ASSIGNMENT-IST

OF
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE

SUBMITTED BY: RAKESH KUMAR

ROLL NO: 2100083

COURSE: B. TECH 7TH SEM/CSE

SUBMITTED TO: ER. TANVI MAM

 INDEX

SR. TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
Q1. Introduction to DDB & its architecture? 3-5

Q2. Explain various semantic data controls in DDB? 6-9

Q1. Introduction to DDB & its architecture?

Ans. A distributed database is basically a database that is not limited to one system, it is
spread over different sites, i.e., on multiple computers or over a network of computers. A
distributed database system is located on various sites that don’t share physical
components. This may be required when a particular database needs to be accessed by
various users globally. It needs to be managed such that for the users it looks like one single
database.
Types:

1. Homogeneous Database:
In a homogeneous database, all different sites store database identically. The
operating system, database management system, and the data structures used – all
are the same at all sites. Hence, they’re easy to manage.

2. Heterogeneous Database:
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites can use different schema
and software that can lead to problems in query processing and transactions. Also, a
particular site might be completely unaware of the other sites. Different computers
may use a different operating system, different database application. They may even
use different data models for the database. Hence, translations are required for
different sites to communicate.

Distributed Data Storage :

There are 2 ways in which data can be stored on different sites. These are:

1. Replication –
In this approach, the entire relationship is stored redundantly at 2 or more sites. If the
entire database is available at all sites, it is a fully redundant database. Hence, in
replication, systems maintain copies of data.
This is advantageous as it increases the availability of data at different sites. Also, now
query requests can be processed in parallel.
However, it has certain disadvantages as well. Data needs to be constantly updated. Any
change made at one site needs to be recorded at every site that relation is stored or else it
may lead to inconsistency. This is a lot of overhead. Also, concurrency control becomes way
more complex as concurrent access now needs to be checked over a number of sites.
2. Fragmentation –
In this approach, the relations are fragmented (i.e., they’re divided into smaller parts) and
each of the fragments is stored in different sites where they’re required. It must be made
sure that the fragments are such that they can be used to reconstruct the original relation
(i.e, there isn’t any loss of data).
Fragmentation is advantageous as it doesn’t create copies of data, consistency is not a
problem.

Fragmentation of relations can be done in two ways:

• Horizontal fragmentation – Splitting by rows –

The relation is fragmented into groups of tuples so that each tuple is assigned to
at least one fragment.
• Vertical fragmentation – Splitting by columns –
The schema of the relation is divided into smaller schemas. Each fragment must
contain a common candidate key so as to ensure a lossless join.
In certain cases, an approach that is hybrid of fragmentation and replication is used.

Applications of Distributed Database:

• It is used in Corporate Management Information System.
• It is used in multimedia applications.
• Used in Military’s control system, Hotel chains etc.
• It is also used in manufacturing control system.

A distributed database system is a type of database management system that stores data
across multiple computers or sites that are connected by a network. In a distributed
database system, each site has its own database, and the databases are connected to each
other to form a single, integrated system.
The main advantage of a distributed database system is that it can provide higher
availability and reliability than a centralized database system. Because the data is stored
across multiple sites, the system can continue to function even if one or more sites fail. In
addition, a distributed database system can provide better performance by distributing the
data and processing load across multiple sites.
There are several different architectures for distributed database systems, including:
Client-server architecture: In this architecture, clients connect to a central server, which
manages the distributed database system. The server is responsible for coordinating
transactions, managing data storage, and providing access control.

Peer-to-peer architecture: In this architecture, each site in the distributed database system
is connected to all other sites. Each site is responsible for managing its own data and
coordinating transactions with other sites.

Federated architecture: In this architecture, each site in the distributed database system
maintains its own independent database, but the databases are integrated through a
middleware layer that provides a common interface for accessing and querying the data.
Distributed database systems can be used in a variety of applications, including e-
commerce, financial services, and telecommunications. However, designing and managing a
distributed database system can be complex and requires careful consideration of factors
such as data distribution, replication, and consistency.
Advantages of Distributed Database System :

1) There is fast data processing as several sites participate in request processing.

2) Reliability and availability of this system is high.
3) It possess reduced operating cost.
4) It is easier to expand the system by adding more sites.
5) It has improved sharing ability and local autonomy.
Disadvantages of Distributed Database System :

1) The system becomes complex to manage and control.

2) The security issues must be carefully managed.
3) The system require deadlock handling during the transaction processing otherwise
the entire system may be in inconsistent state.
4) There is need of some standardization for processing of distributed database
system.
Q2: Explain various semantic data controls in DDB?
Ans. Database control refers to the task of enforcing regulations so as to provide correct data
to authentic users and applications of a database. In order that correct data is available to
users, all data should conform to the integrity constraints defined in the database. Besides,
data should be screened away from unauthorized users so as to maintain security and privacy
of the database. Database control is one of the primary tasks of the database administrator
(DBA).

The three dimensions of database control are −

• Authentication
• Access rights
• Integrity constraints
Authentication

In a distributed database system, authentication is the process through which only legitimate
users can gain access to the data resources.

Authentication can be enforced in two levels −

• Controlling Access to Client Computer − At this level, user access is restricted

while login to the client computer that provides user-interface to the database
server. The most common method is a username/password combination.
However, more sophisticated methods like biometric authentication may be used
for high security data.
• Controlling Access to the Database Software − At this level, the database
software/administrator assigns some credentials to the user. The user gains
access to the database using these credentials. One of the methods is to create a
login account within the database server.
Access Rights

A user’s access rights refers to the privileges that the user is given regarding DBMS operations
such as the rights to create a table, drop a table, add/delete/update tuples in a table or query
upon the table.
In distributed environments, since there are large number of tables and yet larger number of
users, it is not feasible to assign individual access rights to users. So, DDBMS defines certain
roles. A role is a construct with certain privileges within a database system. Once the different
roles are defined, the individual users are assigned one of these roles. Often a hierarchy of
roles are defined according to the organization’s hierarchy of authority and responsibility.

For example, the following SQL statements create a role "Accountant" and then assigns this
role to user "ABC".

CREATE ROLE ACCOUNTANT;

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON EMP_SAL TO ACCOUNTANT;
GRANT INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON TENDER TO ACCOUNTANT;
GRANT INSERT, SELECT ON EXPENSE TO ACCOUNTANT;
COMMIT;
GRANT ACCOUNTANT TO ABC;
COMMIT;

Semantic Integrity Control

Semantic integrity control defines and enforces the integrity constraints of the database
system.

The integrity constraints are as follows −

• Data type integrity constraint

• Entity integrity constraint
• Referential integrity constraint
Data Type Integrity Constraint

A data type constraint restricts the range of values and the type of operations that can be
applied to the field with the specified data type.

For example, let us consider that a table "HOSTEL" has three fields - the hostel number, hostel
name and capacity. The hostel number should start with capital letter "H" and cannot be NULL,
and the capacity should not be more than 150. The following SQL command can be used for
data definition −
CREATE TABLE HOSTEL (
H_NO VARCHAR2(5) NOT NULL,
H_NAME VARCHAR2(15),
CAPACITY INTEGER,
CHECK ( H_NO LIKE 'H%'),
CHECK ( CAPACITY <= 150)
);

Entity Integrity Control

Entity integrity control enforces the rules so that each tuple can be uniquely identified from
other tuples. For this a primary key is defined. A primary key is a set of minimal fields that can
uniquely identify a tuple. Entity integrity constraint states that no two tuples in a table can
have identical values for primary keys and that no field which is a part of the primary key can
have NULL value.

For example, in the above hostel table, the hostel number can be assigned as the primary key
through the following SQL statement (ignoring the checks) −

CREATE TABLE HOSTEL (

H_NO VARCHAR2(5) PRIMARY KEY,
H_NAME VARCHAR2(15),
CAPACITY INTEGER
);

Referential Integrity Constraint

Referential integrity constraint lays down the rules of foreign keys. A foreign key is a field in a
data table that is the primary key of a related table. The referential integrity constraint lays
down the rule that the value of the foreign key field should either be among the values of the
primary key of the referenced table or be entirely NULL.

For example, let us consider a student table where a student may opt to live in a hostel. To
include this, the primary key of hostel table should be included as a foreign key in the student
table. The following SQL statement incorporates this −
CREATE TABLE STUDENT (
S_ROLL INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
S_NAME VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
S_COURSE VARCHAR2(10),
S_HOSTEL VARCHAR2(5) REFERENCES HOSTEL
);