GEOGRAPHY SUBJECT METHODS

COURSE OUTLINE

This course is designed for B.Ed students who will subsequently teach geography in secondary
schools in Kenya after graduation

Course objectives

A successful completion of this course is aimed at satisfying the following outcomes. The
student teacher should be able to:

 State and explain the philosophy and foundation of geography

 State and explain the nature, scope and values of geography as a subject
 Explain the place of geography in education and its contribution to the secondary school
curriculum development in Kenya citing its growth from traditional to the present child-
centred model.
 Show the development of geographical instructional strategies in time perspective from
traditional to modern approaches.
 Apply the learning and teaching theories effectively in teaching geography.
 Plan for instruction in geography in respect of scheme of work, lesson plan and record of
work etc.
 Demonstrate understanding and application of the special strategies in teaching
geography.
 Effectively apply a variety of the general instructional strategies and skills in the teaching
of geography
 Demonstrate acquisition and mastery of knowledge of the learnt instructional strategies
and skills in teaching geography.
 Select, develop and use suitable teachings and learning resources for effective teachings
of geography
 Demonstrate development of possible attitudes towards geographical education and its
application and relationship to man’s daily activities in his immediate environment.
Course content

 Philosophy and foundations of geography as an academic discipline

 Aims, values and purpose of geography
 National goals of education and the secondary school geography curriculum
 Role of geography in national development
 Planning and preparation for teaching of geography, in respect of schemes, lesson plan,
record of work e.t.c
 Methods of teaching and learning geography
 Special skills developed through geographic education
 Development acquisition, application and management of geography teaching anf
learning resources used in geography
 Project in geography
 Evaluation as an integral part of geography education

Course description

This is a none-semester course whose prerequisites are general methods of teaching and
educational technology. It covers

Introduction to geography education, nature and scope of geography as a subject in secondary

school curriculum, general goals and objectives of teaching geography, secondary school
geography and management of geography teaching, schemes of work, lesson plans, preparation
and management of geography teaching/learning resources, teacher-made apparatus and other
teaching aids. Consideration of basic skills in teaching of geography, observation, recording,
map reading, photo study, synthesis and data interpretation. A range of instructional methods and
techniques for teaching, geography with emphasis on the understanding and use of local
environment, measurement and evaluation in geography.

Mode of assessment

 Continuous assessment to account for 40%

 Final examination to account for 60%
Students’ activities

 Analysis of secondary school geography syllabus

 Discussing the place of geography as an academic discipline
 Selection and evaluation of suitable materials for use in teaching geography in
secondary schools in Kenya.
 Preparation of schemes and lesson plans
 Identification, planning and development of suitable geographical teaching
resources.
 Microteaching

References

1. Bale J. et al (ed) 1973. Geography in Secondary education, the Geographical Association

2. Graves, J.J (1975) Geography in Education, Heinmann Education books
3. Marsden, W. E (1976) Evaluating Geography Curriculum Oliver and Boyd, Endinburg.
4. UNESCO (1974) African Geography Education. Witcombe & Tombe – Pty Ltd
5. Biddle, D. S (1968) Reading in Geography for schools – Handbook for teachers longman
6. Hall D. (1976) Geography and the Geography Teachers. George Allanand Unwin ltd.
7. Graves, J.J (1972) New Movement in the study and teaching of Geography temple smith
London.
8. Walford K. (ed) (1973) New directions in Geography David and Charles Newton Abot ,
London
9. Minshuli R. (1972) the changing nature of Geography Hutchinson University Library,
London
10. Gerguson and Ngau, (1983) Fieldwork and Data analysis in Geography Macmillan Kenya
Ltd. Nairobi
11. Bale J. (1973) Perspectives in Geographical Education, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh
12. Treadway J. (1985) Geography for development, a Handbook for Geography Teachers.
Heinemann Educational books, Nairobi.
INTRODUCTION

Teaching

Teaching is, communicating facts, ideas, theories, feelings, concepts and skills to another person
with an intention of changing his/her behavior towards a desired goal. For this to happen, the
teacher must be well armed with both content and communication skills.

Methods and approaches

There may be general methods of teaching and the special methods which emphasize methods
and approaches that facilitate effective teaching and learning of a given subject. However, both
are complementary in that you cannot use one without the other.

NB: For a successful training as a geography teacher, one must have this course. It will only allw
the teacher to enjoy teaching but also feel geographical, think geographically and be able to
interpret geographical phenomena intelligently.

PHILOSOPHY AND FOUNDATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY

How can we explain the two?

i) Environmental awareness – geography as a disciple helps man to be aware of the

environment around Him.
ii) Man’s innate desire – Man has an innate desire to know and understand his
immediate and distant terrestrial habitat in order to make use of it. (This can be seen
clearly during the era of explorations). Because of his desire, teachings of geography
in schools was introduced before other social science subjects.
iii) Interdisciplinary contribution to knowledge – overtime, scholars in other social
science discipline realized that they required certain environmental knowledge that
only geography could provide. This factor made an indispensable discipline in school
curriculum.
iv) Value of geographical education – value of geography in the life of a person has
received wide recognition the world over to the extent that its aims have changed with
 the evolution of the discipline from its traditional approach to the modern conceptual
approach.
v) Wholistic view of the world – there is need more than ever before for the geography
learner to see the world in total, in reality and color. By so doing, the learner would
move away from his/her dependence on simple maps drawn by sailors and
cartographers.

Dynamisms in geography

Geography is quite dynamic in that it keeps on evolving new ideas of knowledge which
necessitates change in its nature and teachings approach. Without this dynamism, geography
would be unable to cope with time and the dictates of a fast changing world.

Elements of dynamism in Geography

i) Teaching strategies and environment – This has occurred as a result of the vast
amount of data generated from the recent technological advances in the world over.
ii) The geography student – due to the vast amount of information availed by a wide
range of media (both print and electronic) the present day student must be assisted to
develop abilities of critical thinking analysis, evaluation, synthesis, recording and
interpretation etc.
iii) Place of geography in the learning process – geography has assumed a
multidisciplinary approach in order to play its role in education. This is mainly
because, geography is supposed to help the learner make sense of spartial relations
and organization of space by man. In addition, geography is expected to assist
learners to operate competently in space and develop the habit of looking at the
spatial aspect of problems in order to understand the environment in which they live.
iv) Changes in geographical knowledge – This can be seen from the effort by the
discipline to grow from traditional approach of amassing facts, to the modern
approach emphasizing on problem solving. By the subject becoming more analytical
and investigative, the geographer’s organization posed by rapid population increase
and its development. Today, geographical knowledge helps to make global events
intelligible (from earthquakes through famine to wars etc.) For this to happen, events
 must be seen in geographical and environmental context, leading to the understanding
of spatial implications involved.
v) Conceptual revolution in geography – this is a significant change in geography as an
academic discipline. It has moved geography from a descriptive and encyclopedic
subject (which is not relevant to the present position, as a science due to its concern
for theory, deductive approach, quantitative techniques and solution to practical
spatial problems.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF GEOGRAPHY TODAY

Present day geographical knowledge is broadly covered by three major concepts;

i) Analysis of location and distribution of phenomena – the main concern here is the
description and explanation of various patterns of distribution that is characteristic of
each phenomenon – by searching for the multiple causes which may be found among
the physical and human factors. Such distributions are not static but in evolution,
consequently geographical analysis must be dynamic.
ii) Environmental analysis – particular environments results from co-existence of several
phenomena in an area- the spatial association, which in turn gives certain character to
particular places and hence contributes to spatial differentiations. When man interacts
with his own environment, he evolves a culture/civilization that it characteristic of his
environment.
iii) Spatial organization – spatial organization should be seen as determined by time,
space and culture of a people. Population centres are themselves the basic of spatial
organization hence spatial differentiation. However, spatial organization vary in
accordance with the different levels of development and the different historical
evolution of societies.
VALUE OF GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION

a) Relative values
i) Contribution to a multi-disciplinary approach to learning through its concern for
spatial matters and the skills it employs etc.
ii) Spatial analysis trains learners to be critical in their approach to life
iii) Its contribution to the understanding of habitat
iv) Concept of time and space learnt in geography introduce the learner to the fact
that events and situations evolve over time and that they involve duration and
trends.
v) Geographical education helps in the understanding of the different routes taken by
different civilizations in the course of their evolution and hence lead to positive
attitude and respect for the different societies.
vi) It leads to the development of the need for the interdependence of individuals and
nations.
b) Values inherent in geography
i) Economic values – which help individuals and nations to exploit their
environment
ii) Social values – which assist in limiting the spatial inequalities and injustices
between regions – by providing necessary information.
iii) Ecological values – that is, educating people on dynamic equilibrium in nature to
rehabilitate environment and prevent continued degradation.
iv) Spatial values – i.e. helping man to consider the advantages of each location and
the impact of such decisions on other elements of landscape, the social
environment consequences and cost in order to create a harmonious environment.

Exercise 1 – for self-evaluation and discussion

1. List about 10 things that you would want to know when you go to live in a new location
either temporarily (e.g. in school or college, or new work station) or permanently e.g.
when you change residence due to marriage, new settlement scheme or migration.
2. State five ways in which the approach to learning of geography today is different form
when you were in school last.
 3. List about 10 activities you have been able to perform with ease as a result of the
geographical knowledge you gained while in school.

GOALS OF EDUCAITON AND GEOGRAPHY COURSE OBJECTIVES

a) National goals of education

 These are goals that a nation intends to achieve through its education system
 Every country has its own set of goals of education
 In most cases, these goals determine the education system a country will adopt
and therefore the school curriculum that will be followed in order to realize them.

NB: it is important to remember that such goals are influenced by a country’s

philosophy of education.

Relevance of examining the national goals

i) As a practicing teacher, one will be able to understand better the type and nature of
our secondary school syllabus
ii) A sound understanding of the national goals of education is prerequisite to an
effective successful teaching
b) Course objectives
 Course objectives are specific statements of objectives that strive to achieve
specific, definable and sometimes quantifiable outcomes/competencies
 Course objectives relate to the behavioral changes that are expected in a learner
after exposure to learning experiences in a specified duration of time.

CONTRIBUTION OF GEOGRAPHY TO THE REALIZATION OF THE NATIONAL

GOALS OF EDUCATION

One may not be conscious that while teaching a geography course, he/she is helping in the
combined effort to realize the national goals of education. While this may be true, it should
always be remembered that the syllabus one is teaching is developed in line with both the
national and philosophy of education. Lets examine a few illustrations.
 a) National unity – one can contribute towards the realization of this goal by teaching
geographical materials that will help to create awareness and positive attitude amongst
the learners. Also teaching materials that will help them to appreciate other people’s way
of life and the right to exist. E.g. teaching about the tribal composition of Kenya and how
each tribe contributes to making the Kenya we live in. teaching how the geographical
locations of various tribes and communities is responsible to the differences in culture,
organization and economy of each one of them. Teaching of social economic
interdependence in order to show each community’s contribution to the development of
the nation. NB: However the way the teacher will handle such teachings will determine
whether learners will develop a positive or negative attitude and hence a feeling of
national unity.
b) Knowledge and skills – one can achieve this by teaching various geographical skills
c) Talents and personality – geography is a major requirement in many professions (ref.
University entry requirements) hence all its contents should be taught adequately
d) Social justice, morality, social obligation and responsibility – when one learns to
conserve the environment for example not to pollute the habitat, one is seen as being
socially conscious of the right for everyone to have habitable environment now and in the
future.
e) Positive attitude and consciousness toward other nations – teaching about different races
of the world, their development and problems (caused by other men or nature) and the
interdependence amongst them. This awareness will help learners to develop positive
attitude towards others. However, the teacher must be positive when teaching these
aspects.

NATURE AND CONTENT OF GEOGRAPHY

The term geography is derived from the Greek words ‘geo’ (the earth) and ‘graphia’ (drawing or
painting or both). Like any other discipline, geography has a distinctive core of knowledge and
its own methodology. In popular terms geography is regarded as the science of ‘place and space’.
It is concerned with the distribution of phenomena in space (i.e. terrestrial and cerestial space).
Therefore in the light of the aforesaid, it would be proper to define geography as ‘a discipline
concerned with the description of phenomena and their interrelationship on terrestrial and in
cerestrial space’.

CONCEPTS IN GEOGRAPHY

To understand what the study of geography involves, it is important to look at concepts in

geography.

a) Space – The main concern of a geographer in this concept is the distribution and location
of phenomena in both terrestrial and cerestrial space. The latter provides important
knowledge, which the geographer uses to explain and aid understanding of the influence
of the phenomena therein has on terrestrial space.
NB: A geographer studies phenomena distributed in large spaces where man interacts
with the wide environment.
b) Location, site and situation - this is an important property that is possessed by all
phenomena on the earth’s surface. Its component include direction and distance and as a
result the concepts of site and situation. To a geographer, absolute location of
phenomenon i.e. the grid coordinate reference on a map. However, the relative location
of phenomena is the geographers’ main interest and concern. E.g. the study of an
industrial establishment in relation to raw materials, labour, power, market, transport etc.
its success or failure would depend on such variables.
c) Phenomena- these are the feature that a geographer is interested in describing and
explaining their location and distribution in space. They could either be physical or
human.
d) Distribution – this concept is fundamental to all branches of geography and perhaps it is
the main distinguishing factor of geographical study from other disciplines. Once the
spatial distribution of phenomena is plotted on a map, it forms the basis on which the
geographer can describe and explain the spatial arrangement of phenomena and the
underlying factors. Distribution can therefore be described as the spatial arrangement
occurrences.
 e) Interaction – this concept involve the relationship between man and environment,
interrelationship between the human communities and that between the physical elements.

In conclusion one can say that our attempt to answer questions about space, location, distribution
or spatial interaction of elements on the earth’s surface distinguishes geography from other
disciplines.

WHY SHOULD WE TEACH GEOGRAPHY

Besides the relative and inherent values observed in the introduction, we should teach geography
in order to:

i) Enable the learners to understand themselves and others and also to understand why
and how different people live and do things the way they do, and by so doing
appreciate the diversity of different cultures.
ii) Create awareness of the need for national and international understanding in learners.
Learners must know the need for unity amongst people and the interdependence of
both national and intenational community.
iii) Equip the learners with necessary geographical skills that will contribute to their
personal development in life.
iv) To prepare learners in the use of leisure time positively.
v) To train learners to observe and interpret landscape intelligently. We need to equip
them with ‘eyes’ that can see and read meaning out of landscape.
vi) Promote critical thinking in learners, thus enabling them to explore beyond the mere
acquisition of factual information.

Exercise 2

1. Why should we see geography as the science of ‘space and place’?

2. In your view what distinguishes geographical study from other disciplines?
3. If you were to write a syllabus, show how you would organize the context in order to
enhance learner’s awareness of national international interdependence.
4. Examine the contention that teaching of geography can prepare learners for purposeful
use of leisure time.
 5. Using suitable illustrations urge the case for geography in the light of national
development.

CURRICULUM AND THE GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

Definition of curriculum

At times the term is used to refer to the PROCESS whereby, aims, objectives, content, teaching
strategies and evaluation interact in a certain situation. At other times it is used to refer to the
description of what is planned to happen within a particular subject area (a planned subject
curriculum e.g. the syllabus).

Associated curriculum models

Since education is a purposeful activity, then curriculum is the means of achieving this pupose.
How then do curriculum developers communicate their intentions? They do through:

i) Specified learning outcomes i.e. cognitive skills (intellectual) psychomotor skills

(manipulative) and affective skills (attitudes).
ii) Specified pedagogical procedures (i.e. teaching procedures).

These two ways of expressing curriculum intentions give rise to two different models of
curriculum development.

i) The objective model – stating the learner’s outcomes

ii) The process model – stating the pedagogical procedures

CURRICULUM INTENTIONS
 OBJECTIVE MODEL PROCESS MODEL

Through statements of aims, Increasing Through teaching aims Increasing

goals and objectives specificity and broad principles relating to specificity and
behaviorism teaching activities to specify direction
guidelines concerning the
establishment of particular
instructional conditions

PLACE OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL

CURRICULUM

The result interpretation of the national goals of education gives rise the curriculum objectives –
which are specific statements of education outcomes that a curriculum intends to develop in
learners. If the interpretation gives rise to objectives that cannot be realized without geographic
education, hence the development of a geography syllabus that would help to achieve the stated
objectives. Consider a curriculum that emphasized on:

 Physical aspects of the environment

 Exploitation of country’s natural resources
 Population dynamics
 Settlement and physical planning
 Agriculture as an economic base
 Transport and communication network
 Trade and industrial development
 Peoples way of life
 Map reading and photographic skills etc.

By planning and developing a syllabus that can adequately provide for such outcomes,
geographical education would be helping to realize national goals of education and by so doing,
contribute to national development. However, care should be taken on how we teach the content
of the geography syllabus. That is:

 Teach facts the away they are

 Teach concepts that would help the learner to use geographical knowledge ater after
school
 Teach geography as a living science
 Avoid subjectivity and emotive comments

EVOLUTIONN OF GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

Upto to 1970s geography syllabus was too traditional in approach and learning to traditional
teaching approaches. It was too teacher – centered in approach, bearing the following
characteristics .

i) Factual in approach – this was marked by few demonstrations and experiments if any.
Teaching was based on simple or no verification of theories and principles. It is used
standard examples without regard to their possible application to a wide variety of
situations.
ii) Too descriptive and encyclopedic ( comprehensive week many volumes)
iii) Too regional in approach- scope limited to single region)
iv) Evaluation mainly tested factual knowledge (facts)
v) Learners took what was offered by teachers with little or no room to critically
evaluate what they learnt.
vi) There was minimal emphasis on statistical approach
vii) It was lacking in field work approach (field study)

By mid 80s the syllabus had adopted a more modern approach reflecting a more modern,
conceptual and learner – centered with the following qualities:

i) Extensive use of model and quantitative approach

ii) Recommended textbooks started to assume a more mathematical approach
iii) It became more thematic in approach (focused on themes)
 iv) It became more evaluate , relying heavily on development of skills applicable in day-
day- day living
v) It became more practical oriented
vi) Evaluation assumed an approach testing more application, synthesis, and evaluation
analysis and comprehension aspects of the cognitive abilities.

CONSTRUCTION OF GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

Definition

A syllabus is an outline or a summary of a course of study to be covered by a particular class

within a given period of time.

N.B: In Kenya , we have a centralized curriculum whereby the syllabus are done centrally by
KICD – meaning that every learner in Kenya is subjected to the same courses of study in spite of
regional, geographical and social –economic disparities.

Factors to consider while constructing a geography syllabus

i) A thorough study of educational and subject objectives is needed in order to select

relevant content for the course
ii) A careful selection of concepts , principles , skills and facts must be done and they
must be basic to the teaching of geography
iii) There is need to carefully select and balance topics to be taught in the broad
categories of geographical knowledge i.e. physical and human.
iv) There should be a sequential and systematic approach to the teaching of content as
compared to the portion of content meant for comparative geographical studies.
v) Time-factor – a syllabus must be one that and be covered within the allocated school
time. Equally it should consider revision and evaluation time.
vi) Reference materials. A good syllabus indicate the textbooks and other teaching
/learning materials that will be used for a successful coverage of the course

RELATIONSHP BETWEEN TEACHING APPROACHES I GEOGRAPHY AND

SYLLABUS CONSTRUCTION
Teaching approaches in geography fall under two broad categories i.e.

i) Learners centered approach which is’

 Concerned with the learners learning outcomes
 Concerned with the skill development
 More investigative
 More deductive in nature
 Conceptual based
 Need based etc.

ii) Teacher-centered approach which is :

 Pedagogical in outlook instructing ,educating etc
 Process base (teaching procedures)
 More concerned with the achievement of the curriculum outcomes
 Concerned with facilitation of the learning process etc

A choice of either approach will determine the:

 Content of your syllabus

 Composition of content
 Caliber of content ( ie depth and breadth)
 Resources (both teaching and learning)
 Teaching environment
 Learners activities
 Evaluation procedures

TYPES OF GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

1. Regional geography syllabus – most common in schools and its aim is to achieve a
world coverage. It also incorporates a lot of case studies. It treats geographical studies
country by country,
2. Systematic Geography Syllabus – I aims at covering the whole world by teaching
geography in a thematic approach e.g. studying in unit system like world climate types,
vegetation, soils etc. this way it covers world regions under broad topics.
 3. Topic based or concept – based geography syllabus – it aims at covering geographical
knowledge under broad topics which are not subject specific because they can be applied
in any area of study. E.g. port development and functions, containerization, fluctuation of
world market prices. Etc
4. Concentric geography syllabus – aims to cover world geography following the
approach of, “from known to unknown”. That is, from local to the global world level. E.g.
forestry can be examines at local, national, international levels providing required details
and comparative information.

THE 3:4:4 SECONDARY GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

While teaching 8:4:4 syllabus it is advisable to adopt the following approaches:

i) Fieldwork must be within the local environment e.g weather studies at the school
compound or a nearby location
ii) Case studies and sample studies should be drawn from the local environment and
other parts of the world depending on relevance.
iii) Emphasis should be on concepts and skills rather than facts alone.
iv) Regional geography should be taught under a thematic approach – we should restrict
systematic approach of the local district or Kenya at most
v) Teach the physical and human geography with specific relevance to Kenya. Other
parts of the world to come in for comparison purposes only.
vi) Apply simple statistical methods that involve use of data that go into the construction
of maps and diagrams.
vii) Evaluation should be a continuous process and an integral part of the teaching of
geography

Exercise 3

1. What do you understand by terms objectives model and process model as used by
curriculum developers to express their intentions
2. Read and make notes on
a) D.K Wheeler’s model of curriculum process
b) J.F Kerr’s model of curriculum process. In each case, draw the process model.
3) Discuss the merits and demerits of a centralized curriculum.

National goal education in Kenya

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and national unity.

2. Promote social , economic , technological and industrial needs for national development
- Social needs – change of attitudes / relationships which are necessary for the smooth
process of a rapidly developing economy.
- Economic – produce citizen with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal qualities
that are required to support a growing economy.
- Technological and industrial

3) Promote individual development and self-fulfillment. Fullest development of individual

talents and personalities. Children should develop potential interest and abilities.

4) Promote social moral and religious values

PREPARATION AND PLANNING FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY

This involves two main operations, namely:

 Preparing a scheme of work

 Planning a geography lesson

a) The geography scheme of work

A detailed plan of action for use by a geography teacher over a period of one term in a given
class. It is a detailed analysis of the syllabus in terms of:

 Week
 Period
 Topic and subtopic
 Objectives for teaching a given topic
 Learning/teaching approaches
 Learning/teaching resources
 Remarks on the lesson
Why we prepare a geography scheme of work

 It helps the teacher to study and understand the syllabus

 It allows the teacher to breakdown the syllabus into manageable teaching units
 It allows for a logical and systematic approach to the teaching of geography
 It helps the teacher in the effective management of time
 It allows preparation of teaching resources in advance
 It makes preparation of a lesson easy
 It allows a comprehensive coverage of the syllabus
 It helps the teacher to maintain a proper record of work
 It helps the teacher to plan for evaluation in the course of teaching.

What guidelines should one consider in order to prepare a comprehensive scheme of work?

 Make a thorough study of the syllabus for which a scheme is to be made

 Ascertain the availability of resource materials
 Make use of a wide variety of textbooks and other relevant materials
 Breakdown the syllabus topics each with specific instructional objectives, teacher/learner
activities resources

Scheme of work format

This can be broken down into two parts:

i) Preliminary details
These include:
 Name of the school
 Class for which scheme is prepared
 Subject (in this case geography)
 Theme (i.e. the broader areas of syllabus) e.g. physical geography, climatology etc.)
 Course objectives
 General references for the teacher
 ii) Components
 Week – Showing work to be done weekly and total number of weeks in a given term.
 Period – Indicating work assigned to each lesson and the total number of periods in a
given term
 Topic –showing work to be covered in one lesson
 Objectives – What one wants to achieve in each lesson
 Methodology / approach – Indicating the most appropriate methods to be used in
each topic. E.g. question and answer, lecture. Group – work, role play. Simulation,
games etc)
 Teaching learning resources – Materials to be used to aid teaching and learning
during each lesson.
 Remark – Either pre or post – lesson remark on each lesson

Conclusion

 A scheme of work is prerequisite to successful teaching

 A good scheme of work takes time to prepare but once done, it:
- Makes the preparation of a lesson easy
- Allows logical and systematic presentation of facts in class
- Makes teaching focused and enjoyable
- Allows continuity in teaching when one teacher takes over from another.it maintains
a reasonable pace of syllabus coverage in the term
- It allows the management to monitor the progress being
- Made on the individual teacher.
5. Promote social equality and responsibility
- Promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within an education
system which provides equal educational opp. For all
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations
 A SAMPLE SCHEME OF WORK FOR ONE WEEK
GEOGRAPHY FORM 1 EAST.TERM 1

Wk Period Topic/subtopic Objectives Teaching/learning activities Learning References

resources

6 1 WEATHERAND CLIMATE By the end of the  Learners attempt to -Board for notes Part of the lesson
 Elements lesson the learner define weather with and illustrations to be held outside
 Instruments should be able to; teachers help -Environment the classroom
i)Define weather  Learners list down outside the
ii)Identify elements of weather classroom
weather elements  Leaners match -Weather
iii)Identify instruments to the instruments
weather recording weather elements -Diagrams of
instruments  Teachers to guide weather
learners through the instrument
activities

2 WEATHER -Differentiating -Learners attempt description -Recording

 Description of recording instruments. of the instruments instruments
instruments - Manipulating -Learners familiarize with - Board for notes
 Measuring weather instruments instruments - weather
elements - Measuring - Learners use instruments to recording cards
weather elements measure weather (selected
-Recording elements)
weather data - Learners record data
observed
3 CLIMATE: -Defining climate -Learners attempt to define -Board for notes
 Definition -Relating weather climate and illustrations
 Factors of climate to climate -Learners relate weather to - Weather and
 Types of climate - Factors climate climatic maps
influencing - Learners identify factors
climate influencing climate
-Broad -Try to identify broad climate
categorization of types
climate
 b)The Geography lesson

This is a standard teaching session of 40 minutes and in which a teacher plans to teach a given
topic (or topics) in order to achieve a set of instructional objectives.

N.B: The lesson to be taught must concur with what is indicated in the scheme of work.

What constitutes a lesson?

i) Lesson topic – i.e. the subject of the lesson

ii) Lesson objectives – short- term goals that a teacher intends a to achieve within the
specified time period
iii) Lesson presentation – i.e. Delivery of the content (Facts, concepts, principles, skills
etc.) using well calculated steps, teacher/pupil activities, and relevant resources. This
lesson presentation has three main parts:
- The introduction
- Lesson development
- Conclusion

What is a lesson introduction?

It is that part of the lesson in which the teacher:

- Poses the problem to be solved in the lesson

- Sets the atmosphere or mood of the lesson
- Helps the learners to focus their attention on the subject of the day
- Stimulates and motivates learners

What are the different ways of presenting an introduction in a geography lesson?

 Reviewing the previous lesson

 Narrating an interesting and relevant story
 Showing visual aids/ specimen
 Preparing learners for field work
 Use of a mystery (e.g. wearing a cowboy hat). Be relevant and temperate.
 Use of surprise e.g. water turns into ice straight form a flask.
  Use of a class activity e.g. a problem to solve based on a photo, map, table etc.
 Use of the learners’ problems i.e. the difficulties they have in a given area.
 Use of comparison i.e. let the learner draw comparison between two areas of study.

What should the lesson development contain?

 Content arranged in logical steps, allocated adequate time and aimed at achieving the
specified instructional objectives.

8) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

NB: Ensure that content in each developmental step is geared towards achieving a specific lesson
objective.

Conclusion

This is the last main part of a lesson and in which a geography teacher,

 Reviews the main features of the lesson

 Attempts to tie all the pieces of the lesson together by making a summary of the lesson
proceedings
 Evaluates the achievements of the lesson objectives ( through evaluative questions)
 Gives learners work to do after the lesson (homework).

What are the teacher/learner activities in a geography lesson?

These are the activities that both the teacher and the learner will be involved in during the lesson
in order to facilitate effective learning. (These must be carefully planned and well thought out).
The activities should be more learners oriented because they help to make the lesson more leaner
centered.

What are the teaching/learning resources in a geography lesson?

These are materials (apparatus) that the teacher and learners will use during the lesson to
facilitate effective learning.
NB: Apparatus will not qualify for resources in a given lesson if they were not used during the
lesson. The chalkboard should not be assumed. You must always qualify how you will use it to
facilitate learning.

Time allocation in a lesson

This is the art of apportioning the lesson time (40 minutes) to the various activities of the lesson
in order to effectively deliver the content during a given period. A poor allocation will probably
lead to an unfinished lesson, mostly where a teacher is not able to conclude a lesson. ¾ of the
time should be allocated to the body of the lesson while the rest should be shared out between the
introduction and the conclusion

SAMPLE LESSON FORMAT (A single lesson)

Major topic: Climate

Lesson topic: Weather

Lesson objectives: by the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to;

i. Define weather,
ii. State at least four elements of weather
iii. Identify all the major instruments of recording weather.

Teacher’s references: put down at least two or three of the major references down

i. ……………………………………………………
ii. ……………………………………………………
iii. ……………………………………………………

Time Content Teaching/learning activities Resources

2 Min Introduction Teacher to explain what the lesson is Board for new words of
-Give an overview of the all about phrases
lesson
3 Min Lesson development -Learners are encouraged to define. - The outside
 Step 1 - Teacher helps learners to arrive at the environment.
-Definition of weather correct definition -Use of learner’s
experience
15 Min Step II -Learners enumerate them with the -The environment
Elements of weather help of the teacher outside the classroom,
- Precipitation -Teacher explains the weather - Learner’s experience,
- Temperatures elements one after the other, -Chalkboard for notes
- Humidity -Learners attempt to differentiate and illustration
- Pressure between the elements
- Wind
- Sunshine
15 Min Step III -Instruments of weather recording. -Instruments of weather
Instruments of recording -Learner try to match instrument to the recording.
weather elements of weather, with teachers -weather station in the
- Rain gauge help where possible school compound.
- Thermometer -Learners to identify them with the Charts, pictures-board
- Hygrometer teacher’s help for summary notes
- Barometer
- Anemometer
- Sunshine recorder
5 Min Conclusion -Teacher uses evaluative questions -Use of teaching charts,
-Reviewing main parts of -Learners answer questions orally chalkboard for notes
the lesson -Learners note down the exercise and learners task,
-Giving homework -Learners ask one or two questions and textbooks for the
the teacher responds to them homework given etc.

Exercise 4

1. What is the difference between the scheme of work and the lesson plan?
2. Explain the relationship between the lesson objectives, content learning activities and the
learning resources in a lesson.
 3. Differentiate between learning activities in a lesson and the methodology in a scheme of
work.

FIELD WORK IN GEOGRAPHY

As Geography teachers we should take Geography as a field study subject and whose concern is
with the accurate observation, recording and interpretation of the variable nature of the physical
and human landscapes both in rural and urban settings.

This observation therefore indicates that the geographer’s laboratory is in the field and not in the
classroom. For this reason, the local environment should constitute an effective geographical
field laboratory in which much of the geography teaching in schools should be carried out as
often as possible.

It is strongly recommended that individual geography teachers should workout suitable

fieldwork topics which are relevant to their local conditions and integrate them into the current
geography syllabus and scheme of work.

FIELD WORK IN GEOGRAPHY

Field study

Field trip excursion field research

Field trip or excursion

This involves the learners seeing as much as possible of the world around them, listening to
public lectures from resource persons.

N.B it is difficult to structure this type of fieldwork towards the achievement of any particular
objectives.

Geographical field study/teaching

This involves the teacher and the learners in examining and analyzing a selected problem of
study (which shows one or more aspects of variation.
N.B Objectives of this type of study are specifically stated because they relate to an investigation
of a specific geographical problem.

Geographical field research

This has been the most neglected method of studying geographical problems in the field in our
secondary schools.

N.B In this type of study, the idea is not to study the whole field area but to use examples from
the field to illustrate, prove or disprove, and if possible to modify the universally accepted ideas
or theories.

Importance of field work in Geography

 Fieldwork makes the study of geography real. Its means of obtaining firsthand
geographical experience.
 Geographical fieldwork fives students and opportunity to identify relationships between
geographical phenomena and aids them in the task of interpretation in order to reach
rational conclusions.
 It makes the student appreciate the problem involved in map- making and especially
when one considers that maps are not complete record of what actually is in the field.
 Fieldwork shows the students how the second hand materials come into existence.
 Fieldwork brings the student into contact with problems of development in their own
local areas hence they develop a healthy attitude towards national building.

Topics Suitable for Geographical Field Work

Choosing Topics

Teacher needs to consider the following

 Availability of time,
 Maturity and the ability of students
 Availability for money for the transport
  Location of the school in relation to the areas to be used for field study
 The starting point in the field study series

The following are suitable topics for field study within the school surroundings

 An excursion to study the landforms: e.g. the study of a river valley

 A transect traverse on foot: teacher and the learners walk across a section of the field in a
straight line noting and recording data of interest,
 A land use survey: usually covering several sq.km of countryside. Among the things to
note include farmlands, forests, buildings etc.
 A farm study: a tour of the farm noting crops, animals farming methods etc.
 A study of a village: touring the village and noting types of houses, building materials
and their sources etc.
 A study of nearly urban Centre: to examine its commercial centre, residential areas and
industries etc.
 A factory visit: A study of the source of the raw materials labour and power availability.
 A study of the local market: Finding out the types of goods sold and their origin etc.

N.B. This is but a small list of applicable topics. It is the responsible of the teacher to look for
more depending on the area of location.

GEOGRAPHICAL FIELD STUDY

Introduction

There are two approaches that a teacher can adopt while conducting a geographical field study
with respect to the level and ability of the learners.

a) For junior classes-: A teacher may conduct a normal open –air lesson, directing the
learner’s attention to observation.
b) For senior classes-: A teacher organizes the class into groups, gives them specific topics
and then assumes the role of a supervisor.

Planning and organizing fieldwork

Factors to consider while organizing a field study;

 a) Identification of the field study or problem and its area of location.
b) Statement of objectives
c) Preparation – this is twofold;
i. Teachers preparation
ii. Students preparation
d) Methods and techniques of field study: in most cases these will depend on the Topic of
study. However, the following suggested techniques could be used as a basis for planning
the methodology depending on the topic; observation, interviews, collecting, counting,
sampling, drawing of sketches, measuring, note taking, lectures, group work,
photography and mapping.

Methods of Data Presentation and Summary of the Results

a) Presentation of numeric data that is collected in the field- should be in form of tables,
graphs and pictorial drawing.
b) Summary of the results should be based on the objectives
c) Short field reports by individual learners or groups,
d) Display the materials collected – specimen, maps, sketches, diagram, photos

Graded field study Exercises

Field study exercises should be graded according to the age and ability of the learners. If one is
to teach different age groups the same topic, the following scheme may prove useful:

a) Form 1-3
i. Emphasis should be on – observation and description of geographic features
ii. Looking for simple relationships between geographical features and suggested
simple explanations for their occurrence.
b) Form 3-4
i. Explanation for geographical relationships
ii. Synthesis of geographical elements to identify classes and define geographical
regions.
 iii. Comparison of what is studied in the field with what have been studies in other
regions.
iv. Use of problem solving exercises in the field such as collecting data to test simple
hypothesis and making use of simple quantitative techniques

GEOGRAPHICAL FIELD RESERACH

Introduction

It is important for the teacher to be familiar with scientific research techniques in order to be able
to apply it at secondary school level, to solve geographical problems.

Importance of field research in teaching of geography

Field research methods help:

 Provide the learner with answers to some geographical questions they raise in class
especially those related to relationship of phenomena
 The learner to develop skills of observation, recording, analysis, synthesis and
interpretation.
 The learner to become more objective while approaching geographical problems.

Organization of geographical field research

The major steps involved are:

 Identifying the field research problem

 Preparing for data collection (type of data, where to look for it, how much of it, method
of collecting and recording and method of analysis to be sued)
 Collecting the data (learners to do it in groups)
 Analysis of data (For junior classes, use measures of central tendencies. For senior
classes, the teacher should use descriptive statistics, e.g. correlations and simple
statistical test for levels of significance)
 Presentation of field research results (use graphs, charts, line graphs, flow diagrams,
tables’ histograms etc.)
NB: Besides graphical presentation learners should be made to write summary reports of their
findings. Let them compare their results with that of other people in different situations.

Exercise 5

1. Explain why it is said that “the geographers’ laboratory is in the field.”

2. Differentiate between an excursion, field trip and field study in geographical field work.
3. With reference to where you working, list about 5 topics that you consider suitable for
fieldwork in geography.
4. Choose a form II topic your choice and prepare a geographical field study programme
under the following headings.
5. Choose a topic suitable for geographical field research at secondary level and;
a) Formulate one or two hypothesis
b) Show methods you would use to collect data
c) Show methods of data analysis and presentation that you would use.

OTHER METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY

a) Local study approach

This means using the local environment to teach and learn geographical concepts and skills. It is
recommended that this approach forms the basis of teaching geography in secondary schools
mainly because it is important to understand our own environment before one can look into other
parts of the world. For effective application of the local study approach teachers and learners
should apply the following techniques;

i. Make use of outline maps of the area of study

ii. Use questions on specific problems to be investigated in the field.
iii. Learners should draw sketches and write down field noes to be used later in class
iv. There should be follow-up activities e.g. learners writing summary notes about their
findings, interpreting data collected and drawing conclusions from it.

Local geographical studies can effectively be done through either:

i. Field work
ii. Reference to the already published information, though it should be based on real people and
places.

NB. Studying local geography of areas far from the schools, maps, photos, pictures, statistical
charts and diagrams, models etc. can be used since they approximate reality in the field. Let the
learners observe record and interpret the date and summarize their observations drawing
conclusions at the same time.

b) Regional Study Approach

This is an approach that puts emphasis on the study of geographical knowledge in an area using
particular problems as the base. To achieve good results with this approach, the sample study
method should be used because it has an advantage of representing the study of different aspects
of the geography of an area.

c) Systematic Study Approach

At times the approach takes a world approach though in most cases it takes a more thematic
approach e.g. geomorphology, agriculture, settlement, settlement etc. whichever is the case, the
teaching of geography in this approach should be as follows:

i) In physical geography, the main thrust is to describe and explain the process leading
to the occurrence of physical phenomena and how man interacts with them.
ii) In human geography, the main thrust is to examine man’s interaction with the
environment in the development of such aspects as settlement, forestry, mining,
transport; population, industrialization etc. examine the major principles and concepts
underlying their growth and relate them to the past and contemporary theories and
models.

NB: The emphasis is on conceptual knowledge than mere facts.

d) Sample or case study approach

This is one of the approaches geographers use to bring close to the learners. This approach can
be divided into two types:

i. Regional case studies – whereby an activity is seen as the representative case of the
region in which it is situated. (e.g. case studies in East African Geography)
ii. Typical case studies – in which we study cases that make it easy for the learners to
understand facts.
 It fits in quite well in a regional geography syllabus and hence it can be applied at any
level of education.
 It helps the teacher to cover the syllabus when time is a constraint.

Teaching materials for case studies

Though those materials can be found in various textbooks, we should advice that the teacher
takes responsibility in collecting and assembling such materials from their sources. They include:

i. Sketch maps showing the area of study

ii. Topographical maps-giving details of land use, communication, physical aspects etc.
iii. Photographs and pictures of the area of study
iv. A variety of statistical tables and charts.

Organizing a case study lesson

i. Locate the case study area (actual or on the map)

ii. Study a large topographical map of the area in which the case study is located
iii. Study the relevant geographical illustrative materials in detail
iv. Carry out an overall analysis and synthesis of the materials leant in previous lessons.
v. Compare facts and concepts gathered in the case stud with those found in other
regions ( local and distant)

e) Illustrations in teaching geography

For a geography teacher to successfully realize the course objectives, teaching must be
supplemented with adequate illustrations.
Reasons for using illustrations in the teaching of geography

i. Illustrations focus the learners interest and attention to what they are learning
ii. Illustrations make abstract concepts real and concrete.
iii. They provide the learner with a unified frame of reality since visual illustrations
correct the visual ways in which we look at the same concept.
iv. They help the learners to find out information by themselves
v. They add variety to learning experiences, which verbal descriptions alone will not
provide.
vi. A combination of visual and sound perceptions make learning effective. Hence
illustrations are necessary in teaching of geography.
Commonly used illustrative materials in teaching geography

 Chalkboard- on which we write down new words and terms, draw diagrams and
sketches s, list questions and topics for discussion, make summary notes for the learners
etc.
 Textbooks – which contain part or whole course content, systematically and logically
presented etc. a good textbook should consist of the descriptive and illustrative materials.
 Atlas – which is an essential reference material? It is recommended that, there be
adequate copies in class all the time.
 Terrestrial Globe which is probably the only representation of the earth with little
or no distortion. It shows true forms, proportion and distances, why there is day and
night and why there are different seasons in both South and North of the Equator.
 Wall maps which combine political physical and human features. These are more useful
because they show relationships and can be used as referent.
 Models – these are simplified representations of reality and are intended to show certain
qualities of the real world. However, models carry limited information as they based on
specified features or concepts that the teacher wants to convey at a given time.
 Statistical data – these are the published statistics found either in text books or other
publications like journals, economic surveys and government statistical reports. A teacher
can use raw statistics to support certain arguments etc.
 Pictures, photographs and charts – which can give reality to the word, idea or concept
which was previously very abstract. They stimulate the learner and help to sustain
attention.
 Projected images – they are good because all learners can observe details at the same
time. They proximate reality.
 Specimen – using real objects as they exist in their natural surroundings. They make the
teaching of geography real.

NB: The list given above is of the most common illustrative materials. There are others that
teacher can use. Be more creative and innovative.
 f) Use of pictures and photographs in teaching Geography

Pictures and photographs are forms of simplified reality of the object or feature they represent.
They help to illustrate what we cannot reach at time of learning – thus bringing features far
removed from the learner closer.

Importance of using pictures and photographs

- They make learning of geography real

- They help learners to develop accurate images of geographical features
- They proximate reality
- They are easier to use than the maps.
- They form the best starting point for map reading
- Aerial photographs are the basis on which maps are drawn. This means that photographic
study is a prerequisite to the Acquisition of skills in map reading, analysis and
interpretation.

NB. A map and photograph of the same landscape are two sides of the same coin.

How to use pictures and photographs in teaching geography

Pictures and photos should be used as an integral part of the geography lesson since they are
illustrative materials. For effective use, the following methods can be applied;

i) When using few photographs divide the class into groups (equal to the number of
photos) and let the groups view each photographer in rotation.
ii) When using large photographs display them in a vantage point from where all the
learners can see with ease. This will allow the teacher to have one to one interaction
with the learners.
iii) When using many photographs to cover individual learner, then there is the advantage
of direct teacher / learner interaction. This makes learning faster.

Studying analyzing and interpreting photographs

i) State what is contained in the photo and where it was taken

 ii) Direct the learners to the most important features in the photograph and make them
list them down.
iii) Let the learners describe and explain the distribution of those features orally or in
writing – by using sketches and set of words which refer to specific parts of the
photograph, where the specific features are located e.g.

LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT

Background Left Background Middle background Right background
Middle Ground Left Middle ground Centre Middle Ground Right middle ground
Fore ground LEFT Foreground Middle Foreground Right foreground

iv) Let the learners look for the relationship between various features shown in the photo
interpretation must be with caution because inferences can only be made on the basis
of evidence available in the photo. However other inferences can be made out of
learners past experiences gained while studying similar features in different
geographical settings.
v) Make the learners practice comparative studies i.e. what they have seen in the picture
and what they have seen in the field. Can they verify this information in their local
area?

Where and when do we use photographs in a geography lesson?

i) If it is meant for motivation; it should be used at the beginning of the lesson.

ii) If it was meant to be an illustrative material then use it during the lesson to clarify
issues as they emerge.

NB: A photograph can be used as an integral part of the lesson or as the main object of study and
in which case one or more periods would be devoted to its study, analysis and interpretation.
Limitations in the use of photographs

i) They are not able to convey certain sensational feelings e.g. smell, heat, cold etc.
however a teacher can frame questions in such a way that such sensations can be
created in the learner’s mind.
ii) They give incomplete or discontinuous information in that they provide information
pertaining to a particular point in time and therefore des not cater for changes.

Exercise 6 (for self - evaluation and discussion)

1. Pick the geography textbook by KIE and make a list f he illustrations used. Which ones
are similar to the one noted in this document and which ones are not listed in this
document? How suitable is the textbook as a class text? Make a critique.
2. Justify the use of photographs in teaching geography.
3. Using suitable illustrations, demonstrate how a teacher can use a photograph at the
beginning during and the end of a geography lesson.

G. Map reading interpretation

One of the methods of recording observed data in geography is in the form of maps. Therefore,
the ability to make and read maps is fundamental to the study of geography. Map reading and
interpretation involves;

i) Map Spelling

This is introductory work to map reading, which involves

- Defining and conceptualizing a map

- Comprehending the map language (symbols)
- Learning the information printed on the margins of the map e.g. title, key, scale, direction
etc.
- Differentiating a map and a picture
- Teaching learners’ simple map making skills. E.g. drawing plans of features or objects
and simple maps
- Introduction of the concept of simple scale.
 - Introduction of the concept of direction (Cardinal points of a compass).

ii) Map reading

This involves

- Training learners to understand and recognize information depicted on mas

- Description of the location and distribution of the geographical features.
iii) Map interpretation
- Teaching of the art of description and explanation of location and distribution of various
geographical features on the map and their relationship
- Teaching how to use evidence on the map to illustrate explanations
- Teaching learners how to draw conclusions and make generalizations based on the
explanations.

All in all, map interpretations is the art of expressing the distribution and relationship of
phenomena in a given place and an attempt on the “how” and “why” of such distribution and
relationships.

Exercise 7 (for self- evaluation and discussion)

1. Differentiate between map spelling, reading and interpretation

2. Explain how you would help learners to develop a plan or map of a football ground
3. Using well illustrated diagrams show how you would introduce learners to the concept of
contours
4. Explain how you would guide the learners to interpret the distribution of agricultural
activities on a topographical map.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL ATMOSPHERE IN THE SCHOOL

Introduction

It is obvious that geography is one of the most popular subjects in the school curriculum. This
topic does not intend to look into the factors leading to its popularity rather it intends to give out
some hints on how to develop, stimulate and sustain interest of learners in the subject both in
class and during their leisure time.

This can be done in two ways.

1. By involving the students as much as possible in various activities of geographical nature

and
2. By the geography teacher creating learning situations that capture the students interests
and encourage them to learn the subject beyond the confines of the classroom.

Following are ways in which geographical atmosphere can be established in the schools:

USE OF THE GEOGRAPHY ROOM

Since the tools of a geographer are many, it is important to have a special room in which
materials for teaching geography can be organized, displayed and stored. This is so because:-

i) Teaching of geography requires that certain items or equipment be stored and set up
in preparation for the lesson. Sometimes the work done in class is not completed e.g.
making models, charts and map work. For this reason the students need some place
where the incompleted work can be left undisturbed.
ii) Geographers need ample space where they can store their collections and specimens.
iii) Some of the equipment used in geography like tracing tables, display tables,
projectors, globes, survey equipment, etc. needs a permanent storage place.
iv) Like other practical subjects, geography should develop an atmosphere of its own in
the place where it is taught. This atmosphere can be created by visual display of the
tools and equipment used in teaching the subject in the geography room.

The layout of the geography room should consist of the following:-

- Class seating area

- Teaching area
- Class working area
- Storage space and place for display or illustrative materials
THE SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY CLUB

- Effective teaching of geography arouses interest in students. This interest should not be
confined to the classroom, but rather, it should be maintained and developed further by
encouraging the students to form and join a geographical club. This is a healthy forum in
which materials not taught in the classroom can be discussed.
- The students should be allowed a free hand in the running of the club. However a bit of
supervision and guidance from the geography teacher in necessary.
- The following are suggested range of activities that the club can involve its members in :
a) Debate and discussion on current affairs of geographical interest
b) Talks by visiting guest speakers’ e.g. old boys, members of staff, local university students
and staff.
c) Talks on papers prepared by members of the club
d) Quizzes
e) Joint meetings and competitions with other clubs from different school on best
presentations
f) Film shows
g) Model making, mapping and labeling of specimens for the geography museum
h) Running of the school weather station
i) Production of geographical magazines
j) Organizing field trips.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL EXHIBITIONS

Geographical exhibitions stimulate interest in the whole school. This can be done at the end of
the year, on parents’ day or during the school’s open day. Exhibitions serve as incentives for the
students to produce good work. Such exhibitions can be based on the display of materials
collected in the field, projects of topical interests, photographs of interesting features, models etc.

PROJECTS

Projects could be based on: model making, map making, drawing and sketching of geographical
features. Projects could also be based on topical issues that need to be investigated e.g. – coffee
growing in Kenya, transportation in students home districts, management and conservation of
natural resources etc. these projects can be organized on – whole class, group and individual
bases.

The outcome of such projects should be the production of a report, illustrated by drawings,
diagrams, and photographs. Best reports can be read to the classes and displayed in school
exhibition. Projects stimulate interest in geography since it encourages students to discover
information on their own and in their own local environment.

EXPENDITIONS

Expeditions involve the study of areas away from the local environment. However the conduct
and organization of a geographical expedition is similar to that of field study.

THE GEOGRAPHY TEACHER

Geography teacher is an important agent in the establishment of a good and healthy geographical
atmosphere in the school. His/her teaching prowess can create in students a genuine interest and
desire to know more. To do this, he/she must

- Be capable of using various teaching strategies

- Command a considerable breadth and depth of the subject matter
- Have a wide interest in many other subjects that relate to his own area of specialization
e.g. history, economics, maths, physics, chemistry and biology.
- Have power of realistic description and the ability to make the students think and learn
logically.

NEW ORCURRENT TRENDS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY in this lecture, we shall

attempt to:

- Distinguish between the traditional and current approach to teaching geography

- Examine what is meant by the term “NEW” or “CURRENT” trends in teaching
geography
- Look into the factors that influence the current thinking and approaches to teaching of
geography
 - Discuss the implications of the new / current developments in geography teaching in
Kenya.

Introduction

To non-geographers – geography is a subject whose aim and concern is the regurgitation of facts
about places, features, settlement and transport etc. however, geographers have for many years
attempted to show that the subject is dynamic and is concerned more with the development of
ideas , concepts, principles and skills as any other science subject. In order to do so, their main
thrust has been an attempt to give geography a character by developing its methodology like the
other science subjects. This attempt has paid dividends in that geography is currently viewed as a
field of knowledge.

TRADITIONAL METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY

These were methods whose main concern was to transmit knowledge and skills through the
expository modes of teaching. In this way teaching was characterized by the following features:

i) Heavy use of didactic prose

ii) Use of simple maps, climatic and trade statistical tables, diagrams and dictated notes.
iii) Very few illustrations, demonstrations and experiments
iv) Simple verification of theories, principles and models
v) Generalized use of examples as if they were standard examples without regard to
their possible application to a wide variety of situations.
vi) Methods of studying regional geography was environmental deterministic and
stereotyped i.e. was determined by where one lived, under whose jurisdiction and
what the masters wanted)
vii) Regional materials were organized on a systematic framework under the headings
such as position, size, relief, drainage, climate, vegetation etc. thereby dividing the
subject according to its areas of coverage.
viii) Evaluation was mainly by recall questions.
ix) The learners were only supposed to take what was offered without choice. They were
rarely given a chance to discover or critically evaluate the relevance of what they
learnt.
FACTORS CHALLENGING THE TRADITIONAL APPROACHES

i). Recent advances in the teaching of geography at the universities ( In UK in the 1960s) through
the use of models , quantitative techniques and simulation. This approach was fond to help the
learners acquire ideas concepts and skills much faster and with ease. In addition authors of
geography books started to adopt a more mathematical approach in summarizing geographical
information.

ii). In America educators developed a high school geography project (HSGO) which advocated
the teaching of geography from a conceptual approach. Besides that the project developed a new
syllabus- “the geography in our urban age” which emphasized the need for

 Students to draw tentative conclusions and preliminary generalizations

 Students to use models to organize their thoughts and arrive at conclusions
 Students to use the discovery approach more than any other method

iii).There arose a growing understanding of the nature of the scientific inquiry towards solving
problems in a world experiencing rapid technological advances and environmental complexities.
In this respect, the style of earning became more important than the mere acquisition of factual
knowledge.

iv).Educational psychologists were advancing very important theories of learning which required
constant re-evaluation of pedagogy. For example, Bruner may have influenced both the content
and methodological reform in geography through his views about learning. In one such views, he
observed that:

“ Mastery of fundamental ideas of a field involves not only grasping of concepts and general
principles that also the development of an attitude towards learning and inquiry, towards
guessing and hunches, towards the possibility of solving problems on one’s own. To instill such
attitudes by teaching requires something more than the mere presentation of factual and
conceptual knowledge”.

From this abstract, it is clear that Bruner is saying that – Fundamental points should be put across
in such a way that the students are allowed to perceive the underlying geographical theories, laws
and concepts by themselves.
 - The students should be involved in class work much more than previously done. That is,
the learner should be involved in decision – making and in the discovery of concepts and
principles underlying the regularities in geographical patterns.

THE “NEW GEOGRAPHY” AND CURRENT METHODS OF TEACHING

GEOGRAPHY

The term “New Geography” is quite prominent in geographical literature calling for a
distinctions methodology and philosophy of the subject. The term means the desire to create a
distinctive geographical methodology. It lays emphasis on styles of learning rather that the
acquisition of factual information.

N.B. Simply the term means: - the use of Quantitative techniques, models, hypothesis, games,
simulation and role – play as tools for teaching geography at school level.

The current trend in geography teaching at school level emphasizes on exploring the subject as a
modern field of learning. In this way the teaching of geography encourages students to
investigate the many reasons why things, people, and events are found where they are not in
other places. That is, the teaching of geography is no longer about what is where but rather WHY
it is where it is.

A lot of emphasis is being placed on learning ideas, concepts and general principles of wide
geographical applicability.

Regional geography is no longer the study of the uniqueness of places, rather the regions are
being used as aerial units in which patterns common to many regions are investigated and
verified.

Modern approach to teaching geography relies on the learner’s inquiry and analysis of factual
data so that he can develop conceptual skills and knowledge of his own. This approach has been
exemplified in recent years by the adoption of child centered teaching techniques – labeled
“Inquiry/discovery/heuristic/problem solving” approach.

TRADITIONAL VS MODERN APPROACH IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY

Following is a summary of the main features of both approaches

TRADITIONAL (TEACHER CENTRED) MODERN (LEARNER-CENTRED)
1. Teaching laid emphasis on the Teaching emphasizes acquisition of skills,
acquisition of factual knowledge concepts and general principles
2. Teaching was by expository modes Teaching by discovery through selected learner
activities
3. Demonstrations, practical work and Learners encouraged formulating their own
experiments were through lectures hypothesis and using geographical data to test
their validity.
4. Teaching involved verification of stated Learners investigate problem situations for
geographical theories and models. new theories and modes formulation.
5. Teaching involved use of standard Learners apply geographical principles to new
examples problem situations.
6. Regions were studies as unique entities Learners study regions as area units in which
patterns common to many regions are
investigated.

IMPLICATION OF THE CURRENT TRENDS FOR GEOGRAPHY TEACHING IN

KENYA

Though the ideas leading to the current trends in geography teaching were rooted in Britain and
USA, and that there exists significant differences in the system of education between the two
countries and Kenya, the theme and purpose for the innovation are the same. Many countries
have accepted these new developments and Kenya is not exceptional. However, the question is:
how can we adopt and incorporate these developments into the framework of Kenya Secondary
school geography curriculum? Whichever course the adoption of the new trends will take, the
following will be possible implications:-

i) There is need to redefine Aims and Objectives of teaching geography in our

secondary schools in order to incorporate acceptable aspects of the current trends.
Already 8-4-4 syllabus has taken care of some aspects like field work and use of
elementary statistical methods. All the same, the extent to which the new syllabus
 would want to involve the learners in hypotheses formulation and testing, model
building research and theory formulation is far from clear.
ii) There will be need for an improvement in the present course content to introduce the
new ideas without necessarily restructuring the existing course framework. This will
involve a lot of cost.
iii) There will be need for the development of new teaching and learning materials
appropriate to the philosophy of the current trends.
iv) There will be need to involve geography teachers at all levels in the experimentation
of the teaching materials and methods appropriate to the philosophy of the current
trends, with a view to evaluating their suitability to our local situations.
v) There will be need to test the new materials and methods in our public examinations
if they have to be put into effective use. This means new methods of testing and
evaluation.
vi) There will be need for instructional course and seminars to help in the dissemination
of the new ideas to geography teachers

N.B For any new project/innovation, it is recommended that geography teachers select those
aspects that are relevant and modify those that may not be adopted wholesale with a view to
making them suitable to our local programmes

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY

In order for the teacher to raise the level of effective teaching in geography, there is need to
apply use or media and resources other than those that we may have touched. The role of such
media and resources cannot be understood considering their place in enhancing both teaching
and learning. For ease of choosing what to use, we shall treat them as follows:

a) Printed materials
i) Other than the main textbook provided or recommended, a geography teacher should
incorporate materials found in journals, magazines (national Geographic’s etc.),
newspapers, documents on environment, habitat, tourism, trade and industry etc.
these will provide most current data on topical geographical issues.
 ii) Examination papers, marking schemes of past examiners (KNEC documents) and
topographical maps will provide the teacher with valuable insight regarding the level
and standard of teaching geography.
iii) Extensive use of graphical materials and posters is recommended in teaching of
geography.
b) Models

The geography teacher should use models whenever appropriate

c) Audio Visual

These are very well applied in teaching of geography if facilities allow. Showing films or
videotapes of topical issues can really enhance teaching and learning. Tape recorders can be used
to record information in the field and use it in class later. Video cameras can also be used to
collect valuable information in the field and have it analyzed later in the classroom

d) Electronic media (Radio and Television)

A lot of geographical information is being transmitted for general consumption (Education

Television ETV) to the public quite regularly and the teacher should capture each moment or
encourage the learners to pay particular attention to such programmes while watching the TV.
Weather programmes are ever on TV, programmes on Tonadoes and Cyclones, forestry, wildlife,
agriculture, transport, population, industry, environment etc. are broadcast on a daily basis.

e) Weather Station

Teachers should make use of weather station in their schools or put up one if they do not have. It
is very useful media in teaching geographical concepts.

f) Resource Centre

Other than using the geography room, teachers should encourage learners to use the resource
center whenever it is available.

TESTING AND EVALUATION IN GEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
-Traditionally most testing in school curriculum has been on achievement i.e. assessment of what
a candidate has learnt at the end of a given course. In addition, these achievement tests have been
used as a means of selection of students for further education and job placement.

- Today testing in school curriculum is not only for achievement but also for quality of teaching
and learning taking place in schools. In order to do this we need to adopt appropriate evaluation
techniques that will assist in assessment of behavior exhibited by students at the end of a given
course.

PURPOSE OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

- To evaluate is to “determine the value of”, either qualitatively or quantitatively. It is

making of judgment about the value of teaching and learning processes that take place in
the classroom
- What is the difference between evaluation and measurement?

Evaluation is more inclusive than measurement. This is so because:-

- Measurement is simply a number, which expresses the amount or type of characteristics

possessed by an individual. E.g. when a teacher awards X a score of 80 and student Y a
score 70, the only process that has been carried out is one of measurement. However,
when the score of 80 is compared with that of 70 or that of other students in a group and
is judged to be either good or bad, then an evaluation has been made.

Evaluation can either be summative or formative

Summative

Assessment procedures used to assess the students at the end of course or term. The essential
characteristic of summative evaluation is that the evidence (or achievement) so obtained is used
as a basis for making judgment about

i) The level of achievement of the class

 ii) Prediction of future attainment or performance and
iii) Selection of students for a given career.

Formative

Assessment procedures whose results are used primarily to help the teacher and students to
improve the performance in teaching and /or learning processes. It should be used to judge the
process of trading and learning rather than judging the performance of individual students. Such
tests include – quizzes, homework, and continuous assessment.

OBJECTIVES THAT CAN BE EVALUATED IN GEOGRAPHY

It’s possible to examine educational objectives in the three domains as classified by Bloom.
However, the most elaborate statement to observable or examinable objectives in geography are
in the cognitive domain.

For this reason these are the objectives that we shall examine.

N.B Behavioural skills under the cognitive domain can be classified in six major headings and on
the principle of increasing complexity and mental behavior as follows:-

i) Knowledge – i.e. recall of specific facts – emphasis is on remembering geographical facts and
concepts and principles – which fall into the class or lower mental processes.

ii) Comprehension – i.e The ability to translate interpret and intrapolate information. It also
involves the ability to understand technical terms, theories and methodology used and studies in
the subject.

iii) Application - The ability to recognize whether or not the principle or concept is applicable in
a given situation. N.B. it is important for geographers to ensure that a large part of the material
taught in geography should be used in developing the students’ ability to transfer or apply his
knowledge in real life situations.

iv) Analysis – The ability to comprehend, break down data into its constituent parts, identify
relationships, between these parts and to the whole, and recognize the structure in which the
parts are arranged.
v) Synthesis – The ability to put together elements and pars so as to form a whole .e.g. drawing
of maps from a given set of data, describing landforms of an area from observation and writing
an account of a region.

vi) Evaluation – The ability to judge the value of materials and methods for given purposes. It is
a complex behavior that presupposes mastery of all other five cognitive skills above.

TECHNIQUES OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

N.B. The techniques used depend on the purpose and objectives to be assessed. Some evaluation
techniques fit certain subject content better than other. For example, the following are
advantages of objective tests:-

- Covers a wide coverage of the syllabus

- Objectivity in marking

- Enhance validity and reliability of test

- Easy in marking

- Test a wide variety of objectives

- Can be administered at almost at any level

Evaluation procedures often used by geographers:

i) Objective tests
ii) Essay questions – structured and open ended.

OBJECTIVE TESTS

- Multiple choice
- True/false
- Matching tests
- Filling the gaps
- Checklists

Multiple Choice tests

- The most popular of all objectively scored tests

 - Most widely used form of item testing because it can be used to test almost a type of
cognitive bahaviour from recall of knowledge to evaluation.
- The format of multiple choice questions consists of the –
i) Stem – which states the question
ii) Options – i.e. the alternative answers
iii) Key – i.e. the correct alternative answer
iv) Detractors – the incorrect alternatives

N.B. Constructing a good multiple-choice question is a difficult job and requires patience and
good command of content and construction technique.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

- Essay questions call for continuous prose

- They require the candidates to demonstrate their organization abilities and originally
- Since they are open ended, scoring is very subjective at times
- To improve objectivity in essay questions, structures essay questions were introduced in
testing.
- The following operative instructional phases differentiate one essay from another : -
discuss, examine, compare and contrast, state and explain, describe, give an account of,
etc.

What principles should one consider when formulating essay questions in geography?

i) Essay questions should test both the factual knowledge and other complex skills and
abilities
ii) They should state quite clearly the nature of the skills that the students are expected to
demonstrate.
iii) The instructional phrases used should be within the range of the student’s ability.

Following are different levels of ability that can be tested using essay question in geography.

- Recall of knowledge
- Comparison and contrast
- Description of relationships
 - Explanation of why and how
- Application of skills and concepts
- Organizational skills
- Critical analysis and decision making

CHARACTERISTICS OF TESTS

There are two characteristics that are quite important in judging the quality of an evaluation tool
(i.e. tests)

1. Validity

 One of the most important consideration in judging the adequacy of attest

 Validity means – the accuracy with a test measures what it is intended to measure.
 There are different types of validity but to the classroom teacher, perhaps the most
important one is the content validity.
 A test is said to have content validity if it is representative of the instructional objectives
of the course being tested. When students complain that attest was out of the syllabus or
covered only a small part of the course – then the content validity of the test is being
questioned.

2. Reliability

That is the consistency with which attest measures whatever it is supposed to measure i.e. the
consistency with which the test can be marked in order to produce objective and comparable
measures; the consistency with which it can be compared with other tests of the same content
validity; the consistency of performance of students taking the test. If a test cannot live up to
these consistency levels then its reliability is questionable.

PROGRESS RECORD

What is a progress record?

A student record is the record maintained by the teacher consisting of performance scores of
every student in a given subject. Such scores could be from quizzes, homework, course work or
monthly tests. The importance of maintaining updated progress record includes inter alia: it is
from this record that the subject or class teacher is able to monitor the academic progress of his
students.

- The data generated by the record helps the teacher to know which students require
remedial work either during the term or during the holidays
- Progress record can tell the teacher how successful a given course has ……comparing
scores obtained by the same students in different topics or course.