INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

References: General Chemistry by Raymond Chang

Intervention For Chemistry - Drafting

 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia
• Vaccines and antibiotics
• Gene therapy

•Energy and the Environment

• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
• Nuclear energy 2
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
• Room-temperature superconductors?
• Molecular computing?

• Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified crops
• “Natural” pesticides
• Specialized fertilizers 3
 The Study of Chemistry
Macroscopic Microscopic

4
The scientific method is a systematic
approach to research

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a

set of observations

tested modified
5
A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration

A theory is a unifying principle that explains

a body of facts and/or those laws that are
based on them.

Atomic Theory

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 Chemistry In Action:
Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory

In 1940 George Gamow hypothesized that the universe

began with a gigantic explosion or big bang.

Experimental Support

• expanding universe
• cosmic background radiation
• primordial helium

7
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes

Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

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liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.

1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the

mixture is the same throughout.

soft drink, milk, solder

2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not

uniform throughout.

cement,
iron filings in sand 9
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components.

magnet

distillation
10
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
• 114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur

• 32 elements have been created by scientists

technetium, americium, seaborgium 11
12
A compound is a substance composed of atoms
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their

pure components (elements) by chemical
means.

lithium fluoride quartz dry ice – carbon dioxide

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Classifications of Matter

14
A Comparison: The Three States of Matter

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The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot
Poker on a Block of Ice

gas

liquid solid
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Chemistry is a bridging science of fundamental sciences that links
Physics, Mathematics and Biology. It can be used to determine
almost all reasons for any property of matter.
Every single thing you see around you is Chemistry

Matter and It’s Property

Matter is everything around us, matter is anything that has mass and
occupies space. Everything on earth has mass and take space.
So everything you see is Matter
Three states of Matter
1. Solids – such as soil, wood, chalk, and chairs come on all sizes,
shapes and forms. Their particles are close together, hence
they cannot be compressed and cannot move freely from
place to place. This gives solid a fixed shape.
2. Liquids – such as water and soft drinks, partcles are close
together but are not held so rigidly in position and can move
past one another., hence they flow and take the shape of their
container.
3. Gases – such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor are
very different from those of solids and liquid, in such a way that
they are far apart from each other and are arrangeg in a
random way. The particles also move quickly in all directions.
Gases can fill up any container of any shape and size and can
be compressed because of the far distances of their
molecules from one another.
MATTER
Phases Shape Volum Structure
e
Solids Definite Definit Particles are
e very close to
each other
Liquid Not Definit Particles are
Definite e neither too
close nor too
far from each
other
Gases Not Not Particles are far
Definite Definit apart from
e each other
MATTER
Some matter can exist in all three matter.
Example :
Water – in room temperature, water is liquid. When heated the
liquid state changes to gas (Evaporation process). When heat
is reduce the vapor molecules slow down and gradually turn
back into liquid (Condensation process). When frozen, the
molecules become extremely slow and move very little, they
held on to each other turning water into ice which is in solid
state. (Freezing process). Lastly placing ice to room
temperature turns the ice back into liquid state ( Melting
process).
Other than that four phase stated, sublimation and deposition
can also occur.
Sublimation – solid to gas without passing the liquid state
Example: Naphthalene and dry ice
Deposition – gas to solid without passing the liquid state
 Types of Changes

A physical change does not alter the composition

or identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water
A chemical change alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water
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 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
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• color
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = g x mass

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International System of Units (SI)

24
25
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3

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 Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass m
density = d= V
volume

A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5

g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m
d= V

m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g

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28
A Comparison of Temperature Scales

K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C
373 K = 100 0C

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
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Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius.

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
0F – 32 = 9 x 0C
5
5 x (0F – 32) = 0C
9
0C = 5 x (0F – 32)
9
0C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3
9

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English system is still use in the US but to make sure that
scientist from different parts of the world understand the
same thing when referring to measurement. Standard has
been defined for measurement of Length, time and mass.
And International system was decided to be based in
Metric system..
Basic Units used:
System Length Mass Time
English Foot (ft) Pound (lb) Second (sec)
CGS Centimeter Gram (gm) Second (sec)
(cm)
MKS Meter (m) Kilogram(kg) Second (sec)
Other standard unit used:
Temperature – Kelvin, °C and °F
Electric current – Ampere (A)
Luminous intensity – candela (cd)
Amount of substance – mole (mol)
Length is the distance between two points in space.
The speed of light in vacuum is precisely 299,792,458 m/sec
SI unit for length is meter (m), Mass in kilogram (kg) and time in
second (sec)
International system of units prefixes and notation:

Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol Factor

Atto a 10^-8 hecto h 10^2
Femto f 10^-15 kilo k 10^3
pico p 10^-12 mega M 10^6
nano n 10^-9 giga G 10^9
micro µ 10^-6 tera T 10^12
milli m 10^-3 peta P 10^15
centi c 10^-2 exa E 10^18
deci d 10^-1
deca da 10^1
The prefixes are independent from the base units they
modify and always remain constant.
Example: prefix kilo always mean 1000
Kilogram is 1000 gram, kilo second is 1000 seconds and
kilowatt is 1000 watts, kilocalories is 1000 calories
Similarly the prefix nano is always means 0.000000001
Example: nanometer = 0.000000001 meter and nanograms
is = 0.000000001 grams
Conversion of Units
Steps to followed in doing conversion of units:
1. Write the unknown quantity that is sought, including the
unit
2. Write all known conversion factors needed
3. Begin with what is known and then multiply it by the
identified conversion factor, cancelling similar units to
get the unknown
4. Conversion factor is always in the form of ratio
Abbreviation of units:
1. Millimeter – mm
2. Centimeter – cm
3. Meter – m
4. Gram – gm
5. Kilogram – kg
6. Second – sec
7. Liter – l
8. Inch – in
9. Mile – mi
10. Pound – lb
11. Ounce – oz
12. Kilometer – km
13. Yard – yd
The exponents 2 and 3 will signify the area and volume
respectively
Area : cm^2 square cm cubic cm – cm^3
Ft^2 - square foot cubic foot – ft^3
Useful Conversion Factors
Length: Volume:
1 inch = 2.548 cm 1 qt = 0.946 L
1 ft = 30.4 cm 1 gal = 3.785 L
1 yd = 0.9144 cm
1 mi = 1609 km
Mass:
1 oz = 28.35 g
1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 lb = 53.6 gm
Physical Quantities – are numbers that described the
measurement.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Change 500 grams to ounce, to pounds

2. How many inches are there in 3 meters?
3. How many Newtons of force do you need to lift a 34
pound bag?
4. How much would you expect to pay for one dozen
shrimp if the supermarket is offering 20 count shrimp for
$5.99 per pound?
5. A supersonic transport airplane consume about 18,000
Liter of kerosene/hour of flight. Kerosene has a density of
0.965 kg/L. What mass of kerosene is consumed on a
flight lasting for 3.0 hours

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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS PRACTICE PROBLEM

37
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

In counting the number of significant figures, the term scientific

notation is used. It is a process of simplifying a very large
number or very small number and is used to express multi digit
numbers involving many zeros in compact form.
It is expressed as N x 10^n
Example: Mass of Saturn is 568,300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
kg
This can be expressed as 5.683 x 10 ^26 kg
The decimal point is moved 26 places to the left
Mass of electron is 0.0000000000000000000000000009109
9.109 x 10^-28
The decimal point is moved 28 places to the right.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In writing the scientific notation of a digit, the
decimal point is moved towards the right or left
of the first non zero digit. The exponent for the
exponential term is equal to the number of
places the decimal point has been moves.
The exponent is positive if it is moved to to the left
and negative if it is moved to the right.
To convert scientific notation to standard notation:
1. If negative exponent – from decimal point move
it to the left
3.1 x 10^-7 = 0.00000031
2. If positive exponent moved it to the right
3.12 x 10^11 = 312,00000000
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 Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
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 Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n>0 n<0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 =
3. The exponent, n, remains 4.70 x 104
the same

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 Scientific Notation

Multiplication
(4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) =
1. Multiply N1 and N2
(4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) =
2. Add exponents n1 and n2
28 x 10-2 =
2.8 x 10-1

Division 8.5 x 104 ÷ 5.0 x 109 =

1. Divide N1 and N2 (8.5 ÷ 5.0) x 104-9 =
2. Subtract exponents n1 and n2 1.7 x 10-5

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Significant Figures
The measurement can never be exact, hence it is important to write the
precision or uncertainty of measurement. Precision is indicated by the
number of significant figures recorded. Significant figures are the digits
in any measurement that are known with certainty with an additional
one digit which is uncertain.
Rules Measure number Number of SF
1. All non zero digits are significant 247 3
2. Zeros between non zero digits are 20303 5
significant
3. Zeros to the left of the first non zero 0.02000 4
digits are not significant
4. If the number is less than 1 then only 0.003560 4
the zeros at the end of the number
and the zero between non zero digit
digit are significant
5. If the number is greater that 1, the all 3560.00 6
the zeros written to the right of the
decimal point are significant
6. The terminal or trailing zeros in a 123000 3
number without decimal point are not
significant
7. The trailing zero in a number with 3.500 4
decimal point are significant 0.06900 4
Zeros used as placed holder (i.e x 10^-3) in a large number
without decimal point are not significant
Example:
1.234 x 10^-3 4 significant figures
 Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures 45
 How many significant figures are in
each of the following measurements?
24 mL 2 significant figures

3001 g 4 significant figures

0.0320 m3 3 significant figures

6.4 x 104 molecules 2 significant figures

560 kg 2 significant figures

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 Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.
89.332
+1.1 one significant figure after decimal point
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.70 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0.7867 round off to 0.79

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 Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures
4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5

3 sig figs round to

3 sig figs

6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061

2 sig figs round to

2 sig figs 48
 Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures

The average of three measured lengths; 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 = 7
3

Because 3 is an exact number

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Simplified Rules for Significant Figures:

1, In addition and subtraction, the answer must have the
same number of decimal places as the measured number
with the least number of decimal places.
Practice problems Addition and subtraction
a.)Three sticks have length of 5.68m, 0.02m, and 4.3005m
respectively. What is the total length of the sticks?
b.) A flask with water has a mass 93.5g. When rubber stopper
Was put in the flask, the total mass becomes 124.876g. What is
the mass of the rubber stopper?
2. In multiplication and division, the answer must have the
same number of significant figures as the measured
number with the lowest number of significant figures.
Practice problem Multiplication
A student measured the length, width, height, of a block of
wood as 3.388m, 3.12m and 4.0m respectively. What is the
volume of the wood?
PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision and Accuracy:

Precision is the consistency of the results. If you measure a quantity several
times and the values agreed closely with one another , then your
measurement is precise, however if the values very widely, then it is
imprecise.
Review ruler A and B
Accuracy – determined when certain quantitative value is relatively close
to the true value.
Example:
Density of water @ 30°C was measured five times:
Results: 0.9956, 0.9957, 0.9955 , 0.9958 and 1.1501 gm/mml
The first four values are considered accurate because they are close to
the true density of water @ 30°C which is 0.9957 or 1gm/ml
The last value of 1.1501 is considered not accurate beacause it does not
fall near the true value of the density of water.
Measurement that are close to the known value are said to be accurate
whereas measurement that that are close to each other are said to be
precise.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value
Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
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ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

Oftentimes the answer for computations contain too many

insignificant digits hence, it become necessary to round off
numbers to attain the significant figure.
Rules in rounding off numbers:
1. For a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through
the final results then round off.
2. If the first digit to be deleted is 5 or greater, the last
retained figure is increased by one (1)
3. If the first digit to be deleted is 4 or less, the last retained
figure is retained
Example:
3.3734 – rounded to two significant figurs = 3.4
3.127 – rounded to two significant figurs = 3.1
Two decimal places should be retained.
4. Rounding to the nearest 10:
33 round to the nearest 10 is 30
97nround to the nearest 10 is 100
 Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit

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Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

How many mL are in 1.63 L?

Conversion Unit 1 L = 1000 mL

1000 mL
1.63 L x = 1630 mL
1L
1L L2
1.63 L x = 0.001630
1000 mL mL

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The speed of sound in air is about 343 m/s. What is this
speed in miles per hour?

conversion units

meters to miles

seconds to hours

1 mi = 1609 m 1 min = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min

m 1 mi 60 s 60 min mi
343 x x x = 767
s 1609 m 1 min 1 hour hour
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