Introduction to Data Communications

and Computer Networks

CS44 Data Communications

Dr. Shilpa chaudhari

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
RIT, Bangalore
CS44 Syllabus
Data Communication
Course Code: CS44 Credits: 4:0:0:0
Unit I Data Communications, Networks, Network Types, 1.1; 1.2; 1.3
Network Models – Protocol layering, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, The OSI Model, 2.1; 2.2; 2.3
3.4; 3.5; 3.6
Physical layer: Transmission impairment, Date Rate Limits, Performance.
Unit II Digital Transmissions – Digital to Digital Conversion, Analog to Digital Conversion, 4.1; 4.2; 4.3
Transmission Modes.
5.1; 5.2
Analog Transmission- Digital to Analog conversion, Analog to Analog conversion.
Multiplexing and Spectrum Spreading-Multiplexing, Spread Spectrum. 6.1; 6.2
Unit III Switching-- Introduction, Circuit switched networks, Packet Switching, Structure of a Switch. 8.1; 8.2; 8.3; 8.4
Error Detection and Correction-Introduction, Block Coding, Cyclic Codes – CRC, Polynomials, 10.1; 10.2; 10.3; 10.4; 10.5

Cyclic code encoder using Polynomials, Cyclic code analysis, Advantages of cyclic codes.
Checksum, Forward Error Correction
Unit IV Data Link Layer-- Data Link Control –DLC services, Data link layer protocols , HDLC , Point to 11.1; 11.2; 11.3; 11.4
Point Protocol
12.1 12.2; 12.3;
Multiple Access Control – Random Access, Controlled access, Channelization.
Go-Back-N protocol, Selective Repeat Protocol 23.2
Unit V Wired LAN’s Ethernet Protocol, Standard Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 13.1; 13.2; 13.3; 13.4; 13.5
Gigabit Ethernet
15.1; 15.2; 15.3
Wireless LANs- Introduction, IEEE 802.11- Bluetooth
Connecting Devices and Virtual LANs–Connecting Devices, Virtual LANs 17.1; 17.2

2
Books
• Text Book:
◦ Data Communication and Networking, Behrouz A.Forouzan,
McGraw Hill, 5th Edition, 2008. 36
• Reference Books:
1. Data and Computer Communication, William Stallings, 8th Edition,
Pearson Education, 2007.
2. Introduction to Data Communications and Networking – Wayne
Tomasi, Pearson Education, 2005.

3
Course Outcomes (COs)
• At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the different types of network topologies and protocol
models. (PO-1,2,3,4, PSO-1)
2. Differentiate between digital and analog transmissions. (PO-
1,2,3,4, PSO-1)
3. Solve problems in error detection and correction at data link
layer. (PO-1,2,3,4, PSO-1)
4. Discriminate between different access control methods to
shared transmission media. (PO-1,2,3,4, PSO-1)
5. Compare the working of wired and wireless networks. (PO-
1,2,3,4, PSO-1)

4
Outline of Session-1
• DATA COMMUNICATIONS • NETWORK TYPES
◦ Components ◦ Local Area Network
◦ Data Representation ◦ Wide Area Network
◦ Data Flow ◦ Switching
◦ The Internet
• NETWORKS
◦ Accessing the Internet
◦ Network Criteria
◦ Physical Structures

5
Telecom vs. Datacom
• Communications
◦ Transfer of data from one device to another via some form of
transmission medium
◦ Communicate = sharing information
◦ local (usually occurs face to face) or remote (takes place over distance)

• Telecommunications (tele is Greek for “far”)

◦ Communication over a distance by definition
◦ All type of communications using signaling such as voice (telephone),
images (television), data (computers)

• Data communications
◦ subset of telecommunications that involves the transmission and
reception of data to and from computers and components of computer
systems

6
 Data communications
• depends on four fundamental characteristics:
◦ Delivery: deliver data to the correct destination
◦ Accuracy: deliver the data accurately
◦ Timeliness: deliver data in a timely manner
◦ Jitter: the variation in the packet arrival time
• A data communications system has five components
Component Description Example

Message The message is the information (data) to be Popular forms of information include text,
communicated numbers, pictures, audio, and video
Sender the device that sends the data message a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera, and so on
Receiver the device that receives the message Same as sender

Transmission the physical path by which a message travels from twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
medium sender to receiver and radio waves
Protocol a set of rules that govern data communications

7
Communication Model
1 Source system 2 Destination system

4 input message output message

Source Destination
Device device

3
Communications
system

transmitted received
input data signal output data
signal

5 Protocol

8
Example of Communication System
Source system Destination system
A A

computer computer
Telephone Networks
110011 110011

modem modem

9
Protocols and Standards
•Protocol
◦ A set of rules governing data communications
◦ Syntax: format of data block
◦ Semantics: meaning of each section
◦ Timing: speed and sequencing

•Standard
◦ De facto (in practice) standards
◦  not approved but widely adopted
◦ De jure (in law) standards
◦  approved by an organization

10
Standards Organizations
List of major standard bodies

ITU-T ISO IETF

IEEE ANSI EIA

11
ITU-T
International Telecommunications Union-
Telecommunication Standard Sector

• International standard organization that develops standard

for telecommunications
• Some well known standards
◦ V series
◦ X series
◦ H series
◦ G Series

12
ISO
International Standards Organization

• An International standard organization that develops

standard for variety of fields

13
IETF
Internet Engineering Task Force
• A large open international
community of network
designers, operators, vendors,
and researchers concerned
with the evolution of the
Internet architecture

14
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

• The largest professional

group involved in standards
for computing,
communications, electrical
and electronics

15
Data Representation
• text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s)
◦ Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols – code
◦ the process of representing symbols is called coding.
◦ Unicode - prevalent coding system - uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
character used in any language in the world.
◦ American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) developed some decades ago
in the United States
◦ constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin

• Numbers – also represented by bit patterns

◦ 8/16/32 bit integers, signed/unsigned
◦ floating-point
◦ ASCII is not used to represent numbers
◦ It is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations.

16
Data Representation …
• Images
◦ composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements) => each pixel is a
small dot
◦ size of the pixel depends on the resolution
◦ More pixels in a image - a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image
◦ each pixel is assigned a bit pattern
◦ The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image
◦ For an image made of only black and white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern
is enough to represent a pixel.
◦ represent color images: RGB (combination of three primary colors: red, green, and
blue) and YCM (combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and
magenta) 150
◦ Graphics formats JPG, PNG, etc. 2

255

17
Data Representation …
• Audio recording or broadcasting of sound or music
◦ Samples of continuous, not discrete signal
◦ Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.
• Video  recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie
◦ can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV
camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion
◦ Sequence of bitmap images

18
Data Flow
• Direction of data flow

Type of
Direction

19
Simplex
• Data are only transmitted in one direction - One device can only transmit; the
other can only receive
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
• Eg. the keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.

Computer Display

Unidirectional

Hi….

Transmitter pager

20
Half-duplex
• Each stations can transmit or receive; but only one at a
time (alternate in transmitting)
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa
• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever
of the two devices is transmitting at the time
• Example: Walkie-Talkies, CB (citizens band) radios
S1 Transmit from S1 to S2 at time T1 S2

Transmit from S2 to S1 at time T2 Transmitter/Receiver

Transmitter/Receiver

21
Full-duplex
• Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
• signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in the other direction
• sharing can occur in two ways:
◦ Link with two separate transmission path, one for sending and the other for
receiving
◦ channel is divided between signals traveling in opposite directions
• Example: telephone network -When two people are communicating
by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time
Simulteneous send and receive
data from each other
S1 S2

Transmitter/Receiver Transmitter/Receiver

22
Networks
• A network is a set of two or more devices connected
through a communication system
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

Communication
System

23
Network Criteria
• performance: measured in many ways, including transit time (amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another ) and response time (elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response)
◦ depends on a number of factors
◦ the number of users
◦ the type of transmission medium
◦ the capabilities of the connected hardware
◦ the efficiency of the software
◦ evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput (expected more) and delay (expected less)…………. Often
contradictory

• Reliability: measured in terms of

◦ accuracy of delivery
◦ frequency of failure
◦ the time it takes a link to recover from a failure
◦ the network’s robustness in a catastrophe

• Security
◦ protecting data from unauthorized access
◦ protecting data from damage and development
◦ implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses

24
 Physical Structures
• Network attributes: Type of Connection and Physical
Topology
• For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
◦ There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint

Point-to-Point
Line
configurations Multipoint

25
Point-to-Point
• Only two devices share the medium
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for the
transmission between those two devices

A direct link A direct link

between two devices between two devices

Station Station

26
Multipoint (or Multidrop)
• More than two devices share the same medium
• The capacity of the link is shared, either spatially (use the
link simultaneously )or temporally (users must take turns)

Station Station Station

A link is shared
Station between several devices
Station

27
Physical Topology
• the way in which a network is laid out physically
• Network topology: geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another
Common Network
Topologies

28
Mesh Topology - point-to-point
• every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device
• number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network
with n nodes : n (n – 1) physical links or n (n – 1) / 2
duplex-mode links
• every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output
(I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1 stations

29
Mesh Topology
• Advantages
◦ They use the dedicated links so each link can only carry its own data load – traffic
problem can be avoided
◦ It is robust – if one link get damaged, it cannot affect others
◦ It gives privacy and security (message travels along a dedicated link)
◦ Fault identification and fault isolation are easy
• Disadvantages
◦ The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required are very large.
◦ because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult
◦ The sheer bulk of wiring is larger than the available space
◦ Hardware required to connect each device is highly expensive.
• Applications
◦ connection of telephone regional offices - each regional office needs to be
connected to every other regional office
◦ WAN – wide area network

30
Star Topology - point-to-point
• Each device has a dedicated point to point link to the
central controller called “Hub” – act as a exchange
• There is no direct traffic between devices
• The transmission are occurred only through the central
hub
• When device 1 wants to send data to device 2 –first sends
the data to hub which then relays the data to the other
connected device

31
Star Topology
• Advantages
◦ Less expensive than mesh since each device is connected only to
the hub
◦ each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others
◦ Installation and configuration are easy
◦ Less cabling is needed than mesh
◦ additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device
and the hub
◦ Robustness - if one link fails only that link is affected – all other
links remain active
◦ Easy to fault identification and to remove parts
◦ No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing the
devices

32
Star Topology
• Disadvantage
◦ dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If
the hub goes down, the whole system is dead
◦ often more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).
• Applications
◦ local-area networks (LANs)
◦ High-speed LANs

33
Bus Topology - multipoint
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in
a network
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and
taps
◦ drop line - a connection running between the device and the main
cable
◦ tap – splitter that cut the main link to create a contact with the
metallic core
• Allows only one device to transmit at a time

34
Bus Topology
• A device want to communicate with other device on the
network sends a broadcast message onto the wire and all
other devices see
• But only the intended device accepts and process the
message
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy
is transformed into heat - it becomes weaker and weaker
as it travels farther and farther
◦ For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can
support and on the distance between those taps

35
Bus Topology
• Advantages
◦ ease of installation
◦ less cabling than mesh or star topologies
◦ Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility
◦ Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

• Disadvantages
◦ difficult reconnection and fault isolation
◦ A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation - difficult to add
new devices
◦ Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone
◦ Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
◦ controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable
◦ a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission -The damaged area
reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions
• Applications
◦ design of early local area networks
◦ Most of computer motherboards

36
Ring Topology – point-to-point
• each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater
• When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along

37
Ring Topology
• Advantages
◦ relatively easy to install and reconfigure
◦ To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections - only
constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices
◦ fault isolation is simplified
◦ As a signal is circulating at all times, non reception of a signal at a node within a specified period issue
an alarm from that node - alerts the network operator to the problem and its location

• Disadvantage
◦ unidirectional traffic
◦ a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network -
solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break
• Applications
◦ prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network, Token Ring
◦ Some office buildings and School premises
◦ higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular

38
Consideration for choosing the topology
• Money: bus network is the least expensive way to install
network
• Length: of cable needed the linear bus network uses
shorter length of cable
• Future growth: with start topology expending a network is
easily done by adding another devices
• Cable type: most common used cable in commercial
organization is twisted pair which often used with star
topologies

39
Network Types
• The criteria of distinguishing one type of network from
another in the world today (difficult and sometimes
confusing)
◦ Size
◦ geographical coverage
◦ ownership.
• two types of networks, LANs and WANs, uses switching to
connect networks to form an internetwork (a network of
networks)

40
Local Area Network
• usually privately owned
• connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus
• Simple LAN - two PCs and a printer in someone’s home
office
• Complex LAN include audio and video devices
• An host identifier (an address) uniquely defines the host in
the LAN
• A packet carries both the source host’s and the destination
host’s addresses

41
LAN
hub/switch stations

General Characteristics :

hub/switch stations
 Confined geographical area
 Under single management
 High data rate
hub/switch stations

servers
hub/switch
router

42
LAN with Common Cable (past)
• All hosts in a network were connected through a common cable
• A packet sent from one host to another was received by all
hosts
• The intended recipient kept the packet; the others dropped the
packet
• When LANs were used in isolation, they were designed to allow
resources to be shared between the hosts

43
LAN with Switch
• Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch
• Job of switch:
◦ recognize the destination address of the packet
◦ guide the packet to its destination without sending it to all other hosts.
◦ The switch alleviates the traffic in the LAN
◦ allows more than one pair to communicate with each other at the same
time if there is no common source and destination among them
• LAN does not define the minimum or maximum number of
hosts in it

44
Wide Area Network
• an interconnection of devices capable of communication

LAN WAN
Normally limited in size, spanning an a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state,
office, a building, or a campus a country, or even the world
interconnects hosts interconnects connecting devices such as switches,
routers, or modems
normally privately owned by the normally created and run by communication
organization that uses it companies and leased by an organization that uses it.
Two types: Multipoint LAN and Two types: point-to-point WANs, switched WANs and
switched LAN internetwork

45
WAN
• A network that covers a relatively broad geographic area
• It often uses long-distance transmission facilities provided
by public carriers

46
Point-to-Point WAN
• connects two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air)

47
Switched WAN
• a network with more than two ends
• used in the backbone of global communication today
• a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected by switches

48
Internetwork
• Isolated LAN or WAN – rare
• LAN and WAN are connected to one another
• internetwork, or internet: connection between two or more
networks
• Ex: organization with two offices, one on the east coast and the
other on the west coast.
◦ Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to
communicate with each other
◦ Communication between employees at different offices possible: the
management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service
provider, such as a telephone company, and connects the two LANs

49
Internetwork …
• When a host in the west coast office sends a message to
another host in the same office, the router blocks the message,
but the switch directs the message to the destination.
• When a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on
the east coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and
the packet reaches the destination

50
Internetwork …
• A heterogeneous
network made of
four WANs and
three LANs
• One of the WANs
is a switched WAN
with four switches

51
Switched Network
• switched network - a switch connects at least two links
together
• A switch forward data from a network to another network
when required
• The two most common types of switched networks
◦ circuit-switched
◦ packet-switched networks.

52
Switching

Communication Network Node

 provide switching facility (routing)

Network Station
 end node (source &destination)

Communications is achieved by transmitting

data from source to destination through a
Communication Network network of switching nodes

53
Circuit-Switched Network
• a dedicated connection, called a circuit,
◦ always available between the two end systems
◦ the switch can only make it active or inactive
• simple switched network that connects four telephones to
each end
• Telephone sets are shown instead of computers as an end
system because circuit switching was very common in
telephone networks in the past
◦ part of the telephone network today is a packet-switched network.

54
Circuit-Switched Network
• Case1: all telephone sets are busy
◦ 4-people at one site are talking with 4-people at the other site
◦ the capacity of the thick line is fully used
• Case 2: only one telephone set at one side is connected to a
telephone set at the other side
◦ only one-fourth of the capacity of the thick line is used
• Circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at
its full capacity
◦ most of the time, it is inefficient because it is working at partial capacity
• Capacity of the thick line four times the capacity of each voice
line so the communication not fail when all telephone sets at
one side want to be connected with all telephone sets at the
other side

55
Packet-Switched Network
• computer network communication between the two ends -
blocks of data called packets
• switches function for both storing and forwarding because
a packet is an independent entity that can be stored and
sent later
• small packet-switched network that connects four
computers at one site to four computers at the other site.

56
Packet-Switched Network
• A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can
store and forward the packet
• Capacity of the thick line is only twice the capacity of the data
line connecting the computers to the routers
• If only two computers (one at each site) need to communicate
with each other, there is no waiting for the packets.
• However, if packets arrive at one router when the thick line is
already working at its full capacity, the packets should be stored
and forwarded in the order they arrived
• packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit
switched network, but the packets may encounter some delays

57
Switching Technologies
• Circuit switching
◦ A circuit is established for the two
parties
telephone
switch
• Packet switching
◦ Data are put into packets, each
stamped with source and destination
addresses
◦ Routers know where to forward
packets

Packet Router

58
Key Differences

Aspect Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Data path Dedicated single route Different shared routes
Message Bypass Temporarily stored at each node
End point's status Both must be ready Only sender is ready
Utilization Poor Good
Data rate Fixed Varied
Prioritization Not support Support

59
Internet
• The largest internetwork in the world
• Internet (uppercase I ), is composed of thousands of
interconnected networks

Conceptual (not
geographical) view
of the Internet

60
Internet …
• Internet consists of several
◦ Backbones (top level)
◦ large networks owned by some communication companies such as Sprint, Verizon (MCI),
AT&T, and NTT
◦ connected through some complex switching systems, called peering points
◦ provider networks (second level) - smaller networks
◦ use the services of the backbones for a fee
◦ connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider networks
◦ Customer networks (the edge of the Internet)
◦ actually use the services provided by the Internet
◦ pay fees to provider networks for receiving services

• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet

Service Providers (ISPs)
◦ Backbones = international ISPs
◦ provider networks = national or regional ISPs

61
Accessing the Internet
• Internet today allows any user to become part of it
• User needs to be physically connected to an ISP
• The physical connection is normally done through a point-
to-point WAN
• how user physically connected to an ISP?
◦ Using Telephone Networks
◦ Using Cable Networks
◦ Using Wireless Networks
◦ Direct Connection to the Internet

62
Using Telephone Networks
• Most telephone networks connected themselves to the
Internet
• residences and small businesses connect to the Internet by
changing the voice line between the residence or business
and the telephone center to a point-to-point WAN using
one of the way
◦ Dial-up service
◦ DSL Service

63
Using Telephone Networks
• Dial-up service
◦ Add the telephone line to a modem that converts data to voice
◦ The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates
making a telephone connection
◦ very slow
◦ when the line is used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for
telephone (voice) connection
◦ only useful for small residences
• DSL Service
◦ higher speed Internet services provided to residences or small
businesses allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and
data communication

64
Using Cable Networks
• residents uses cable TV services instead of antennas to
receive TV broadcasting over the last two
• Cable companies upgrading their cable networks by
connecting to the Internet
• A residence or a small business with cable TV connection
can be connected to the Internet
• Cable network provides a higher speed connection
◦ the speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use
the same cable

65
Using Wireless Networks
• Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly
popular
• A household or a small business can use a combination of
wireless and wired connections to access the Internet
• With the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a
small business can be connected to the Internet through a
wireless WAN

66
Direct Connection to the Internet
• A large organization or a large corporation can itself
become a local ISP and be connected to the Internet
◦ the organization or the corporation leases a high-speed WAN from
a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional ISP
◦ For example, a large university with several campuses can create an internetwork and
then connect the internetwork to the Internet

67
Technologies Around Us
• New generation of switching technologies provide
improved services to home and workplace
Cable
Modem
Frame Relay ADSL CATV
Network

Internet
Cellular
ATM
3G/4G/5G
Network

ISDN E/T-carrier
Network PSTN
Network

Modem

68
Session-1 Summary
• Data communications are the transfer of data from one device to another via some form of
transmission medium
• A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination in an accurate
and timely manner.
• The five components that make up a data communications system are the message, sender,
receiver, medium, and protocol.
• Text, numbers, images, audio, and video are different forms of information.
• Data flow between two devices can occur in one of three ways: simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex.
• A network is a set of communication devices connected by media links.
• In a point-to-point connection, two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link.
• In a multipoint connection, three or more devices share a link.
• Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
• Devices may be arranged in a mesh, star, bus, or ring topology.

69
Summary…
• A network can be categorized as a local area network or a
wide area network
• LAN is a data communication system within a building,
plant, or campus, or between nearby buildings
• WAN is a data communication system spanning states,
countries, or the whole world
• An internet is a network of networks

70
Educational tool for computer network
• many programs and utilities available for Windows and
UNIX operating systems that allow us to sniff, capture,
trace, and analyze packets that are exchanged between our
computer and the Internet
• Some of these
◦ Wireshark and Ping-Plotter, have graphical user interface
(GUI)
◦ others, such as traceroute, nslookup, dig, ipconfig, and ifconfig,
are network administration command-line utilities

71
Homework
• Prepare the answers for Chapter 1 Section 1.7
◦ Questions from Q1-1 to Q1-15
◦ Problems rom P1-1 to P1-10

72