COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

COMPUTER NETWORK

DEFINITON: A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for
transmitting and sharing information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile
phone to a server. These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they
can also be wireless.

Basics of Computer Networking


Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together
to enable communication and data exchange between them. In
general, Computer Network is a collection of two or more computers. It
helps users to communicate more easily. In this article, we are going to
discuss the basics which everyone must know before going deep into
Computer Networking.

Computer Networking
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How Does a Computer Network Work?

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A
Network Node can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication
like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like
connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be
defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.
The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or
protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which
allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP
Address, that helps in identifying a device.
Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks
 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices
that are connected together to enable communication and
data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network.
These can include computers, Servers,
Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that
govern how data is transmitted over a network. Examples of
protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical
arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network
topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give
permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality on
lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that
is assigned to every device on a network. IP addresses are
used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is
used to translate human-readable domain names (such as
www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor
and control incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls
are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and
other security threats.
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Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

 LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a
small area, such as an office or a home. LANs are typically
used to connect computers and other devices within a building
or a campus.
 WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a
large geographic area, such as a city, country, or even the
entire world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and are
typically used for long-distance communication.
 Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a
Wide Area Network (WAN) as they can be hosted on public or
private cloud service providers and cloud networks are
available if there is a demand. Cloud Networks consist of
Virtual Routers, Firewalls, etc.
These are just a few basic concepts of computer networking.
Networking is a vast and complex field, and there are many more
concepts and technologies involved in building and maintaining
networks. Now we are going to discuss some more concepts on
Computer Networking.
Open system: A system that is connected to the network and

is ready for communication.
 Closed system: A system that is not connected to the
network and can’t be communicated with.
Types of Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:
 Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a
type of Computer Network Architecture in which Nodes can be
Servers or Clients. Here, the server node can manage the
Client Node Behaviour.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer)
Architecture, there is not any concept of a Central Server. Each
device is free for working as either client or server.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

1. Resource Sharing

Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can
share one Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax
Machines, etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box,
Postman, Android Studio, etc.
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2. Information Sharing

Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides Search
capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared among the
many users over the internet.
3. Communication

Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc.
4. Entertainment Industry

In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment
industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs,
etc.
5. Access to Remote Databases

Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by the
end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home
Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.
6. Home applications

There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For example,
you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction, electronic
commerce, and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts, transferring money to
some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network arranges a robust connection
mechanism between users.
7. Business applications

The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource sharing
is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans, and tools can
be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business electronically with
other companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a computer network.
8. Mobile users

The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook
computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable
device. The computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches,
wearable devices, tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.
9. Social media

Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to share
and receive any information related to political, ethical, and social issues.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
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Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other is known as
topology. There are eight types of topology – Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, Hybrid, Tree, P2P and
Daisy chain.

There are mainly eight types of topology in computer networks:

1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
6. Tree Topology
7. P2P Topology
8. Daisy Chain Topology

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a
dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for
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the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device
must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n
devices would be n(n-1)/2.

There are two types of Mesh topology:

1. Full Mesh Topology: In this topology each device is connected to all the devices available
on the network.
2. Partial Mesh Topology: In partial mesh topology, each device is connected to only those
devices, to which they communicate frequently. This reduces redundant links and saves
the setup cost.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1.No data loss: No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Reliable: Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect
other links and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Secure: Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
4. Easy to troubleshoot: Fault detection is easy as there is a separate connection between
each devices.
5. Fast communication: As there is a dedication connection between two devices on a
network, the communication is fast.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required
must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link.
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Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike
Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device
must have to communicate through hub.

If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the
hub transmit that data to the designated device.

The central device is known as hub and other devices connected to hub are called clients.
Generally Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the clients to the hub.

Advantages of Star topology

 Less expensive: Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to
be connected with hub with one link.
 Easier to install
 Cost effective: Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected
with the hub only.
 Robust: If one link fails, other links will work just fine.
 Easy to troubleshoot: Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
 Reliable: Each device is separately connected to the hub, so a connection failure between
a device and hub doesn’t affect the connection of the other devices.

Disadvantages of Star topology

 If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
 Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of
star topology.
 Not Scalable: There is a limit to add new devices as each device increase the load on the
central unit (hub or switch). This is why it is not suitable for the large networks.
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Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through
drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the
data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable
can have.

The main cable that is connected to the devices on the network using drop line is
called backbone cable.

 The main cable broadcast the message to all the devices connected to it.
 When a device wants to sends a message, it transmits the message to the backbone
cable. All the other devices connected to the backbone cable receives the message whether
they are intended to receive the message or not.
 The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access). This method is used to prevent the collision of data as two or more devices can
send the data to main cable at the same time.

CSMA: This method is developed to decrease the chance of collisions when two or more
devices starts sending the signal at the same time.

CSMA CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): In this method, a
device monitors the transmission medium after it sends the data to see if the transmission was
successful. If successful, the device marks the communication successful else it sends the data
again.
CSMA CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): This method tries to
prevent the collision from happening. In this method, before sending the data, the device checks
the transmission medium to see if it is busy or not. If busy, then the sender device waits until the
transmission medium becomes idle.

Advantages of bus topology

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 Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

 Less Expensive: Less cables are required than Mesh and star topology
 Limited failure: The connection failure of one device doesn’t affect the connections of
other devices on network.

Disadvantages of bus topology

 Difficultly in fault detection.

 Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.
 Difficult to troubleshoot: It is difficult to identify the cause of failure.
 Data collision: When two or more devices send the data simultaneously then there is a
chance of data collision. However this can be solved by implementing CSMA techniques
that we discussed above.

Ring Topology

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two
dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure
forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology.

If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one direction, each
device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is intended for other device then
repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it.

 Data flow is unidirectional in ring topology.

 This topology doesn’t have any end points as nodes are connected in circular fashion.
 The data transfers in ring topology in clockwise direction.
 The popular access method used in ring topology is token passing method. The word
token describes segment of data send through the network. There are multiple tokens
available on the network, the device that successfully acquires the token attaches the data
to the token. The device that successfully decodes the token, receives the data.
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Advantages of Ring Topology

 Easy to install.
 Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are
required to be changed.
 Less expensive: Generally Twisted pair cabling is used in ring topology which is
inexpensive and easily available.
 Easy maintenance: The network in ring topology is easy to maintain as a system failure
doesn’t affect other systems on network, the failed system can be easily removed and
installed again after fixing the issue.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
 Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topology

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a combination of star
and bus topology is known as star bus hybrid topology, this topology is shown in the below diagram.

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and bus topology is known as star bus hybrid topology, this topology is
shown in the above diagram.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

 We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our
concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
 Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks
with different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

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 Fault detection is difficult.

 Installation is difficult.
 Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Tree topology

 Tree topology is an example of hybrid topology as it is a combination of star

topology and bus topology that forms a tree like structure.
 The devices are connected to each other in hierarchical manner. Each node has arbitrary
number of child nodes. The device at the top of the hierarchy is known as root node and
other devices that are lower in hierarchy known as descendants of the root node.
 There is a single path between two devices and this is the path of the communication
between devices.
 Tree topology is also called star-bus topology.

Advantages of Tree topology

 Easy error detection.

 Expendable: It is easy to add new devices to the network in tree topology.
 Easy maintenance: Devices are grouped in small star networks and these star networks
are connected to each other using bus topology. It is easy to manage a device in small star
network.
 Reliable: One system failure doesn’t bring the whole network down. The failed system
can be easily managed.
 Supports broadband transmissions: It supports broadband transmission that is reason
this topology is frequently used in corporate networks.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

 Cost: Cost of broadband transmission is high.

 Dependant on backbone cable of bus topology: All the devices connected in star
networks are connected with other devices using backbone cable of bus topology. Failure
in this main cable can affect the whole network.
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P2P (Peer to Peer) Topology

In Peer to Peer topology, two devices are connected to each other directly. There is no client and
server in P2P topology as both the devices serve the purpose of client and server both. Torrent is
an example of P2P topology as one computer can download the data as well as upload the data
to another computer.

In P2P, these two devices can be two computers, routers, switches etc. The client is the computer
that requests the data and server is the computer that serves the request by sending data. In P2P,
both the devices can request as well as send the data.

Con: The biggest disadvantage of P2P network is the security. A computer connected to another
computer using P2P can read and write the data on the computer.

Daisy Chain Topology

In Daisy Chain Topology, all devices are connected in a linear fashion. Consider it as a ring
topology where the last device is not connected to the first device. Every device in the daisy
chain network is connected to immediate left and right neighbour devices, except the first and
last device.

The intermediate device helps in propagating the signal by relaying it until it reaches the
destination. Consider ring topology as an advanced version of this topology, by joining first and
last devices in this topology a ring topology can be formed.
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The advantages ring topology has over daisy chain are:

 If there is a failure in ring network, it can send the data through alternate path. For
example, if the signal is transmitting clockwise and there is a failure, the signal can still
reach destination by sending the signal in reverse direction.
 Since signal flows in a loop, there is less need of transmitters and receivers so their count
can be reduced to lessen the cost.

Types of Computer Network: LAN, MAN and WAN

A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other through a transmission
medium such as cable, wire etc. In this guide, we will discuss the types of computer networks in
detail.

Types of Computer Network

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small places such as
school, hospital, apartment etc.
LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the data
which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from 100 to
100Mbps.
LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that allows local
area network to work on a wireless connection.
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Advantages of LAN
There are various advantages of LAN, which are as follows −

 Inexpensive transmission media.

 It can simplify the physical association of a device to the media.
 It is used to high data transmission rates.
 Network data transmission is independent of the connected devices rates,
making it accessible for the one-speed device to send data to another speed
device.
 A large rate of interconnection between devices.
 Each connected device has the potential to interact with another device on the
network.
 It is flexible and growth-oriented.
 It allows file locking.
 It provides full proof of the security system against illegal access to data.
 LANs are a productivity tool. In the case of business, a LAN should be an
apparent contributor to raised profitability.

Disadvantages of LAN
There are various disadvantages to LAN, which are as follows −

 LAN software needed a memory area in each of the mainframe used on the
network. This decreases the memory space available for the user’s program.
 Local area networking adds another phase of difficulty to the computer operation.
Users can have a problem in understanding the network commands. The
installation and authority of a LAN require far more technical and regulatory skills
than installing and handling multiple computers that are not networked.
 Some security system should be executed if it is essential to protect private data.
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 Some control on the part of the customer is lost. We have to share a printer with
different customers.
 Some current application programs will not run in a network environment

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In
Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other through
telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.

ADVANTAGES OF MAN

 In addition to the lower cost of connecting MAN with LAN,

 MAN provides high-efficiency data transmission.
 MAN networks manage data in a central part where all the nodes are connected to
devices.
 MAN network data is transmitted quickly, and you can also send emails fast and for free.
 MAN networks use fiber optics so the speed of the data can reach 1000 Mbps.
 Databases and files can be transferred quickly over this network.
 A MAN network allows users to share their internet connection, so many can benefit from
the fast connection.
 MAN is a quicker way to connect two fast LANs together this is because of fast
configuration links.
 MAN has a high-security data transfer speed than WAN.
 Their data transmission speed is comparatively faster.
 These networks are expensive compared to LAN networks.
 Their ownership is private or public.
 Large geographical area like town, cities and continents are covers in this sort of MAN
networks.
 These networks allow user to connect to internet with high speed.
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 They are secure networks compared to WAN networks.

Disadvantages of MAN

 There is a security problem and configuration due to the maximum number of LANs is
connected, and their size is also significant, so it isn’t easy to manage.
 MAN network cannot work in traditional phone copper wire if they install the network on
the copper wire then there will be low speed so if we want a high speed we want to set up
fiber optics which is of high cost when we set up at the first time.
 In MAN, there is a high chance of stealing data by hackers as we compare to LAN
networks, so there is a chance of leaking our data. If we want to secure data, it requires
highly trained staff and security tools.
 To set up a MAN network require technical people who can set it up correctly. The
people are network administrators and troubleshooters.
 In MAN, there is a need for more cables two connect multiple LAN networks.
 They are huge networks compared to LAN networks, which makes them difficult to
maintain.

2. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is
larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world.
Internet connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile
broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.

Advantages of WAN:

Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need to
maintain the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a data
centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.
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Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share online that
way the data is secure and minimises the risk of unauthorized access.

Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need, a large
organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster and efficiently.

Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection thus we
can connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not possible is other type
of computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:

 Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is
possibility that we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system and
become threat to our privacy and may lead to data loss.
 Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
 Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really
difficult to pin point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the problem.

Interconnection of Networks:
We have read LAN, MAN and WAN above, we also talked about internet. You can say that an
internet is a combination of LAN, MAN and WAN.

OSI MODEL

3. OSI Model stands for Open System interconnection model.

2. OSI Model defines how data is transferred from one computer to another
computer.
3. In a very basic scenario two computers connected with a LAN and connectors
transfer data using the NIC. This forms a computer network, however if both the
system uses different operating systems, for example one system runs on windows
and other one runs on MacOS then how can data be transferred between these two
different systems, here comes the role of a OSI model which is a seven layered
model that defines how a data can be transferred between different systems.
4. OSI model was introduced by International Organisation for standardisation
(ISO) in 1984.
5. There are seven layers in a OSI model
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 Application layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session layer
 Transport layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link layer
 Physical layer

Physical Layer

We now learned that a transport layer converts the data into segments, network layer converts the
segments into packets and data link layer converts the packets into frames. A frame is nothing
but a sequence of bits such as 1001011.
Physical layer converts these binary sequences into signals and transfer it through a transmission
media such as cables etc.

The signals generated by physical layer is based on the transmission media. For example an
electrical signal is generated if the media is copper cable, light signal if media is optical fibre and
radio signal in case of transmission media is air. This generated signal is received by the physical
layer at the receiver side and converts it into bits.
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Main functions of Physical Layer:

Digital Transmission:
One of the main functions of physical layer is to transfer data in form of signals. In this guide,
we will learn about digital transmission. A data can be either analog or digital. To transfer the
data over a transmission media such as wire, cable etc. physical layer must need to convert the
data to its digital signal.

Digital data to Digital signal conversion:

In this section we will learn how physical layer converts digital data to digital signal. It uses two
techniques to do this conversion: Line coding and block coding.

Line coding:
A digital data is in form of binary sequence such as 1000111 (combination of 0s and 1s). Line
coding uses three schemes to represent these binary sequences in form of signals that can be
transferred.

Data Link Layer

Data link layer receives the data from network layer.

There are two types of addressing done to the packets transfers from one computer to another
computer.
Logical addressing: Logical addressing is assigning sender and receiver IP addresses to data
packets. This is done at the network layer.

Physical addressing: Physical addressing is done at data link layer where MAC addresses of
sender and receiver are assigned to each data packets.

Data unit in the data link layer is called frame. A frame is transferred from one computer to
another computer and transmission is done through a transmission media such as wire, cable etc.
Both sender and receiver computer has NIC that helps in sending and receiving frame. These
NICs presents at sender and receiver provides a physical link between sender and receiver.

Main functions of data link layer:

Access the Media: Allows upper layers of OSI model to use the media using a technique called
framing
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Media Access control: How data is placed and received from the media.
Error Detection: Tail of the each frame transferred contains certain bits to check whether the data
received on the side is corrupted or not.

Network layer

The main purpose of network layer is to receive the data segments from transport layer and
transfer them from one computer to another computer on different network.

The main functions of network layer:

Logical Addressing: Every computer on a network has a unique IP address. Network layer
assigns the sender and receiver IP address to the data packets before transmitting them so that the
data packet reach the correct destination.

Routing: It is a method of transferring data packets from source to destination. It uses the
combination of Mask and IP address to transfer the data to correct destination. Each data packets
contains three addition components mask, sender IP, receiver IP. The Mask determines the
computer network to which the data needs to be delivered and then the IP address determines
which computer on that particular network needs to receive the data packet.

Path determination: A computer can be connected to another computer in number of ways.

Network layer determines the optimal path for data transmission so that the data can be
transmitted faster to the receiver. OSPF, BGP, IS-IS protocols are used to determine best
possible path for data delivery.

Transport layer

The main role of transport layer is to check the reliability of data communication.

The main functions of transport layer are:

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Segmentation: Data received from session layer is divided into small data units called segments.
Each segment contains the sender and receiver port number along with the sequence number.
Port number helps to direct the data segments to the correct application and the sequence number
helps to reassemble the data from data segments in correct order.

Flow control: It controls the flow of data. It checks the capability of the receiver device
receiving capability before transmitting data. For example a sender server can send the data at a
rate of 200Mbps but a receiving data can only receive data at a rate of 10 Mbps then it controls
the flow of data to 10Mbps so that the data doesn’t get lost during transmission.

Error control: Transport layer also performs error control using Automatic Repeat Request, if a
data is lost during transmission, it is send again using automatic repeat request. Transport layer
also adds a group of bits called checksum with each segment to check whether the data received
at receiver side is not corrupt.

Connection oriented transmission: Connection oriented transmission is done using

transmission control protocol (TCP). TCP is considerably slower than UDP because it provides
the feedback that the data is received or not, thus a data can be sent again if it is not received.

Connectionless transmission: Connectionless transmission is done using User Datagram

protocol (UDP). UDP is faster than TCP because it doesn’t provide the feedback that the data is
actually received at the receiver side or not.

Session Layer

The main role of session layer is to setup and maintain the connection between different systems.

Main functions of session layer:

Authentication: Before a computer can be connected to a server, the computer has to provide
user name and password for the authentication. The function of authentication and setting up a
connection after authentication is performed by session layer.
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Authorization: Once a connection is established, session layer checks whether the connected
computer is authorised to access the data, this function of authorisation checking is also
performed by session layer.

Session management: Session layer also checks that the data which is received from the server
in form of data packets belongs to which application for example when you access Facebook
profile through your browser, the data transferred from the Facebook server is transferred to your
web browser application, thus the session layer helps in session management.

Presentation Layer

Presentation layer receives the data from top most layer which is application layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

Translation: The data received from application layer is in form of characters and numbers such
as 1234, ERFF etc. The presentation layer converts these characters and numbers into machine
understandable format which is known as binary format for example 100111101.

Encryption: To protect the sensitivity of data, presentation layer encrypts the data at the sender
side before the transmission and the receiver side this data is decrypted by the presentation layer
at the receiver side. Secure sockets layer protocol (SSL) is used by the presentation layer for
encryption and decryption.

Compression: Compress the data to small size so that it can be transferred faster over a network.
This compression can be lossy or lossless compression.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Application layer

1. Application layer is used by computer applications such as google chrome, outlook, FireFox,
Skype etc.
2. Application layer defines the protocols that are used by computer applications for example:
HTTP and HTTPS protocols are used by web browsers such as google chrome, FireFox, Safari
etc.

FTP protocol is used for file transfer between two or more computers.

SMTP protocol is used for emails

Telnet is used for virtual terminals.

There are dozens of other protocol that forms the application layer, such as NFS, FMTP, DHCP,
SNMP, POP3, IRC, NNTP etc.

4. In short you can say that application layer provides the services to computer
applications with the help of protocols that are defined in it.

TCP/IP Model




The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It

was designed to describe the functions of the communication system
by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and simpler
components.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense

(DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the
seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In
this article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link
Layer are referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or
‘Network Interface Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one
device to another. The main condition of this process is to make data
reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its
data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in
maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end
to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic
difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP
(Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP
finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and
receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to
communicate with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is
the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the
TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the
sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the
receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to
maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a
4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order
and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the
receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as

follows:

TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This
layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting
connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access
layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be
talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by
the data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided
by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and
Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer
protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data
over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are
as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for
delivering packets from the source host to the destination host
by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are
using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number
of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for
providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to
find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address.
ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is
the set of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is
responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another
across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP
address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route
that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to
a friend. When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller
packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing.
The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses
routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to
reach its destination. The packet is then forwarded to the next hop on
its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets have
been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the
original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the
email from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP
addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the
packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the
correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible
to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt
acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is
referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP
transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte

order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up
this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the
other transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving
and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP
because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of
data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of
data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer
protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with
SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the
browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is
because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It
sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.
Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28
PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model that is responsible for providing communication
between hosts (computers or other devices) on a network. It is also
known as the transport layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that
data is transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques
like error correction and flow control. For example, if a packet
of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure that all

data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for breaking up large blocks of data into smaller
segments that can be transmitted over the network, and then
reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to
be transmitted more efficiently and helps to avoid overloading
the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a
single network connection, and then demultiplexing the data
at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the
same network connection and helps to improve the utilization
of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides
a connection-oriented service that allows hosts to
communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need for
intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to
send a file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file
into smaller segments, add error correction and flow control
information, and then transmit the segments over the network to host
B. The host-to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for
errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file has been transferred
successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will acknowledge receipt
of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a
reliable connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into
smaller segments, and reassembling the segments at the destination.
It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and
providing end-to-end communication between the two hosts.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these
Internet Protocols is how the data is validated and sent over the
Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of
Web Browsers and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file
is to be sent over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to
send and receive data.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

OSI refers to Open Systems

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application layer
presentation layers.
itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
better covered and are easy to replace
model.
with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network layer
layer (TCP) provides connections. in the OSI model.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge,

Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
 Read
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1




Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking

hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer
network to communicate and interact with one another. For example
Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC,
etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal
becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point
to be noted about repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but
also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by
bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects
multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the
best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply
and can clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the
network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring
center. These are used to extend the maximum distance
between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from
nodes and power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay
signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them
and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes
remote management capabilities. They also provide flexible
data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator
to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure
each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a
repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading
the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single

input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the
stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e.
whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges
make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge
learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing
operation is performed by the source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the
frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame,
which spreads through the entire network using all possible
paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design
that can boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic)
and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward
good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast
domain remains the same.
Types of Switch
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-
play design and do not offer advanced configuration options.
They are suitable for small networks or for use as an
expansion to a larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced
configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and link
aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to
managed switches but are typically easier to set up and
manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link
layer of the OSI model and are responsible for forwarding data
between devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer
of the OSI model and can route data between different
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2

switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet
capabilities, which allows them to supply power to network
devices over the same cable that carries data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet
speeds, which are faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be
mounted in a server rack and are suitable for use in data
centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a
desktop or in a small office environment and are typically
smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design,
which allows for easy expansion or customization. They are
suitable for large networks and data centers.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets

based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer
device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to

connect two networks that may work upon different networking
models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one
system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are
also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A
gateway is also called a protocol converter.
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that
combines features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the
data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of
routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is
capable of filtering local area network traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is
used to connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the
computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the
chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

as an interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC

card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical
and data link layers of the network model.

Types of Transmission Media




In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a
physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded

transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference
and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is
used for telephonic applications.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is
used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels
of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in
extremely cold climates, where the additional layer of outer covering
makes it perfect for withstanding such temperatures or for shielding
the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of
PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in
two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for
cable television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer
network connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio
transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of
glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large
volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications:
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of
internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety
measures in designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line
medium invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge
Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the
planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-
frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material
is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are
usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by
a layer of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic

signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio
waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas
need to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by
the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They
cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV

remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast in Computer Networks

Casting in computer networks means transmitting data (stream of packets)

over a network. Following are the different types of casting used in networking
−
 Unicast transmission
 Broadcast transmission
 Multicast transmission
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)

In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single sender (or a single
source host) to a single receiver (or a single destination host).

The network switches hear the MAC addresses of the devices on the networks to
which they are connected. They can then forward packets only onto those
networks containing devices with the connected MAC addresses. Unicast
gradually becomes less efficient as more receivers need to see identical data.

Example

In the following figure, Host A sends the IP address 11.1.2.2 data to the Host B IP
address 20.12.4.3.

 Source Address = IP address of host A is 11.1.2.2

 Destination Address = IP address of host B is 20.12.4.3
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)

In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or more senders to

all the receivers within the same network or in other networks. This type of
transmission is useful in network management packets such as ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol) where all the devices
must see the data.

There are two types of broadcast transmission −

 Directed Broadcast, and

 Limited Broadcast

Directed Broadcast

Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all the other hosts
that exist in some other network. It is used in two scenarios −

 When the hosts are responsible for parsing data from broadcast packets.
 When all the hosts require the same data.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Limited Broadcast

In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from a single source host to all the
other hosts residing in the same network.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)

When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group of
hosts having the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast
transmission. Multicast can be more efficient than unicast when different groups
of receivers need to see the same data.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Example − Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of video or

audio teleconference, sending an email to a particular group of people, etc.

Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is
known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode
is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications
require the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the
business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT-1

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between

devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any
error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and
first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound
which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

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o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also
can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the
transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has
to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving
in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite
direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

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o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of
the communication channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex

mode
Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex Full-duplex mode
comparison mode

Direction of In simplex mode, In half-duplex In full-duplex mode, the

communicati the mode, the communication is
on communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but
one at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices can send
send the data but can send and and receive the data
cannot receive it receive the data, simultaneously.
or it can only but one at a
receive the data time.
but cannot send
it.

Performance The performance The performance The Full-duplex mode has

of half-duplex of full-duplex better performance among
mode is better mode is better simplex and half-duplex mode
than the simplex than the half- as it doubles the utilization of
mode. duplex mode. the capacity of the
communication channel.

Example Examples of Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex

Simplex mode are duplex is Walkie- mode is a telephone network.
radio, keyboard, Talkies.
and monitor.