditions. Finally, resorts must secure the ability of their workers to live healthy and fulfilled
lives.

Acknowledgment
The assistance of my research adviser, Mr. Jan Phillip Mallari, and my school, De la Salle University,
Dasmarinas, is paramount for the completion of this research.

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