What is NDT?

• NDT is an examination, test, or evaluation performed on any type of test object without changing or
altering that object in any way, in order to determine the absence or presence of conditions or
discontinuities that may have an effect on the usefulness or serviceability of that object.

• Non-destructive tests may also be conducted to measure other test object characteristics, such as
size; dimension; configuration; or structure, including alloy content, hardness, grain size, etc.

• Nondestructive examination (NDE), nondestructive inspection (NDI), and nondestructive evaluation

(NDE) are also expressions commonly used to describe this technology.

• NDT cannot guarantee that failures will not occur, it plays a significant role in minimizing the
possibilities of failure. Other variables such as inadequate design and improper application of the
object can also lead to the failure even when NDT applied properly.

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NDT
• one of the fastest growing technologies from the standpoint of uniqueness and innovation.

• It has become an integral part of virtually every process in industry.

• Nondestructive testing, in fact, is a process that is performed on a daily basis

• For example, when a coin is deposited in the slot of a vending machine and the selection is made,
whether it is candy or a soft drink, that coin is actually subjected to a series of nondestructive tests. It
is checked for size, weight, shape, and metallurgical properties very quickly, and if it passes all of
these tests satisfactorily, the product that is being purchased will make its way through the dispenser.

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NDT
• The human body has been described as one of the most unique nondestructive testing instruments
ever created.

• Sense of sight, smell, touch

• NDT is in industry

1. Examining raw materials prior to processing

2. Evaluating materials during processing as a means of process control
3. Examining finished products
4. Evaluating products and structures once they have been put into service

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History of NDT

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History of NDT

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Overview of NDT techniques

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Overview of NDT techniques

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 Non destructive versus destructive tests
• Destructive testing - a form of mechanical test (primarily destructive) of materials whereby certain
specific characteristics of the material can be evaluated quantitatively.
• In some cases, the test specimens being tested are subjected to controlled condition that simulate
service.
• Destructive testing may be dynamic or static and can provide data relative to the following material
attributes:
• Ultimate tensile strength, Yield Point, Ductility, Elongation characteristics, Fatigue life, Corrosion
resistance, Toughness, Hardness, Impact resistance
• Hardness is also an important material characteristic. The hardness test measures the material's
resistance to plastic deformation. There has always been a minor dispute as to whether this test was
nondestructive or destructive, since there usually is an indentation made on the surface of the
material.
• If the hardness test is made without indentation (as is the case when using eddy currents or
ultrasonics), it can be considered truly "nondestructive.

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Benefits of destructive testing
• Reliable and accurate data are generated from the test specimen.
• Extremely useful data are generated for design purposes.
• Information can be used to establish standards and specifications.
• Data achieved through destructive testing are usually quantitative.
• Typically, various service conditions are capable of being measured.
• Useful life can generally be predicted

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Limitations of destructive testing
• Data apply only to the specimen being examined
• Most destructive test specimens can’t be used again
• Many destructive tests require large, expensive equipment in a laboratory environment

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Benefits of NDT
• The part is not changed or altered and can be used after examination.
• Every item or a large portion of the material can be examined with no adverse consequences.
• Materials can be examined for conditions internal and at the surface.
• Parts can be examined while in service.
• Many NDT methods are portable and can be taken to the object to be examined.
• Overall, nondestructive testing is cost effective.

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Limitations of NDT
• It is usually quite operator dependent.
• Some methods do not provide permanent records of the examination.
• NDT methods do not generally provide quantitative data.
• Orientation of discontinuities must be considered.
• Evaluation of some test results is subjective and subject to dispute.
• While most methods are cost effective, some, such as radiography, can be expensive.
• Defined procedures that have been qualified are essential.

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History of NDT

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History of NDT

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Non-destructive testing
• Nondestructive evaluation can be conveniently divided into nine distinct
areas:

• Flaw detection and evaluation

• Leak detection and evaluation
• Metrology (measurement of dimension) and evaluation
• Location determination and evaluation
• Structure or microstructure characterization
• Estimation of mechanical and physical properties
• Stress (strain) and dynamic response determination
• Signature analysis
• Chemical composition determination

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Conditions for effective NDT

• The product must be testable

• For example, it would be very difficult to provide a meaningful ultrasonic test on a small casting with
very complex shapes and rough surfaces. In this case, it would be much more appropriate to
consider radiography. In another case, the object may be extremely thick and high in density,
making radiography impractical. Ultrasonic testing, on the other hand, may be very effective.
• Approved procedures must be followed –NDT level III
• Equipment is operating properly- period and annual calibrations are required
• Documentation is complete- Key elements of the examination, calibration of data, equipment and
part description, procedure use, identification of discontinuities if detected
• Personnel should be qualified- as NDT is a “hands-on” technology

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Destructive vs. Non-destructive tests
Destructive Non-destructive
Includes measuring various mechanical Use of non-invasive technique to
properties and chemical composition determine structural integrity of a material/
component
Physical testing of materials/ components Used to identify flaws/ faults
Tested parts are unusable Allows the usage of parts after testing
Test is performed when material/ Components can be tested while in
component can no longer be used in service
service or is readily replaceable
Easy to interpret results Difficult to interpret results
Can be performed without highly skilled Skilled personnel's are required
personnel
No environmental hazards associated Some methods involve environmental
hazards
Equipment are less costly Expensive
Equipment are not portable Portable
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Overview of NDT techniques

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Overview of NDT techniques

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CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS BASED ON DIMENSIONALITY

0D 1D 2D 3D
(Point defects) (Line defects) (Surface / Interface) (Volume defects)

Surface Twins
Vacancy Dislocation
Interphase Precipitate
Impurity Disclination
boundary
Faulted
Frenkel Grain
region
defect boundary
Twin Voids /
Schottky
boundary Cracks
defect
Stacking Thermal
faults vibration
Types of discontinuities

• Primary
• Secondary
• Welding
• Forging
• Casting

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Manufacturing processes & defects
Manufacturing processes Defects encountered
Casting: sand, die cast, permanent mould, Inclusions, segregations, gas pockets,
investment and continuous casting internal shrinkage, surface crack, pipes,
gas porosity, hot tears, cold shuts,
cavities
Welding: gas, resistant, arc, friction, Lack of diffusion, incomplete penetration,
friction stir, brazing, soldering and cracks, slag inclusion, gas porosity, crack
diffusion bonding in parent metal, root undercutting
Forming: forging, rolling, wire drawing, Inclusion, segregation, pipes, seams,
deep drawing, bending and extrusion laps, bursts, cracks, tears, lamination,
flakes, rolled-in scale, roll mark, die mark,
thermal crack
Machining: cutting, drilling, turning and Cracks, nicks, scratches and ridges, tears
milling and laps, hardness alteration, residual
stress distribution, deformed debris, grain
size change, intergranular corrosion,
embrittlement cracks
Powder metallurgy: compressing metal Porosity, cracks, inclusion, variation in
powder into solid mass by application of density distribution
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pressure and heat
Manufacturing processes & defects
Manufacturing processes Defects encountered
Heat treatment Cracks, segregation, grain size change
Surface protection: Dents, scratches, change in coating
Organic coating: paints and lubricants thickness, insufficient protection of
Inorganic coatings: Phosphating and surface, erosion of protective coating
chromating
Metallic coating: electroplating, coating by
diffusion e.g. galvanizing, aluminizing,
metallizing by spraying

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Quality of inspection depends on
• Quality of the detector
• Lighting conditions
• Capability to process the visual data
• Level of training and attention to detail

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Remote visual testing
• Remote visual testing is divided into three categories: borescopes,
fiberscopes, and video technology. These have been developed
chronologically.

• Borescopes, also referred to as endoscopes, were originally used to inspect

the bores of rifles or cannons utilizing a hollow tube and mirror. The second
generation of the endoscopes included a relay lens system in a rigid tube.
• Due to its rigid structure, endoscopes are limited to mostly straight-line
access.
• Later innovations corrected this limitation by providing flexibility to the
endoscopes. By 1955, the introduction of glass fiber bundles and fiber-optic
image transmission enabled the development of the fiberscope. Medical
researchers experimented with different techniques in fiber-optic .image
transmission during this period.

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Terms associated with visual inspection
• Contrast-Difference in luminance that makes and object distinguishable
from its environment
• Contrast ratio-Maximum contrast of an image
• Contrast sensitivity- Measure of the ability to discern between the
luminance of a object at different levels in a uniform field
• Visual activity
• a human eye is able to separate lines that are one arc minute apart
• Light intensity meter
• Luminance is measured by light intensity meter on lux scale
• Lumens/ square meter
• The inverse square law governs the intensity of light noted or
measured. It states that luminance (E) at a point on a surface varies
directly with the luminous intensity of the source (I) and inversely as the
square of the distance (d) between the surface and the source
• Lux- Lx=1 lm/square meter (1 lumen=1.46 milliwatt)
• Magnifier
• Direct visual inspection 800-1000 lux

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Human factors
• These inspection variables include physiological processes, psychological
states, and the inspector's experience, health, and fatigue.

• One of the key factors in viewing a lighted object is the difference (contrast)
between the light on the object and the background. A contrast ratio of 3:1
between the test object and the background is desirable. If the background
is dark, a ratio of 1:3 is recommended between the test object and lighter
surroundings, 3 being the most intense light in both cases.

• The act of seeing something is not a passive activity. The observer must be
active in keeping track of what is going on. Constant eye shifting back and
forth from one location to another or scanning a large area at a rapid speed
causes the muscles in the eye to fatigue. If the eye isn't focusing quickly
when changing directions, the image can be lost altogether. Any fatigue on
the part of the observer can result in reduced efficiency and accuracy in
interpreting the visual data.

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• Individuals can be in various psychological states. They can be suffering
from tensions, emotions, and other influences. These may influence the
appraisal and ability to visualize an object and may also influence
performance of a visual task.
• One of the ways to overcome this is to know ahead of time what to expect,
the attributes of what is to be seen, and what the greatest possibility is of
these attributes existing.
• The ability of the eye to sense a variety of views is not constant. If one is
well rested in starting out an inspection activity perception can be greater
than when one is fatigued.

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• Another influence perception is appearance. The two lines represented in
figure appear to have different lengths due to the perceptions created by the
''Vee" extensions on each end. In fact, the two lines are identical in length;
the brain perceives the lengths differently.

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Borescope
• Medical endoscopes and industrial borescopes share several features:
• (1) a source of illumination,
• (2) a means of delivering an image to the viewer’s eye and
• (3) adjustability to view a surface of interest.
• Early endoscopes for looking down the esophagus were called
gastroscopes; endoscopes for looking at the bladder were called
cystoscopes.
• Devices for viewing the interior of objects are called endoscopes, from the
Greek words for “inside view.”
• Industrial endoscopes are called borescopes because they were originally
used in machined apertures and holes such as gun bores.

• There are both flexible and rigid, fiber optic and direct light borescopes.

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Equipment's used for VT
• Optical microscope
• Borescope
• Endoscope –dia down to 1.7 mm lengths 100 – 1500 mm
• Flexiscope 60-365 cm working distance dia 3-12.5 mm
• Telescope CCTV
• Holography- 3d image of the object- 2-dimensional interference pattern is
obtained on a photographic plate by means of laser beam- highly
complicated and precisive surfaces
• Computers- micro CT
• Image processing/ pattern recognition techniques and softwares

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George Crompton

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• Discontinuity detectability is greatly affected by the angle of incidence of the
illumination.
• When light strikes the test surface from an oblique angle, small variations in
surface roughness and contour cast tiny shadows that can help in the
detection of depth and form. Local lighting increases illuminance so that
shadows enhance contrast and reveal indications. In some cases, the
inspector can move a lamp or test object to make indication shadows
appear and disappear (below figure).

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Applications of VT
• Inspection of plant systems/component for any leakage, abnormal operation etc.
• Misalignment of parts in the equipment
• Corrosion, erosion, cracks, and fracture etc.
• Defects in the new/repaired weldments such as gross surface cracks, lack of penetration, tear
cracks, excess reinforcements, porosities and mismatch etc.
• Minute discontinuities with the help of optical aids in pumps, compressors, turbogenerator parts,
instruments etc.

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Direct visual testing
• Direct visual examination is conducted when access allows the eye to be
within 24 inches (610 mm) of the surface to be examined, and at an angle
not less than 30° to the surface to be examined.

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Liquid penetrant test
• Penetrant testing (PT) is one of the oldest and most widely used
nondestructive testing (NDT) methods for the detection of surface
discontinuities in metals (magnetic or nonmagnetic) and other
nonporous solid materials (like glass, rubber, plastics and ceramics).
• Can detect defects like pits, cracks, pores, leakage and fatigue
cracks that exposed to the surface.
• PT provides industry with a wide range of sensitivities and
techniques that make it especially adaptable to a broad range of
sizes and shapes.
• It is extremely useful for examinations that are conducted in remote
field locations, since it is extremely portable.
• The method is also very appropriate in a production-type
environment where many smaller parts can be processed in a
relatively short period of time.

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What can be and cannot be inspected by LPT
• Almost any material with a relatively smooth, non-porous surface on which discontinuities
and defects are suspected.
• Components with rough surfaces, such as sand castings, that trap and hold penetrant.
• Porous ceramics
• Wood and other fibrous materials
• Components with coatings that prevents penetrants from entering defects.

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Liquid penetrant test (animation)

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History (Oil and whiting method)
• Even though it was a very rudimentary method, it was capable of revealing fairly large cracks in
metallic parts by using what is referred to as the "oil and whiting" method.
• In this early penetrant method, the part to be examined was cleaned and then submerged in dirty
engine oil.
• The oil that was used in those days came from large locomotive engines and was very heavy. It was
generally diluted with kerosene or alcohol so that it would be thin enough to penetrate surface
discontinuities.
• It seemed that the dirty oil worked the best in the presence of a discontinuity, since it provided a dark,
oily stain on the test surface.
• After saturation with oil, the part was allowed to drain. During the draining time, known today as the
"dwell" time, the thinned oil would penetrate surface cracks.
• After the excess oil was removed from the surface with a solvent, the part was coated with "whiting,"
which consisted of a chalk-like powder suspended in alcohol.
• The oil that was entrapped in the void would then ''bleed" out into the whiting and a dark, oily stain
indicated the presence and location of a discontinuity.

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Visible penetrant test
• The fluorescent penetrant technique required tanks, a water supply, electricity for the black lights, and
a darkened area for the evaluation of indications.
• In order to permit penetrant tests to be performed in the field and to provide portability, a simpler,
visible dye had to be developed.
• In the 1940s, a Northrop metallurgist named Rebecca Smith developed a visible dye-penetrant
approach. Rebecca Smith, who would be later known as Becky Starling, collaborated with Northrop
chemists Lloyd Stockman and Elliot Brady, who also assisted in the development of a visible dye
penetrant.
• This was considered necessary for examining critical jet engine parts outdoors, where creating a
darkened area necessary for the use of fluorescent penetrants was inconvenient.
• The development of the visible dye-penetrant technique would take several years; Stockman applied
for a patent in March 1949. By this time, there were several choices of penetrants: fluorescent water
removable, fluorescent emulsifiable, and a visible dye.

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Penetrant
• The most important characteristic that affects the ability of a penetrant to penetrate an opening is that
of "wetability."
• Wetability is a characteristic of a liquid and its response to a surface.
• If a drop of water is placed on a very smooth, flat surface, a droplet with a very pronounced contour
will result
• Although water is a liquid and is "wet," its wetting characteristics are not good enough to make it an
effective penetrant.

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Basic principle

• The basic principle upon which penetrant testing is based is that of capillary
"attraction“ or "action."
• Capillary action is a surface tension phenomenon that permits liquids to be
drawn into tight openings as a result of the energies that are present at the
surfaces of the openings.
• The surface tension associated with the opening of the glass straw, or
capillary, causes the liquid level to move to a higher level inside that
capillary than the level of the liquid in the beaker.

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Capillary action
• The capillary action forces are very strong; in fact, if a penetrant test were being performed on a
specimen in an overhead position, the penetrant would be drawn into the opening, against the force of
gravity.
• The capillary force is much stronger than gravity, and the discontinuities will be detected even though
they may be in an overhead specimen.

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The 5 steps

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The 5 steps explained

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The 5 steps explained

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Penetrant test line

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 Penetrant
Penetrant characteristics Tracer dye+ carrier fluid

Dye- to give colour

contrast
Or brightness contrast

Visible dye penetrant-red

colour

Fluorescent penetrant-dye
appears bright yellow
green under ultraviolet
light

Criteria to choose
Detection sensitivity
Highest for water
washable and post-
emulsifiable systems

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Penetrant characteristics cont.

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Characteristics of good penetrants
• It should spread easily over the surface being inspected and drawn into the discontinuities by capillary
action
• It should not be harmful for the inspector and the material being tested in terms of physical and
chemical properties; Non toxic and non flammable
• It should remain well inside the defects but it should be easier to remove from the surface being tested
• It should posses high indicating capability
• Less dwell time
• Cohesive and adhesive and low in cost

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Properties of good penetrants
• Viscosity
• Viscosity is the internal resistance of the liquid to flow
• Less viscous penetrants can enter the cracks easily and easily
washable
• Surface tension
• Wetting capability of the liquid
• Wettability of penetrant can be improved by adding wetting agent
• Cohesive and Adhesiveness
• The attractive forces between like molecules and unlike molecules
are called Cohesive and Adhesive forces respectively
• Specific Gravity
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of
the standard liquid, should be less than 1
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Properties of good penetrants
• Non flammable

• Volatility- depends on boiling point

• Removability

• Indicating Capability

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Properties of good developer and Types of Developers
• Good absorption characteristics to maximize blotting of the penetrant
• Good contrast background
• Uniformly cover the surface with thin smooth coating
• Chemically inert with test materials and Non toxic
• Easily appliable and removable

Types:
• Dry powder
• Water suspendable developers-insoluble developer particles suspended in
water-should be dried by hot air
• Water soluble developers-crystalline powder which crystallizes when the
water is drained off
• Non-aqueous developers-Volatile solvent,

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Applications
• Capable of detecting discontinuities open to the surface of the material under test
• Usually cracks, laps, seams, porosity
• In products like pressure vessels, pipes, weld joints
• Reliable in the detection of fatigue cracks

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Major sources of reference
• Charles J Hellier, Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, McGraw Hill, 2020
• B Hull, V John, Non-destructive testing, Macmillan Education, 1988
• Osama Lari, Rajeev Kumar, Basics of non-destructive testing, S. K. Kataria & Sons, 2013
• ASTM E165

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Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• Versatile NDT method
• Both metallic and non-metallic materials can be tested
• Possible to identify surface and internal discontinuities such as laps, seams, voids, cracks, blow holes,
inclusions and lack of bond
• Typical frequencies used: 1 to 10 MHz 0.1 to 15 MHz
• 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑣𝑣⁄𝑓𝑓

• Provides quantitative information regarding thickness of the component, depth of an discontinuity, size
of the discontinuity

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Types of ultrasound waves
• Longitudinal
• Particles oscillate in the direction of wave propagation
• Compressional/ dilatational/ pressure waves
• Easy to generate; widely used for testing
• Transverse or shear
• Particles oscillate perpendicular to the wave propagation direction
• Travels only in solids (because of distance between molecules in liquids and air)
• Surface or Rayleigh
• Travels along a surface bounded on one side by strong elastic forces of the solid and on the other
by nearly nonexistent elastic forces between gas molecules
• Waves have velocity 90% of shear waves
• Can propagate only in a region no thicker than about one wavelength beneath the surface of the
material
• On surface particle motion follows elliptical path
• Not useful for testing as they less attenuate less as compared to the aforesaid waves in a given
material

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Notable points
• Velocity of ultrasonic waves (V)= f𝜆𝜆
• f-frequency; 𝜆𝜆-wavelength
• Most commonly used wave has 2 MHz of frequency and 3 mm wavelength
• Usually the size of defect can be identified is half of the wavelength in that medium
• Velocity depends on density of the material

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Acoustic impedance & behavior of ultrasonic waves
• The resistance offered to the propagation of an ultrasonic wave by a material is known as the acoustic
impedance (Z)

Z=𝜌𝜌V
𝜌𝜌-density and V- velocity
Z =P/Q ; P=pressure; Q=velocity of the atoms
• When ultrasonic waves are incident at right angles to the boundary of two media of different acoustic
impedance, then some energy is reflected and balance is transmitted across the boundary.

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• At water-steel interference
• 88% of incident energy reflected back into the water
• 12% transmitted to the steel
• Compared solids and liquids, gases have low acoustic impedance
• This is used as a basic principle of UT

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Dead zone
• Dead zone?
• A dead zone can be addressed by
• A shorter pulse
• High frequencies
• Delay version of the source –polymeric materials which has lower sound wave
• Dual element probe
• Immersion testing

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Immersion testing

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Principle of UT
• The most common form of ultrasonic testing is based on the pulse-echo method.
• Typical frequencies: 0.2 MHz to 100 MHz are induced pulse-like into the workpiece to be tested by a probe.
• The pulse duration is usually a few microseconds.
• These sound pulses propagate in the workpiece with characteristic sound velocity (depending on the material). At locations
where the propagation speed of the ultrasonic pulses changes, the sound waves are reflected. This is then referred to as
an echo.

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• Echoes occur particularly at imperfections such as pores, cavities or cracks,
since the speed of sound in the metal structure is approximately 10 to 20
times higher than that of air. Such reflection points are also referred to
as reflectors.
• In contrast to flaw echos (or defect echos), reflections also occur on the rear
wall of the test material (backwall echo).
• The sound pulses reflected from the backwall or from imperfections are
registered by a receiver. From the elapsed time between emission of a
sound pulse and registration of a flaw echo, the location (depth) of the echo
point and thus the position of the imperfection can be determined, provided
that the propagation speed of the sound waves is known (depending on the
material).
• It should be noted that the measured time results from twice the distance
until the echo location is reached, since the sound pulse needs the same
time for the return path after reflection.

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• A gel-like coupling agent is applied to the workpiece. This completely wets the surface of the probe
and the workpiece, thus enabling the sound pulses to be emitted and received again with low
reflection. In order to achieve the necessary coupling effect in special automated processes, the entire
component can also be immersed in water.
• How to generate ultrasound? Piezoelectric crystals

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Ultrasonic transducers
• The simplest type of probes are so-called normal
probes. These probes have only one
single piezoelectric element (transducer), which is
switched alternately as transmitter and receiver
• Dead zone: The period of time within which no
signal can be received is also referred to as dead
time.
• To keep the dead zone to a minimum, the probe
should switch to receive mode as quickly as
possible after emitting the ultrasonic pulses. For
this the vibrating piezoelectric crystal must be
strongly damped after the emission. For this
reason, a damping block (backing) is located at
the rear of the crystal, which stops the vibrations
as quickly as possible after the emitting pulse. At
the same time, oscillations of the entire probe (due
to sound waves radiated from the rear of the
piezoelectric element) is avoided.

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Selection of frequency
• Low frequency
• Penetration depth is higher
• Resolution is low

• High frequency
• Penetration depth is low
• Resolution is higher

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Couplant characteristics
• Thin; thick acts as different medium
• Wet transducer and sample
• Fill the small irregularities in sample and make smoother movement of probe on sample
• Must be easy to apply and remove
• Should not be hazardous

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TR probe
• In Transmitter-Receiver probes (TR
probes for short), transmitter and
receiver are integrated at once and
acoustically separated from each other
by a sound barrier.
• These probes can be used to transmit
and receive simultaneously by
separate control units.
• Due to the acoustic barrier, the
transmitting pulse does not leave a
disturbing echo for the receiver from
the delay line. This enables the
detection of near-surface imperfections
and the measurement of thin wall
thicknesses.

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Angle probe
• The inspection of weld seams requires an oblique intromission of
sound so that the interface between weld seam and base material can
be examined for cracks.
• For this reason, angle probes were developed which radiate the sound
waves into the workpiece at a certain angle. Frequently used
intromission angles are 45°, 60° and 70°.

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Inspection methods
• Normal incident pulse-echo method
• Normal incident through transmission method
• Angle beam pulse-echo method

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Thickness measurement

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Modes of UT data display
• A- scan
• X-axis: time of flight of the pulses converted into distances travelled by the pulses (depth of
penetration)
• Y-axis: amplitude of echoes
• B- scan

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Modes of UT data display
• B-scan

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Modes of UT data display
• C-scan
• Used when: depth of defect is not important; rather knowing distribution is important

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Types of defect can be inspected
• Fatigue cracks
• Casting
• Inclusions, slag, porosity, and large grain structure
• Thickness measurement: Corrosion detection Calibration?
• Intergranular cracks: Hydrogen attack
• Pipe Inspection
• Weld structure

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