Dr.

Madhulika 1
 Overview

• Different level of estimation

• Project Evaluation
• Introduction to Estimation
• Size Estimation
• Cost Estimation

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 Different level of estimation

• Before decision to do a project

– The estimation is coarse
– The estimation is in high level terms
• Profit? Good to the organization? etc.
• After decision to go ahead
– More detailed size and cost estimations are
required

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 Project Evaluation

• A high level assessment of the project

– to see whether it is worthwhile to proceed
with the project
– to see whether the project will fit in the
strategic planning of the whole organization

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 Project Evaluation - Why

• Want to decide whether a project can

proceed before it is too late
• Want to decide which of the several
alternative projects has a better success
rate, a higher turnover, a higher ...
• Is it desirable to carry out the development
and operation of the software system?

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 Project Evaluation - Who

• Senior management
• Project manager/coordinator
• Team leader

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 Project Evaluation - When

• Usually at the beginning of the project

– e.g. Step 0 of Step Wise Framework

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 Project Evaluation - What

• Strategic assessment
• Technical assessment
• Economic assessment

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 Project Evaluation - How

• Cost-benefit analysis
• Cash flow forecasting
• Cost-benefit evaluation techniques
• Risk analysis

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 Strategic Assessment

• Used to assess whether a project fits in the long-

term goal of the organization
• Usually carried out by senior management
• Needs a strategic plan that clearly defines the
objectives of the organization
• Evaluates individual projects against the strategic
plan or the overall business objectives

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 SA – Programme Management
Issues
• Objectives
– How does the project contribute to the long-
term goal of the organization?
– Will the product increase the market share? By
how much?

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 SA – Programme Management
Issues (cont’d)
• Organization structure
– How does the product affect the existing
organizational structure? the existing
workflow? the overall business model?

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 SA – Programme Management
Issues (cont’d)
• MIS
– What information does the product provide?
– To whom is the information provided?
– How does the product relate to other existing
MISs?

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 SA – Programme Management
Issues (cont’d)
• Personnel
– What are the staff implications?
– What are the impacts on the overall policy on
staff development?
• Image
– How does the product affect the image of the
organization?

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 SA – Portfolio Management

• suitable for product developed by a

software company for an organization
• may need to assess the product for the
client organization
– Programme management issues apply
• need to carry out strategic assessment for
the providing software company

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 Technical Assessment

• Functionality against hardware and

software
• The strategic IS plan of the organization
• any constraints imposed by the IS plan

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• Technical assessment is the crosscutting process used to help
monitor technical progress of a program/project through
periodic technical reviews and through monitoring of
technical indicators such as MOEs, MOPs, Key Performance
Parameters (KPPs), and TPMs.
• The reviews and metrics also provide status information to
support assessing system design, product realization, and
technical management decisions.

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 Economic Assessment

Why?
• Consider whether the project is the best
among other options
• Prioritise the projects so that the resources
can be allocated effectively if several
projects are underway

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 Economic Assessment (cont’d)

How?
• Cost-benefit analysis
• Cash flow forecasting
• Various cost-benefit evaluation techniques
– NPV and IRR

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 EA – Cost-benefit Analysis

• A standard way to assess the economic

benefits
• Two steps
– Identify and estimate all the costs and benefits
of carrying out the project
– Express the costs and benefits in a common
unit for easy comparison (e.g. $)

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 EA – Cost-benefit Analysis (cont’d)

• Costs
– Development costs
– Setup costs
– Operational costs

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• When you’re in the process of choosing an integration
solution, cost is an important factor in the decision. For
integration solutions, businesses need to consider the total
cost of ownership (TCO).
• This isn’t just the cost to implement the solution; it’s the cost
to implement, run, and maintain the solution over its lifetime.
As you’re deciding on your integration solution, you want to
go with the one that has the lowest TCO while delivering the
highest number of benefits, including higher ROI.

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• TCO includes hardware and software
acquisition, management and support,
communications, end-user expenses,
monitoring, the opportunity cost of
downtime, training, and other productivity
losses.

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 EA – Cost-benefit Analysis (cont’d)

• Benefits
– Direct benefits
– Assessable indirect benefits
– Intangible benefits

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 EA – Cash Flow Forecasting

• What?
– Estimation of the cash flow over time
• Why?
– An excess of estimated benefits over the
estimated costs is not sufficient
– Need detailed estimation of benefits and costs
versus time

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 EA – Cash Flow Forecasting
Income
Expenditure (Cont’d)

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 EA – Cash Flow Forecasting
(Cont’d)

• Need to forecast the expenditure and

the income
• Accurate forecast is not easy
• Need to revise the forecast from time
to time

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 Why important

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 Estimation

• Why? – to define the project budget and to

‘refine’ the product to realize the budget
• Who? – the manager
• What? – size and cost
• When? – always
• How? – techniques and models

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 Issues related to Estimation

• Difficult to make accurate estimation

• Better to have previous data and analyze the
actual values against their estimates so that you
know how accurate you are
• Even better to have previous data of the whole
organization so that you know how accurate the
estimation method, if any, used within the
organization .

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 Positive Attitude Towards
Estimation
• Use your estimation as a guide to manage
your project
• From time to time, you need to revise your
estimation based on the current status of
the project

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 Estimation Approaches

• Expert judgement
– Ask the knowledgeable experts
• Estimation by analogy
– Use the data of a similar and completed
project
• Pricing to win
– Use the price that is low enough to win the
contract

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 Estimation Approaches (cont’d)

• Top-down
– An overall estimate is determined and then broken
down into each component task
• Bottom-up
– The estimates of each component task are aggregated
to form the overall estimate
• Algorithmic model
– Estimation is based on the characteristics of the
product and the development environment.

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 Size Estimation

• Problems related to size estimation

• Size Estimation Model
– Function Point Analysis (FPA)

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 Problems related to size estimation

• Nature of software
• Novel application of software
• Fast changing technology
• Lack of homogeneity of project experience
• Subjective nature of estimation
• Political implications within the
organization

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 Function Point Analysis (FPA)

• Developed by A. Albrecht in IBM

• Aim: To estimate the LOC of a system

LOC of system
= FP of system × LOC-per-FP of the language

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 Function Point Analysis (cont’d)

• Idea: Software system consists of five major

components (or, external user types)
– External input types
– External output types
– Logical internal file types
– External interface file types
– External inquiry types

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 Function Point Analysis - Steps

• Identify each instance of each external user

type in the proposed system
• Classify each instance as having high,
medium or low complexity
• Assign the FP of each instance
• FP of the system = sum of FP of individual
components

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques

• Net profit
= Total income – Total costs
• Payback period
= Time taken to break even
• Return on Investment (ROI)
average annual profit
 100%
total investment
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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV
Net present value (NPV)
• It is the sum of the present values of all
future amounts.
• Present value is the value which a future
amount is worth at present
• It takes into account the profitability of a
project and the timing of the cash flows

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV (cont’d)
• Discount rate is the annual rate by which
we discount future earning
– e.g. If discount rate is 10% and the return of
an investment in a year is $110, the present
value of the investment is $100.

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV (cont’d)
• Let n be the number of year and r be the
discount rate, the present value (PV) is
given by
value in year n
PV 
(1  r ) n

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV (cont’d)
• Issues in NPV
– Choosing an appropriate discount rate is
difficult
– Ensuring that the rankings of projects are not
sensitive to small changes in discount rate

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV (cont’d)
• Guidelines:
– Use the standard rate prescribed by the
organization
– Use interest rate + premium rate
– Use a target rate of return
– Rank the projects using various discount rates

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– NPV (cont’d)
• Disadvantage
– May not be directly comparable with earnings
from other investments or the costs of
borrowing capital

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– IRR
• Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
– The percentage discount rate that would
produce a NPV of zero
– A relative measure

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 Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– IRR (cont’d)

Net Present Value($)

9000

6000

3000 Discount rate

(%)
0
8 9 10 11 12
-3000

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
– IRR (cont’d)
• Advantages
– Convenient
• Directly comparable with rate of return on other
projects and with interest rates
– Useful
• Dismiss a project due to its small IRR value
• Indicate further precise evaluation of a project
– Supported by MS Excel and Lotus 1-2-3

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Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques
Example
Year Project 1 Project 2 Project 3 Project 4
0 -100,000 -1,000,000 -100,000 -120,000
1 10,000 200,000 30,000 30,000
2 10,000 200,000 30,000 30,000
3 20,000 200,000 30,000 30,000
4 20,000 200,000 20,000 25,000
5 100,000 350,000 20,000 50,000
Net Profit 60,000 150,000 30,000 45,000
Payback 5 5 4 4
ROI 12% 4% 10% 11%

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 Function Point Analysis
Number of FPs Complexity
External user type Low Average High
External input type 3 4 6
External output type 4 5 7
Logical internal file type 7 10 15
External interface file type 5 7 10
External inquiry type 3 4 6

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• FPA is a technique used to measure software
requirements based on the different functions
that the requirement can be split into.
• Each function is assigned with some points
based on the FPA rules and then these points
are summarized using the FPA formula.
• The final figure shows the total man-hours
required to achieve the complete
requirement.
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• Components of Function Point Analysis:
• Based on the interaction of the system
components internally and with external
users, applications, etc they are categorized
into five types:

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• External Inputs (EI): This is the process of
capturing inputs from users like control
information or business information and store
it as internal/external logic database files.
• External Outputs (EO): This is the process of
sending out data to external users or systems.
The data might be directly grabbed from
database files or might undergo some system-
level processing.
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• Inquiries (EQ): This process includes both input and output components.
The data is then processed to extract relevant information from
internal/external database files.
• Internal Logic File (ILF): This is the set of data present within the system.
The majority of the data will be interrelated and are captured via the
inputs received from the external sources.
• External Logic File (ELF): This is the set of data from external resources or
external applications. The majority of the data from the external resource
is used by the system for reference purposes.

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• Below are some abbreviations which need to
be understood to know the logic in-depth:
• Data Element Type (DET): This can be defined
as a single, unique, non-repetitive data field.
• Record Element Type (RET): This can be
defined as a group of DETs. In a more generic
way, we can call this a table of data fields.

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• File Type Referenced (FTR): This can be
defined as a file type referenced by a
transaction (Input/Output/Inquiry). This can
be either an Internal logic file or an external
interface file.
• Based on the number of DETs and RETs, all
the five components of FPA are classified into
High, Average and Low complexity based on
the below table.
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• Unadjusted Function Point Count: This is the
main step of this process where all the
function points produced from the above FPA
components (External Inputs, External
Output, Internal Logic files, External Logic
files, Inquiries) are added together and
labeled as unadjusted function point count.

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• Value Adjustment Factor: In this step the value adjustment factor is
determined. VAF contains 14 General system characteristics(GSC) of the
system or application that defines the types of application characteristics
and is rated on a scale of 0 to 5. The sum of all the 14 GSC rates are
calculated to give out a mathematical value and is labeled as Total Degree
Influence(TDI).
• TDI is used in the calculation of VAF and its value may vary from 0 to 35.

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 14 GSC

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 Adjusted function point

The Adjusted FPC is then

multiplied with a numeric value,
which is the effort based on the
technology. Some of the
examples are below.

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 COCOMO II (cont’d)

• Recognizes different approaches to

software development
– Prototyping, Incremental development etc.

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 Constructive Cost Model II
(COCOMO II)
• A parametric cost model
– Important aspects of software projects are
characterized by variables (or parameters)
– Once the value of the parameters are
determined, the cost can be computed from an
equation

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 A history of COCOMOs

• COCOMO originally proposed by Boehm in

1981, now called COCOMO 81
• Later evolved to Ada COCOMO in 1989
• In 1995, Boehm proposed COCOMO II

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 COCOMO II

• A family of models
– Uses different models in 3 different stages of
the project
• 3 stages: application composition, early
design and post architecture
– Supports estimation early in the process
– Allows further detailed estimation after the
system architecture has been defined
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 COCOMO II (cont’d)

• The basic model equation

Effort = Constant × (Size)scale factor
× Effort Multiplier
– Effort in terms of person-months
– Constant: 2.45 in 1998
– Size: Estimated Size in KLOC
– Scale Factor: combined process factors
– Effort Multiplier (EM): combined effort factors

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• The COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) is
one of the most popularly used software cost
estimation models i.e. it estimates or predicts
the effort required for the project, total
project cost and scheduled time for the
project.
• This model depends on the number of lines of
code for software product development. It
was developed by a software engineer Barry
Boehm in 1981.
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• The COCOMO estimates the cost for software product development in
terms of effort (resources required to complete the project work) and
schedule (time required to complete the project work) based on the size
of the software product.
• It estimates the required number of Man-Months (MM) for the full
development of software products. According to COCOMO, there are
three modes of software development projects that depend on
complexity. Such as:

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• 1. Organic Project
• It belongs to small & simple software projects
which are handled by a small team with good
domain knowledge and few rigid
requirements.
• Example: Small data processing or Inventory
management system.

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• A development project can be treated of the organic
type, if the project deals with developing a well-
understood application program, the size of the
development team is reasonably small, and the team
members are experienced in developing similar
methods of projects.
• Examples of this type of projects are simple
business systems, simple inventory management
systems, and data processing systems.

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• 2. Semidetached Project
• It is an intermediate (in terms of size and
complexity) project, where the team having
mixed experience (both experience &
inexperience resources) to deals with
rigid/nonrigid requirements.
• Example: Database design or OS
development.

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• A development project can be treated with semidetached
type if the development consists of a mixture of experienced
and inexperienced staff.
• Team members may have finite experience in related systems
but may be unfamiliar with some aspects of the order being
developed.
• Example of Semidetached system includes developing a new
operating system (OS), a Database Management System
(DBMS), and complex inventory management system

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 Embedded
• A development project is treated to be of an embedded type,
if the software being developed is strongly coupled to
complex hardware, or if the stringent regulations on the
operational method exist. For Example: ATM, Ai
• This project having a high level of complexity with a large
team size by considering all sets of parameters (software,
hardware and operational).
• Example: Banking software or Traffic light control software.
are Traffic control.

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 Types of COCOMO Model

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 Estimation

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 Approach-Code oriented

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 PERT

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 Steps

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 Identify A and M

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 Times

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• Pert Estimate = (Optimistic + (4 X Most Likely)
+ Pessimistic)/6. That means that we are
weighting the most likely estimate by a factor
of four (4) and then determining the average
of the weighted most likely time,
• If you know something about the probability
distribution of your estimate that suggests
something about PERT is inappropriate (like
the 4x weighting towards the mode), then
don't use it, use whatever you think is
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 Optimistic time
• When a project is planned, the activities associated with
the project are defined and their time durations are
estimated.
• Every project has a degree of uncertainty, either small or
large.
• Due to the uncertainty, risks are associated with the
projects that must be identified and controlled.
• The uncertainty and risks in a project affect the estimated
time durations of the activities.

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• Based on the uncertainty, different probability
considerations are involved in time estimates.
One of the consideration is optimistic time.
• An optimistic time is the time in which an
activity is completed considering that nothing
bad happens during the project.
• It is basically the fastest time of an activity.

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 PERT

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 What is the Critical Path Method?

• The critical path method (CPM) is a project modeling

technique that’s used by project managers to find the
important deadlines and deliver a project on time. In a
project, the critical path is the longest distance
between the start and the finish, including all the tasks
and their duration.
• Once a critical path is determined, you’ll have a clear
picture of the project’s actual schedule.
• To find this, project managers use the CPM algorithm
to find the least amount of time necessary to complete
each task with the least amount of slack.
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 Terms
• Earliest start date. This is simply the earliest date that a
task can be started in your project.
• You cannot determine this without first knowing if any tasks
are dependent on this one task, or figuring out other
constraints that might impact the start of this task.
• Next is the earliest finish date. This being the earliest date
your task can be completed.
• Latest start date. This is the very last minute in which you
can start a task before it threatens to upset your project
schedule. And you need to calculate what the latest finish
date is for the same reason. By having a clear picture of this
timeframe, you can better schedule the project to meet its
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deadline.
• Float. Also known as slack, float is a term that describes how long you can
delay a task before it impacts the planned schedule and threatens the
project’s deadline.
• When you are collecting tasks for the critical path, they must have zero
float.
• But if the tasks do have some float, then they go on the non-critical path,
which means if this task is delayed the project can still finish on time.
• Crash duration. This describes the shortest amount of time that a task can
be scheduled. You can get there by moving around resources, adding more
towards the end of the task, to decrease the time needed to complete the
task. This often means a reduction in quality, but is based on a relationship
between cost and time.

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• Critical Path Analysis
• As mentioned, the purpose of a critical path is
to find the least amount of time you’ll need to
complete a task.
• Critical path analysis furthers your ability to
make better estimates for scheduling, because
you’re mapping out every important task that
must be done for a successful project.

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• added to the growing assortment of quantitative tools for
business decision making is the Critical Path Method—a
powerful but basically simple technique for analyzing,
planning, and scheduling large, complex projects.
• In essence, the tool provides a means of determining (1)
which jobs or activities, of the many that comprise a
project, are “critical” in their effect on total project time,
and
• (2) how best to schedule all jobs in the project in order to
meet a target date at minimum cost

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• Critical path is the sequential activities from
start to the end of a project.
• Although many projects have only one critical
path, some projects may have more than one
critical paths depending on the flow logic used
in the project.
• If there is a delay in any of the activities under
the critical path, there will be a delay of the
project deliverables.
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• Most of the times, if such delay is occurred,
project acceleration or re-sequencing is done
in order to achieve the deadlines.
• Critical path method is based on mathematical
calculations and it is used for scheduling
project activities. This method was first
introduced in 1950s as a joint venture
between Remington Rand Corporation and
DuPont Corporation.
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• In the critical path method, the critical
activities of a program or a project are
identified. These are the activities that have a
direct impact on the completion date of the
project.

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 Each of these projects has several
characteristics that are essential for
analysis by CPM:
• (1) The project consists of a well-defined
collection of jobs (or activities) which, when
completed, mark the end of the project.
• (2) The jobs may be started and stopped
independently of each other, within a given
sequence. (This requirement eliminates
continuous-flow process activities, such as oil
refining, where “jobs” or operations
necessarily follow one after another with
essentially no slack.)
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• (3) The jobs are ordered—that is, they must
be performed in technological sequence. (For
example, the foundation of a house must be
constructed before the walls are erected.)

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 Key Steps in Critical Path Method

• Step 1: Activity specification

• You can use the Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) to identify the activities involved in the
project. This is the main input for the critical
path method.
• In activity specification, only the higher-level
activities are selected for critical path method.
• When detailed activities are used, the critical
path method may become too complex to
manage and maintain.
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• Step 2: Activity sequence establishment
• In this step, the correct activity sequence is
established. For that, you need to ask three
questions for each task of your list.
• Which tasks should take place before this task
happens.
• Which tasks should be completed at the same
time as this task.
• Which tasks should happen immediately after
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this task.
• Step 3: Network diagram
• Once the activity sequence is correctly
identified, the network diagram can be drawn
(refer to the sample diagram above).
• Although the early diagrams were drawn on
paper, there are a number of computer
softwares, such as Primavera, for this purpose
nowadays.

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• Step 4: Estimates for each activity
• This could be a direct input from the WBS
based estimation sheet

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• Step 5: Identification of the critical path
• For this, you need to determine four parameters of each
activity of the network.
• Earliest start time (ES) - The earliest time an activity can start
once the previous dependent activities are over.
• Earliest finish time (EF) - ES + activity duration.
• Latest finish time (LF) - The latest time an activity can finish
without delaying the project.
• Latest start time (LS) - LF - activity duration.

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• Step 6: Critical path diagram to show project
progresses
• Critical path diagram is a live artifact.
Therefore, this diagram should be updated
with actual values once the task is completed.
• This gives more realistic figure for the deadline
and the project management can know
whether they are on track regarding the
deliverables.
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• Advantages of Critical Path Method
• Following are advantages of critical path
methods:
• Offers a visual representation of the project
activities.
• Presents the time to complete the tasks and
the overall project.
• Tracking of critical activities.
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 How to Calculate the Project Critical Path

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• The critical path is the longest sequence of
activities in a project plan which must be
completed on time for the project to complete
on due date.
• An activity on the critical path cannot be
started until its predecessor activity is
complete; if it is delayed for a day, the entire
project will be delayed for a day unless the
activity following the delayed activity is
completed a day earlier.
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• n order to establish the latest dates that an activity can
commence without affecting the end date a back
pass is performed.
• The early finish of the last activity in the network is
transferred to the late finish. The duration is then
subtracted from the late finish to obtain a late start.
Where an activity has two or more succeeding
activities, it is the earliest date that is transferred.
• This process is repeated throughout the network until
all late start and finish dates have been identified.

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• Late Finish – Duration = Late Start

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• We can now work out what flexibility or float we have in the
network. This is very important to the project manager as it will
allow for decisions to be taken with the allocation of resources
to maximize their utilization.

There are two types of float:

Free Float – this is the amount of time a task can be delayed

without affecting the succeeding task. This can be calculated by
subtracting the Early Finish of an activity from the Early Start of
its subsequent activity.

Total Float – this is the amount of time which an activity can be

delayed without affecting the end date of the project.
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 Example

• See separate handout

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 Legal issues

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 Legal issues

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• A patent is a privilege granted for an
invention.
• Patent is only for a product or a method that
usually provides a new manner of doing
something, or provides a new technical
solution to a problem to induce a patent,
technical information regarding the invention
should be disclosed to the general public in a
patent application.
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• The owner of the patent can give the rights of
invention to anyone on by mutual agreement.
• When the rights holder sells his inventions to
someone else, then he will be the owner of
the patent.
• Once the right expires, then it would not be
protected and it will move to public domain,
there anyone can commercially use their
invention without infringing the patent.
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 Patent

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 Need
• A patent offers you a certain legal rights, which might
deter rival businesses from exploitation or copying
your product or inventions.
• Whether you're a private inventor functioning from
your home, a full-time enterpriser, or a principal in a
very large corporate entity developing or refining
product or the means of manufacturing them,
protective innovation is an integral part of modern
enterprise.

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 How patent should be:
• In order to be patentable, an invention should
therefore be new. In other words, could say
that it should not have been created public
before your application is filed.
• Inventive step is the essential one which
implies it cannot be obvious in the light of
what's already illustrious.
• It should be capable of handling the industrial
or commercial application.
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• While it is true that not all business can
develop patentable inventions, it is completely
false to believe that patents just apply to
complicated physical or chemical processes
and products or that they're only helpful to
large firms.
• You can get the patents for any area of
technology from paper clips to computers.

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• When people consider about patents, what
typically comes to mind is an important large
firms or scientific breakthroughs investing in
analysis and development.
• But the patent is not only for massive firms
and scientific inventions.
• It could be used in any field of technology like
from cooking utensils to higher end
technology chip.
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• It is definitely a special right what the owner
holds, because this will make him to decide
who can use the patented invention and till
what period the permitted one can utilize.
• This simply means that inventions cannot be
distributed, commercially made, sold by or to
others without the consent of patent owner.

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• A patent is an exclusive right granted for an
invention, which is a product or a process that
provides, in general, a new way of doing
something, or offers a new technical solution
to a problem.
• To get a patent, technical information about
the invention must be disclosed to the public
in a patent application.

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• In principle, the patent owner has the
exclusive right to prevent or stop others from
commercially exploiting the patented
invention.
• In other words, patent protection means that
the invention cannot be commercially made,
used, distributed, imported or sold by others
without the patent owner's consent.

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• Patents are territorial rights. In general, the
exclusive rights are only applicable in the
country or region in which a patent has been
filed and granted, in accordance with the law
of that country or region.
• The protection is granted for a limited period,
generally 20 years from the filing date of the
application.

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 Copy right

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• A copyright is a collection of rights
that automatically vest to someone who
creates an original work of authorship – like a
literary work, song, movie or software.
• These rights include the right to reproduce the
work, to prepare derivative works, to
distribute copies, and to perform and display
the work publicly.

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• Copyright (or author’s right) is a legal term
used to describe the rights that creators have
over their literary and artistic works.
• Works covered by copyright range from books,
music, paintings, sculpture, and films, to
computer programs, databases,
advertisements, maps, and technical
drawings.

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 What can be protected
• Exhaustive lists of works covered by copyright are usually
not to be found in legislation. Nonetheless, broadly
speaking, works commonly protected by copyright
throughout the world include:
• literary works such as novels, poems, plays, reference
works, newspaper articles;
• computer programs, databases;
• films, musical compositions, and choreography;
• artistic works such as paintings, drawings, photographs,
and sculpture; architecture; and advertisements, maps, and
technical drawings
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• There are two types of rights under copyright:
• Economic rights, which allow the rights owner to derive
financial reward from the use of their works by others; and
• Moral rights, which protect the non-economic interests of the
author.
• Most copyright laws state that the rights owner has the
economic right to authorize or prevent certain uses in relation
to a work or, in some cases, to receive remuneration for the
use of their work (such as through collective management).

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• Most countries nonetheless have a system in
place to allow for the voluntary registration of
works.
• Such voluntary registration systems can help
solve disputes over ownership or creation, as
well as facilitate financial transactions, sales,
and the assignment and/or transfer of rights

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• To understand how these rights can be used or licensed, it’s
helpful to analogize them to a bundle of sticks, where each
stick represents a one of these rights.
• The copyright owner has the right to keep each “stick” for
themselves, to transfer them individually to one or more
people, or to transfer them collectively to one or more
people.
• In short, copyright allows the owner to choose the ways
his/her copyrighted works are made available to the public.

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• There are three basic requirements that a
work must meet to be protected by copyright.
The work must be:
• Original: To be original, a work must merely
be independently created. In other words, it
cannot be copied from something else. There
is no requirement that the work be novel (as
in patent law), unique, imaginative or
inventive.
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 COCOMO II (cont’d)

• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Good improvement – Still immature,
over COCOMO diverse projects in
– Good match for database
iterative – Hard to believe that
development, it will be any more
modern reliable than the
technology, and original COCOMO
management model
process
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 References
• Hughes, B., and Cotterell, M. (1999) Software
project management, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill
• Pfleeger, S.L. (1998) Software Engineering: Theory
and Practice, Prentice Hall
• Royce, W. (1998) Software Project Management:
A Unified Framework, Addison Wesley
• Center for Software Engineering, USC (1999)
COCOMO II Model Definition Manual.

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