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Functions, Limits & Continuity
Function limits and continuity basics
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Functions and Limits 4 FUNCTIONS gnomes and other sciences we have to deal with more than one variable. The economics variable are not of great importance unless they are associated with ‘ed variables. The way in which one variable depends on other variables is es in relat : ; ered by means of functions which pervade all mathematics and its applications, jsarelation which associates any given number with another number. Functions defined jn several waysty ea function from the’ set X into the set Y as a set of ordered pairs (x Y) jement of X and y is an element of ¥ such that for each x in X there is only y) in the function f-'The notation used is We defin' prere x is an el me lordered pair @ FX Yorx 3f@) ory =f) Avfunction is 2 mapping or transformation of x into y or f(x). The variable x presents hents of the domain and.is called the independent variable. The variable y representing Fonts of the range is called the dependent-variable. The function y = f() is often: bia single valued, [function since there is a unique y in the range for each specified x. ily be true. Domain Range = f(a) is thejiniage of ©) A function whosé domain Tange are sets of real fumbers is called a real valued function of a real variable. A function is a constant function if the range consists of ‘single element. It may be written y = k or f(x) = & where k is-a constant. {lffey=¥ for all x it is an identity function’ f@)= lah is the absolute value function. independent variables. If there are 1” independent ~ Often a function depends on several i he set of all possible values of-y corresponding Varig . ables x), x9,......, X, and the range is tMarinate AND STATISTICS FOR pe Dab be ? . x.y we say that y is a function oF 47'S in of (44 Be eo) yas Letters other than f may be used to represent @ function. 0 | if and onl: Equality of functions. TO functions f and g are equal i they same domain and f(x) = 8(4) for all x in th Ex. 1. If p is the price and.x the quantity of a we write the demand function: x=f@) Ex. 2. If stands for saving, s=f) saving depends on income. come and also on rate of interest r, saving is a fy, Ne oy to the dora ¢ domain. Mey commodity demanded by the ca, Hn, Y for income conveys that Ex. 3. If saving depends on in of two variables 7, ¥. s=f% Ex. 4: If wis a function of three variables xy, 2 we waite u=f%y2 Ex. 5 If production (x) isa function of land (D), labour (L), capital (K)-organigas (OQ) we can write : tog x=f(D, LK, 0) as the production function. Ex. 6. If utility is a function of n commodities whose quantities are represented jy then the utility function can be written ~ U = UC, Xan) ty Xp Explicit and Implicit Functions If one variable is expressed directly in teims of other variables, it.is x case of a explicit function. Ex. 7. y = 3x +2, y = 4x2 +9 are explicit functions. _If the relation between the variables is given by an equation containing all te variables we have an implicit function which may not distinguish between dependent ad independent variables. Ex.8 9 2+ Ixy + 9y?+8 =0 yoxlogy =2 fy) =0 are implicit functions. Graphs of Functions graph of a function f(x) is a set of points in the plane e can picture a function y = : - S een ¥=F(4) a8 a graph showing the relation between xan} ty point (x, y) which satisfies the equation y = f(x) is on the curve.TS ND LIME cons : 247 eoorinates of on, Point (x, y) on the curve satis! tre Ff a function consists of all points in the form [x, ih eae fy the equation y = f(x). Thus {02} where x is a number in aus OF A FUNCTION AT A Pomny ine ve ofthe function fs) when xis replaced by a wis poe y =f@) = fx4T f00) = fT fe =Jant 1-12 S420) = fa etarinayasy fe }) =90 fla-1) fant =fa px 10.18 fe) =Lx—3] then £0) =3 Fla+3) =1a43~3) =lal £G) =0 f@~2) =13-x-3] =[al fCD =6 Falls) =11x- 3] Ex. 1.Sf f(x) =2 then F(@) = 2, AO) = 2, fS) =2 Ex 12QIf s(x) =2? +2x+ 1 find fla +b). Ans. a? + 2ab +b? +a4b+1 1 BIBI g6) = 27 find g(0), g(2), (4). Ans. 0, 22,2 Ex. 14. If h(x)= 2° show that 'A(- x) = — AQ). Bx. 15.If h(x) =x show that h@ x) = A(x). Ee 16. Find LO-LO a) for the following: \ xa f)-f@ _x-a_, @ fax Ans. (i) x-a x-a -a aw: (i) fase Hot OE - s40 . _(a-x) (ii) fox) = Ue (i) ' 1 () fa)= fx wy) rege Ex. 17, If ftx) =|x—2I find (0), 2) f- 2)- Aas. 2, 0, 4 %8 NATURE OF SOME FUNCTIONS Bren and oda Functions A function f(x) is said to be an even function if for every x in a certain range, f- 2) = fx)MATHEMATICS AMD STATISTICS FOR Bey, Mt, i vt certain range, ‘A function fix) is an odd function if for every x in ac 2 . Se ee eRe "a Ex. 18. f(x) = x? is an even function. tion. Ex. 19, f(x) = 2° is an odd func / Ex. 20. Prove that if flx), g(x) are both odd functions then fix) + g(x) and f(x) — g(x) are also odd functions. Single and multivalued functions If to each value of x there corresponds one and only one value of y, said to be single valued or uniform, y=x(x-1) If more than one value of y corresponds to one value of x the function is Said to, multivalued or multiform, e.g., ya yx This is a two valued function because an: y(ie, +2 and —2), the function it y value of x say 4, gIVES to valu Ex. 21, Given the implicit function between the variables uy 3x-y=0 this can be written as @ 3r=yorx= »f8 making x the dependent variable and y the independey variable, | i) y = 3x making y, x the dependent anid inde; In this example we have described getting two relationships, Ex. 22. If? + y= Pendent variables respectively, ‘an implicit function or two explicit functions, 9 we have the explicit functions @ #29-P~orx=4 Jo-¥7 (ii) Y=9-Poryas, 9- x2 Ex. 23.5)? +32) 4.20 ed implicit function cannot be Conveniently expressed in the form of explitt Ex. 24. If f(x) = 2-2 4 Wy Show that f(a) + f(- a) = 0 Bx. 28. If f(x) = x4 ~ 322 4 10 show Also Sad the value of 2x) ~ af), F28) = 24) ~ 3028) + 10 = 16,4 1224 10 2fla) = 204 — 6:2 4.29 fla) ~ 2ftx) = 14x — 19.2 19 in an explicit form tus that f(x) = L(x)AND LIMITS ro piven) = 3=2r 4 2 BE por fie DASA M9 3-2(- simil - tag x5+252 = fc) =3-3- Ee px Let y=. 192 cy Munatond$)48404 1) a fe) =art+b fla) =a-a+b=ayy, flea) =-a-at Pa a a a Ag) -eFrbeeo fi) =a-k+b flo.) =a-0+b=b fr?) =p eto bebe0 Ex. 28. For flx) = 2* + 3 show that (i) 2) = 24 — 1), (i) 3) = AO) + fU) +2) - 5 fonotone Functions A function is monotone if it is either increasing or decreasing, A function is increasing if f(xy) < flx,)-for x,
flx) for x, < x, A function is non-increasing if f(xy) 2 flx2) for x $ xp verse Functions If there is an implicit function between x and y we can derive two explicit functions mit, () yas an explicit function of x, ke, y=J) (i) x as an explicit function of y, Le, x= 80) The functions y =f) and x = 8) ‘nvetse functions, Each is inverse to the other Ifa), a(x) are two functions so related that flg(4)] = x for every x in the domain of g(*). he 8{flx)] = x for every x in the domain of fix) Six) and g(x) are called inverses of each other.marnumarics ANP STATISTICS POR, Hey hy i 7 " 1 . Jonoted by S W(x) (read, f inverse, or a function fx) 8 0fteR * erso of ; The inverse 0 ! of f) so that " syed ! sly) =* | 1 ¢ oxists. : ; ato t necessarily have an inverse. Bvery function does no! x+6 22 shay 2 5x6 BETS Ex. 29 are inverses of each other because | yt6)_6e nores(2£") 62s Sx- 646 _ or sso =a | Ex. 30, Find the inverse of . : ii) 5 mea | @ (i) 2 - 4x Wi) ZH : 1 r A (i) 2% Era Ans, (i) er feed (iy EM) No inven, Note that f(x) and f-(x) are inversely related functions of x. The subscript ~1 yy symbol for an inverse function, not an exponent. It is true, however, that 1 -!=—— YO Fe) but this has nothing to do with an inverse function. 9.4 ALGEBRA OF FUNCTIONS We can combine two (or more) functions under the operations of addition, subtraction multiplication and division to form new functions, Let flx) and g(x) be two functions Their sum is the function + YS fQ) + a) Their difference is the function Y= SQ) ~ g(x) Their product is the function Y= fla) + g(x) Their quotient is the function Y = fl)/g(x) where g(x) #0 ‘The composite function of fby g is f (g(x) ‘These functions are defined for all a It $ sa defint The commutative, associative and i those values of x for which fand g are ributive laws hold for functions.xs ANP LIMITS ,,6nRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL Fu IN tic junctions are obtained through a fin ICTIONS : 0, subtraction, multiplication, division inite number ail ae equations. Polynomials, rational ang aT tt ical Fe gn that is not algebraic is a transce ct 251 o ine if algebraic operation like Fe ovine 2 finite number of ions are algebraic. function ! ne janelle Oe uetice cigeeee aeta ‘al function. Trigonomettc, ex ‘ pobynanal fynction is of:the form error ye ao ON! test Oy + ay where 1} eal numbers: "1S a positive integer and ao, ay,... dy tis is a polynomial function of degree minx oostgnt Functions ‘A zero degree polynomial function is a onstant function. Ex. 31. fe) = 3, g(x) =m, A(x) = - k are ypstant functions near Functions ‘A polynomial function of degree 1 is a linear mnction. Ex. 32. fl) = mx + cis a linear function. ‘The linear function fi) = x is called the identity function The graph of a linear function is a straight A linear function line. Quadratic Functions A polynomial function of degree 2 is a quadrat functions of higher degrees. ic function. We can similarly have 9 ‘ ‘A quadratic functionMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR Econ, Mic 1 | sepa ein a quadratic function. 16 graph 18 # Prahola Aa fry = He 34, fix) = 30 - 7x2 4 de Lisa cubic function. x, M4. fix) = 3 y yearsbrrortd A cubic function Rational Functions ‘A rational function is of the form ~ £2) snore f(x), a(x) are polynomials and g(x) #0 gC) Ex. 35. y= is a rational function. 3x? +2x-5 9.6 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS—TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS Trigonometry deals withthe problem of measurement and solution of triangles. Many of the important applications of trigonometry to business cycles and elsewhere do not involve triangles specifically. They deal with the properties and applications of circular functions Periodic Functions A function is periodic with period p(p # 0) if flx + p) = /lx) (see diagram) Y ‘Trigonometric or Circular Functions In the angle PAX, CB is drawn per i , di formi i i ABC. The point C may be taken aaah ah aml ti ane \5 AND LIMITS t10N * ing tri 259 we define the following trigonometric functioy ine of angle written as ns, > 9 =-opp-side_ _ BC o hypotenuse AC Cosine of angle @ adjacent side _ AB cos @ =—————— = hypotenuse AC tangent of angle @ BC AB A Adjacentside 2 x AB ‘these trigonometric functions are the most important periodic functions. more tri ic functi ‘There are three more trigonometric functions—secant, cosecant and cotangent defined sec 0 = Ic0s ©, cosec @ = Isin 8, cot @ = 1/tan 8 ‘The following identities follow easily. sin?@ + cos’@ = 1 sec?® ~ tan?@ = 1 cosec’® - cot = 1 in sin _ tan.0, £82 ~ cor, sind cos6 7 INCLINATION AND SLOPE ira line AP is not horizontal, its angle of inclination is the least positive angle through ich the positive x-axis must be rotated-to coincide with AP. @ is the angle of inclination FAP. If AP is horizontal, @ = 0. If AP is vertical @ = 90°. The slope of-a line PQ is defined by m = tan 8. Ex. 36. What is the slope of a line ‘with inclination 45° which passes through the origin? || Take a point P on the line. Draw PM L OX. Then the slope is given by tan 45° = a = 1 by geometry since UP= oe | Ex. 37. The slope of the lines with | ‘inclination 30°, 60° respectively can be | Proved to be tan30°=—L., and tan 60° = 3asa MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS Fog Reon 0 fo y Ex, 38, The slope of a horizontal line is vero. Fx. 39. The slope of a vertical line is infinite Ex. 40, Consider the cost function c= 2x where c stands for cost and x for output. Is slope is found by taking any point P on it and drawing the perpendicular PM. PM = 5, OM = £ PM ~ Sh = tan @ = —— lope = tan om The following values of tan @ corresponding to different values of 8 may be noted: 6 oO 30° 45° 60° 901808 270°. 3699 tan 6 o + qe ee 0 9 a 9.8 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS In the equation @=x the exponent y is called the logarithm of x to the base a. We write the equation inti alternative form yslog,x x>0, a>0, a#l1 This is the logarithmic function, The expressions x= @ and y = logy x are equivaleht and give the same relation. x may be called the antilogarithm of y to the base a. Ex. 41. log: 16 = 4 since 2 = 16 Jogi 100 = 2 since 102, = 100 log, 1 = 0 since d=] 1 logs’ — | =-3 i (23) as logy x =1 sinceons AND LIMITS ral Fe qperties of logarithmle function, a 1 : “rhe logarithm of the product of two quanti : 7 tities logan = logan + Jog,u uals the sum of their logarithms jis true Because iF U = a, y= then yy - . logauv = x + y= logan 4 log,v gx. 42. logio (16 x 49) = logig 16 + logig 49 gs 43. loge (15 29% 47) = 108,915 + og, 99 ; 0.29 4 The logarithm of the quotient of Da minus the logarithm of the dey Hie B10 47 Wwantiti nominate ities equals the logarithm of the u loga — = log, u— log, y =a
cMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR Econ ig, 256 | wi) =1 ) io x) logy iti) 14 e &, (wii) 4 28 + + logi 240 ~ Io, (plop (28°« Y2AD x4] = 6 1080 28 3 Big 3 Ex. 48, Show (i) log 37 x AT x32 Hlogio 37 + 5logi9 47 Gi) S810 O94 x4 x 100 /m logy * ) loge!" Ex. 49,Show (i) (ii) Toga 71 = ~ 1084 * base as follows: d to any other thm can be change IV. The base of a logarit log, # log, ¥ x =log, u, then =u log, u = It is true because if loggu _log,v* _ 108s _ y Jog, u log,» log,v — logav 10810 40 | Ex. 50.() logy 40 Tog; 20 | ogy 1000 Gi) logio9 1000 Togo 100 log,a __ 1 logy a= log,v log,v From this it follows that since logy’ = ee Tog, ¥ logy ax logy v = 1 logs 15 logs 15 logs 15 bess, __togs15___logsi5_ oe 1¥logs50 ~ log;5+log,50 ~ log, 250 1 =los ee ied log,5 250 Exponential Functions A simple exponential function with base a is defined by the equation x = 4,49 The logarithmic function y = log, x is the inverse of the exponential function =" It should be noted that exponential functions are different from (Linear functions eg. y=ax, xeky (ii) Power functions eg. yext, xay An exponential function is of the form YER, reyys AND LIMITS 0 ane 7 th and decay in ws of growth a ay In economics a ‘toe HO tial function. This Occurs whem tnd tHe Sciences Provide an applincativn pone 4 the rat 4 fine oer n with respect to time is Proportional iothe Of change of the variable und \c! 1 of time. Mount of the variable Present at sen instan Ans. If fix) = gt ontr ft oe 53. Compare the properties of f(x) = fea a9 2 aa 7 logs x with th . Jaterence? 95€ OF lx) = loging (2). What is log; x = 28% log3 logx _ oy logy 3 x = —S% ~ logx B13 * = Toen8 =lg3 logsx = — logigx Bx. 54. Show that x = 0 is the solution of logs (x + 1) + logs (x + 3)=1, y= logy osx Ex. 55. Show that log, b. log, a= 1 for a, b> 0;a, b#1. Ex. 56. Show that Jn (In x) = In (log x) ~ In (log e), Ex. 57. Solve e3t = 4. Ans, 0.231 Ex. $8. Draw the graph of y = logos x. (1% @ Continuous and decreasing function. For s= 05, y= 05; = hy =0;x=2, WT ~ 05 etc, See the diagram). : © 59. Draw the graph of ft) = y = logy x (See the dingram) ug \l8® draw the graph ofits inverse g(x) = 3¥ (Both the functions are continuous and Teasing, For x = 3,y=ljx=1,y=0etc). + ®%.60. Draw the Sraphs of f(x) = logy x and g(x) = 2%.MATHEMATICS AND STATS TESTS ECON, 258 OM t 0.9 HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS ous functions is a special (yPe © jegree nif when ea 4 times the orig + function frequently used 9 econ, oe i bee: ch of its variables is re ‘A function is homogencous of de times the vanable, the new function Is If = fix. y) is homogeneous of degree 7” then Aik, ky) = R= kofix, ) ‘ ; Pla inal function. Meg by, Ex. 61. fox, ))= 7-39 + Sytisa homogeneous function of degree 2 because filer, ky) = 2_ 3hx «ky + SKY? 2? Bayt 5) EEL Ex. 62. f(L, K) is homogeneous of degree aif flak, aK) = 4% fil, K) 2 3x? _ © is homogeneous of degree one. 2 Ky? 3k? xk yar . Ae Ex. 63. fis 2) = =x 2) A linearly homogeneous function of degree one is such that if z =f y), files, ky) = fs y) Ex.64. fx, y) =x + y is linearly homogeneous. @ fil by = e+ y= Meet) =H») @ fey= df ax’ + by® is linearly homogeneous file, ly) = fak®x? + bey? =k fax? by? = if (x, y) Ex. 8. flr, y, 2) =22-5% x yD Here f(x, y, z) is homogeneous of degree zero. Ex. 66. Show that the following functions are linearly homogeneous @ z=ax+ by (3) z= far thy rey? (ii) = (a2 + bay + Pyle 5) i COBB DOUGLAS PRODUCTION FUNCTION L stands for labour, K for capi : aoe for capital and c, B are constants such that ct + B = | then in tion function, replaci , replacing L, K by Y=al¢ xs y pL, pK| ss AND LIMITS puncrion 19 We have a-(PLY"(pKYP =a. pty. BKB =a: p™8 128 io sa: p™P LK = p. aps 1 = bY since w+ B= 1 Hence the Cobb Douglas production function is linearly homogeneous. 67. Show that oy -( 4,By" Ex rete GY = al8K + 1 yer ayo vomogencous of degree I, etus to scale Let Y = AK, L) be a linearly homogeneous production function in labour L and capital Ke Raising all inputs of L, K c-fold will raise the output c-fold. since flcK, cL) = c¥ In other words, a linearly homogeneous production function implies constant returns toscale in production. If no input is used there is no output. If inputs are doubled, output js doubled. | | | | 941 DEMAND FUNCTIONS AND SUPPLY FUNCTIONS Let x denote the quantity of a commodity demanded and p its price. x and p being variables we may write the demand function | x= Alp) showing dependence of x on p or | p= F(x) showing dependence of p on x | ‘These are the explicit forms of the implicit demand function g(x, p) = 0. ‘The..variables, in the case of a demand function, as in the case of other functions in economics, are hypothetical quantities and not actual observable quantities. Changes in the values of parameters cause shifts in the demand curve. The arguments given above apply to a supply function also if x stands for the variable supply. The slgpe of a supply curve is positive and that of a demand curve is negative, in general. | Ex. 68. Construct the market demand schedule and plot the demand curves given by, @ x=10-2p (i) x= 10p (ii) x=- 3p? +p +65 (iv) x=5fp Ex, 69. Draw the supply curves () x=37-3 (i) x=3p a3 9.12 COST FUNCTIONS AND PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS Ifxis the quantity produced by a firm at total cost C, we have the total cost function C= ftx) explicitly. We may write this in the implicit form: BC, x)=0MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS POR FONG, . erage COs! roduction oF COs s obtained by dividing total st per unit is ob! ined by d 1 % Average cost of production o quantity produced = Clxor C=AC+X ; ' ‘ a from a knowledge of production functions, — Cost curves can be o! A uy relationship is described by inputs associated with specified amounts of oupy,, net production function on 7 L, K are quantities of labour and capital a a ase r wm me ca) ties i open C=LP, + KPx Ex. 70. Plot the total cost and average. cost curves for the cost function. Ca- 30+ 4x4 60 Ex. 71. The liquidity preference function M=fr) where M is the total quantity of money and r the interest rate. 500 and show that the interest rate of 2% is the liquidity trapix 2 can be written Plot the curve M this case. 9.13 LIMITS The concept of limits is useful in developing some mathematical techniques and als analysing various problems in economics. We know, for instance, that the rate of interest r can never fall to zero, however lage be the quantity of capital available. There is a minimum below which r cannoi fall. Lt this minimum be 2 per cent. Then if K stands for capital and a is a positive constant, we may write, roughly, ra24 K If K is small ris large. If K is large ris small. However large K may become r will n - : ever be less than 2. The limit of ras & increases is 2. We write this Limr=2 Ke In a similar manner, ot go however large the A variable x may number N. Then we We can see that there is a Jj quantity of output. y increase without bound in such a Way that x is larger than any 88° Say that x tends to infinity. We write this X00 fon I imit below which average cost WlTS us AND LIMIT ONS sc ction fU) may become infinite ag tends an on an Lim f(x) = 0 10 Some value ¢. We write this re a function may attain a finite value | ag * tends to Lim f(x) =1 a value k. Then we write rok This statement means sa Provided Aix) is defined for att values of x in some range jxapproaches a given number k in that range then f(x) approaches a limit I. 7 jn other words (i) if the difference between x and k is made as small as we please ite 7) then (i) the difference between fo) sy E id J can be made as small as we (ie, fo) 29 Note: x= we=2 xol a These two are ‘not identical statements. Althou jures of arriving at the answers are different arily be the same always, Consider the function fx) = x ‘Asx tends to infinity, f(x) tends to zero. igh the answers are the same the | Moreover the answers need not We write ‘ Limd=o cae Ifflx) = x2 + 3, lx) approaches 7 as x approaches 2. We write Lim (x7 +3)=7 x2 inition of a limit, Let fix)-be a function. If there exists a number J such that f(x) may be made as close to ! as we please by sing for x any number close to a given number k, we say that limit of f(x) as x approaches k is 1. We write this symbolically Lim f(x)=! rk ; _ This statement means that fx) is close to 1 if x. tends to (but is not equal to) k. If we ike x sufficiently close to k we can have flz) as close to Las we like, ___ The definitions of the limit of a sequence and the limit of a function are identical but nis restricted to positive integers in a sequence, the functions fix) is defined for all fl numbers in a given range, 4 THEOREMS ON LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS !. If ais a constant Lim a=a xkMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR FON, z $ Ira, bare constants Lim tart bye ak eb =m ai Lim foysh Lim (9) (i) Lim [fly + ganl=l+m™ pa (i) Lim [fd ga= tm ot £22! mao (ii) rok g(x) om (jw) Lim 4 Fe =7. (0) Hf Lim f(x) =b, Lim (2) = Lim f(x): g(x) =0 sak Now consider the following: x Lim £ wee; Lim ke= =; Lim [=< rao x ey i These are some: convenient though pedogogically bad methods of writing tiny when division and multiplication by infinity or division by zero is involved. It is prefers, to talk of no limits in such cases. In evaluating a limit we let the variable approach the limiting value. Often this may not be feasible in which case factorisation may remove the difficulties. Sometimes 4 convenient division ofthe terms in the numerator and the denominator by certain quantities is found useful. Ex. 72. Lim x=a@ We have not set x = a, this is not the idea of a limit. We have expressed that, in the limit, x approaches a. Ex. 73. Lim (5x~-7)=Lim 5x-Lim 7=10-7=3 x92 x92 x2 Ee Bx. 74, Lim ~4 = Lim S42) @-2) F2 x—-2 2? gD Here factorisation is useful in finding the limit, = Lim (x+2)=4 a a), Bx, 15, Lim 21 pig HO =a? Lt a? wot aD rot Pi ED Tog? (Dividing numerator and denominator by“) 7 1 Since +50 05 x—ye0 z Here the division of nu ym x mel i is Talor and denominator by x2 js useful, «s « AND LIMIT 10% 76. Prove the following results: pee 76+ Lima? =4 1? x-4x43 1 Lin +2x-3 2 @ (iy @ ty Lim(7-x— 22) =7 4 4 Lim 2 =~ 4,3 Lim Vee - JIE, 190 3 Lim 2 =8 4 por p-2 Lim 4x72 xo x? 46x-7 2 3 {+4 noohlxth x i ya yod 2x5 -1 Lim 122 =11 mi 4 Ans. (i) — (v) no limit (vi) t (ii) 2 (viii) 1 (ix) - 1) $ 2x+3x7 () TAN 3x4 2x ww +bx oa) tin =o (vt ro _ Pos _ 1 i) LP +6 22 ®) 2x41 1 wid a Puasa gO | (xt he aa? : win ig R= ase gx. 7. Evaluate the limits if they exist: a @ Lim a . xl _ 5 oo ne ® in. Lim wi ) La : dx, 8 ) - : i MZ (vil co tim ( x+4 x+4 (viii) 3_ 4x7 48 ws Lin S48 « paar 3 B78 Lim 24) = Lim rap [x2 49-5 4 = Lit ma = 240 x4) (0? £4416) 2 49 +5) G7 +9-5) G7 +945) x(x? tax $16) ft +949) ip HE AEH IO) Of $9459) xt4MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS Fey key Ne My. B+ f5+ ule Ls ‘ ) a) a-J3 DUH YS+ G4 Y 5) im rd (9- (5+ x) 1+ f5—2) 4 (1-5-2) G+ 642) fox I+f5-e 1 ae | “=x 34 f5tx 3 im —24=2)-3 4 Ee et = NGE a je cosmx/2 Puly=x-1 eo en) I-x 9 Asx>1y>0 nm my cos( 242) u csin my/2 _ 1 = Li “Ln a2 geo} ny yo y 2 -fl x 1 Ex. 82, Lim 2a ieee, x90 sin? x 2 A i Ex. 83, Lim “20°=D_> ml rel 9.15 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS Lim ffx) may or may not be the same as fla). mu If Lim ftx) = fa), a finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be a continuous function, oh ou atx=a, j If any of the two conditions, viz. (Lim fx) = fla), a finite quantity roa (i) fla) exists is not satisfied for any value of x, (x) is said to be disco1 The discussion of a limit is necessi Concepts of limit and continuity are essei ntinuous for that value of x, ‘ary to get a precise concept of Continuity, The ntial in the study of calculus. 1 ‘ 1 Ex, 84, =— = x, Se) — and Lim f(x) a If x — 2, fx) does not have a finite value A) is continuous for any value of a except 2nCTIONS AND LIMITS px.85 f= VO-1N Gay This function is continuous only in the interval a al (1, 2) Al 265 =! Ex. 86. f(x)= Zaat This function is discontinuous at x = a, x 1x=-a, 916 A NOTE ON FINITE DISCONTINUITY AND INFINITE DISCONTINUITY When a limit exists it means it exists finitely i ‘X) = 0, it If Lim f(x) means that as x — a, f(x) becomes larger and larger and not that _ fee) equals = which is not a number at all. ‘flz) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point of the interval. If y = Ax) is continuous in the interval-[a, , 5] then the range of y is the i ge of y is the interval (a, b] and f(x) cannot pass from one Value to another value in the interval without assuming at least once each intermediate value. sd The graph of a function which is continuous in an interval {a, b], is a continuous unbroken curve. The concept of a limit should not be applied to a discrete function which is defined for a finite number of values in an interval and is discontinuous at all other points. Price, cost, demand, supply and other functions in economics are often discrete but are treated as continuous for convenience in the applications of mathematical analysis. | A function f(x) has a finite discontinuity, at x = a if (x) exists but changés abruptly at x=a. Thus f(x) = (e’ + 5)" has a finite discontinuity at x = 0 though at all other points itis continuous. . Infinite discontinuity at x = a implies that as x —> a, f(x) becomes infinite. Thus at eats has an infinite discontinuity since f(5) does not exist though f(x) exists 25, fla) atall points other than x — 5.
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